Engineering Mathematics

Dr. Puttaswamy, Dr. M. Prasad and Dr. Nayaka S R

October 22, 2022

ii
Preface

iii
iv
Contents

Preface iii

1 Introduction 1

2 equation 3

Appendix 5
.1 Taylor’s theorem for a function of single variable . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
.2 Expansion of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
.3 Type-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
.4 Type-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
.5 Indeterminate forms : 00 , ∞, 1∞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
.6 0. limx→0 (cot x)tan x
40. limx→0 (cot x)sin x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
.7 Miscellaneous Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
.8 EXERCISES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
.9 Evaluate the following limits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
.10 ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
.10.1 Polar Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
.10.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
.10.3 Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
.10.4 Angle between radius vector and tangent . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
.11 2.24 Length of the perpendicular from the pole to the tangent . . . . 53
.12 WORKED PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
.13 Angle of intersection of two polar curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
.14 Working procedure for problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
.15 Find the angle between the radius vector and the tangent for the fol-
lowing curves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
.16 Show that the following pairs of curves intersect each other orthogonally 57
.17 Pedal equation of a polar curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
.18 Working procedure for finding the pedal equation of a polar curve . . 65
.19 EXERCISES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
.20 ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
.21 2.3 Derivative of Arc length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
.21.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

v
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.21.2 Formulae connected with the derivative of arc length. . . . . . 73

.21.3 Radius of curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
.21.4 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
.21.5 Curvature and Radius of Curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
.22 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
.23 Note : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
.24 A Question Format : Define curvature and prove that the curvature of
a circle is a constant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
.25 WORKED PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
.26 WORKED PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
.27 EXERCISES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
.28 ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Chapter 1

Introduction

1
2
Chapter 2

equation

3
4
Appendix

5
6
Module-2:
Differential Calculus - 2:

.1 Taylor’s theorem for a function of single vari-

able
Statement: Let f (x) be a real valued function having continuous of order up to
n − 1 in [a, b] and f (n) (x) exists in (a, b). Then there is at least one point c ∈ (a, b)
such that
(b − a) ′ (b − a)2 ′′ (b − a)n−1 n−1) (b − a)n ′′
f (b) = f (a) + f (a) + f (a) + · · · + f (a) + f (c)
1! 2! (n − 1) n!
Note :
c−a
1. Taking b − a = h and c = a + θh where θ = we observe that 0 < θ < 1.
b−a
Taylor’s theorem becomes
h2 ′′ hn−1 (n−1) hn
f (a + h) = f (a) + hf ′ (a) + f (a) + . . . + f (a) + f (n) (a + θh)
2! (n − 1)! n!

.2 Expansion of functions
We have Taylor’s theorem in the form

h2 ′′ hn−1 (n−1) hn
f (a + h) = f (a) + hf ′ (a) + f (a) + . . . + f (a) + f (n) (a + θh)
2! (n − 1)! n!
Evidently the expression in the R.H.S contains (n + 1) terms and we denote
hn (n)
Rn = f (a + 0h) which is called the remainder after n terms.
n!
Let a + h = x or h = (x − a). If x is close enough to ’ a ’ then h will be very small
and Rn → 0 as n → ∞. As n → ∞ the number of terms increase indefinitely and we
have an infinite series expansion of f (x) in powers of (x − a) given by

(x − a)2 ′′ (x − a)3 ′′′

f (x) = f (a) + (x − a)f ′ (a) + f (a) + f (a) + . . .
2! 3!

7
8

This is called Taylor’s series expansion of f (x) about the point’ a ’.

In particular if a = 0 we have,

x2 ′′ x3
f (0) + f ′′′ (0) + . . .
f (x) = f (0) + xf ′ (0) +
2! 3!
This is called Maclaurin’s series expansion of f (x)

Note: For convenience we shall use the notation

y(x) for f (x) and y1 (x), y2 (x), y3 (x) . . . respectively for

f ′ (x), f ′′ (x), f ′′′ (x), . . . so that we have
(x − a)2
y(x) = y(a) + (x − a)y1 (a) + y2 (a) + . . . [Taylor’s expansion]
2!
x2
y(x) = y(0) + xy1 (0) + y2 (0) + . . . [Maclaurin’s expansion]
2!
- We need to find successive derivatives of the given y(x) and evaluate them at
the given point x = a for obtaining the Taylor’s expansion and evaluate at x = 0 for
obtaining the Maclaurin’s expansion.
y To reduce the computational work we must prefer to use indirect methods
for obtaining various derivatives of the given function which we are familiar in the
discussion of the topic ’Steccessive differentiation’

SOLVED PROBLEMS
 π
1. Expand sin x in ascending powers of x − .
2 π
Solution Taylor’s expansion in powers of x − is given by
2
 π 2  π 3  π 4
π   π  π  x − 2 π  x −
2 y π +
  x−
2 y π +. . .
 
y(x) = y + x− y1 + y2 + 3 4
2 2 2 2! 2 3! 2 4! 2

Now, π  π 
y(x) = sin x, ∴ y = sin =1
2  2
′ π ′ π
 
y = cos x, ∴ y =0
′′
2 2

′′ π
y (x) = − sin x, ∴ y 2
= −1
y ′′ (x) = − cos x, ∴ y ′′ π2
= 0
y iv (x) = sin x, ∴ y iv π2 = 1
Substituting these values in the expansion we get

2
4
x − π2 x − π2
sin x = 1 − + − ...
2! 4!
 9

2. Expand log(sin x) in powers of x − 3 using Taylor’s series.

Solution: We have Taylor’s expansion about x = 3 given by

(x − 3)2
y(x) = y(3) + (x − 3)y1 (3) + y2 (3) + . . .
2!
Let y(x) = log(sin x)

Now y(x) = log(sin x), ∴ y(3) = log(sin 3)

1
y ′ (x) = (cos x) = cot x, ∴ y ′ (3) = cot 3
sin x
y ′′ (x) = − cosec2 x, ∴ y2 (3) = − cosec2 (3).
y ′′′ (x) = −2 cosec x(− cosec x cot x)
y ′′′ (x) = 2 cosec2 x · cot x ∴ y ′′′ (3) = 2 cosec2 3 · cot 3
From taylor’s expansion we have,

(x − 3)2 (x − 3)3
log sin x = log sin 3+(x−3) cot 3− cosec2 3+ cosec2 3·cot 3+. . . ..
2 3
3. Obtain the Taylor’s expansion of loge x about x = 1 upto the term
containing fourth degree and hence obtain loge (1.1)
Solution: We have Taylor’s expansion about x = a given by

(x − a)2
y(x) = y(a) + (x − a)y1 (a) + y2 (a) + . . . (1)
2!
By data, y(x) = loge x; y(1) = loge 1 = 0.

Differentiating with respect to x, we get

1 2
y1 (x) = ∴ y1 (1) = 1 ; y3 (x) = ∴ y3 (1) = 2
x x3
1 6
y2 (x) = − ∴ y2 (1) = −1; y4 (x) = − ∴ y4 (1) = −6
x2 x4
Taylor’s series upto fourth degree term with a = 1 is given by

(x − 1)2 (x − 1)3 (x − 1)4

y(x) = y(1) + (x − 1)y1 (1) + y2 (1) + y3 (1) + y4 (1)
2! 3! 4!
(x − 1)2 (x − 1)3 (x − 1)4
Hence, loge x = 0 + (x − 1)1 + (−1) + (2) + (−6)
2 6 24
(x − 1)2 (x − 1)3 (x − 1)4
Thus loge x = (x − 1) − + −
2 3 4
Now putting x = 1.1 we have

(0.1)2 (0.1)3 (0.1)4

loge (1.1) = (0.1) − + − = 0.0953
2 3 4
10

4. Expand tan−1 x in powers of (x − 1) up to the term containing fourth

degree.
Solution: Taylor’s expansion in powers of (x − 1) is given by

(x − 1)2 (x − 1)3 (x − 1)4

y(x) = y(1) + (x − 1)y1 (1) + y2 (1) + (1) + y4 (1) + . . .
2! 3! 4!
y = tan−1 x ∴ y(1) = tan−1 1 = π/4
Differentiating w.r.t x, we get,
1 1
y1 = ∴ y1 (1) = ,
1 + x2 2
We have (1 + x2 ) y1 = 1
Hence we have on differentiating w.r.t x we get,

1 + x2 y2 + 2xy1 = 0


∴ y2 (1) = −1/2

Differentiating w.r.t x, we get,

1 + x2 y3 + 4xy2 + 2y1 = 0


∴ y3 (1) = 1/2

Differentiating w.r.t x, we get,

1 + x2 y4 + 6xy3 + 6y2 = 0


∴ y4 (1) = 0

Substituting these values in the expansion we get

(x − 1)2 (x − 1)3
 
−1 π 1
tan x= + (x − 1) − +
4 2 2 6

5. Use Taylor’s series, to prove that

sin z sin 2z sin 3z

tan−1 (x+h) = tan−1 x+(h sin z)· −(h sin z)2 · +(h sin z)3 · −. . .
1 2 3

Solution: where z = cot−1 x.

dz dz
−cosec2 x · = 1or = − sin2 z
dx dx
Letf (x + h) = tan−1 (x + h), so thatf (x) = tan− 1x

Or
y = tan−1 (x)
 11

1
y ′ (x) =
1 + x2
dz
y ′′ (x) = 2 sin z cos z = sin 2z · − sin2 z


dx
 dz
y ′′′ (x) = − 2 cos 2z · sin2 z + sin 2z · 2 sin z cos z

dx
= −2 sin z[sin z cos 2z + sin 2z cos z] − sin z = 2 sin3 z sin 3z
2

and so on. Substituting these values in the Taylor’s series

h2 ′′ h3
y(x + h) = y(x) + hy ′ (x) + y (x) + y ′′′ (x) + . . . ,
2! 3!

we get the required result.

6. Expand sin(π/4 + h) in ascending powers of h upto the term containing h4 and

hence deduce an approximate value of sin 50◦ .
Solution: We have by Taylor’s theorem,

h2 ′′
f (a + h) = f (a) + hf ′ (a) + f (a) + . . .
2!
Taking a = π/4, f (π/4 + h) = sin(π/4 + h) ⇒ f (x) = sin x
or
y(x) = sin x
h2 h3 h4
y(π/4 + h) = y(π/4) + hy1 (π/4) + y2 (π/4) + y3 (π/4) + y4 (π/4) (2)
2! 3! 4!
√
Consider y(x) = sin x ∴ y(π/4) = 1/ 2
√
y1 (x) = cos x ∴ y1 (π/4) = 1/ 2
√
y2 (x) = − sin x ∴ y2 (π/4) = −1/ 2
√
y3 (x) = − cos x ∴ y3 (π/4) = −1/ 2
√
y4 (x) = sin x ∴ y4 (π/4) = 1/ 2

Substituting these values in (2), we obtain

h2 h3 h4
 
1
sin(π/4 + h) = √ 1+h− − + (3)
2 2! 3! 4!

To find sin 50◦ we have to take h = 5◦

12

ie., h = 5 · (π/180) radians = π/36 = 0.087

Substituting ll = 0.087 in the R.H.S of (3) we obtain,

sin 50◦ = 0.7659

7. Obtain Taylor’s series expansion of log(cos x) about the point x = π/3 upto the
fourth degree term.
Solution: Taylor’s expansion of y(x) about x = π/3 is given by

(x − π/3)2 (x − π/3)3 (x − π/3)4

y(x) = y(π/3)+(x−π/3)y1 (π/3)+ y2 (π/3)+ y3 (π/3)+ y4 (π/3)+· · ·
2! 3! 4!

Let y(x) = log(cos x)

∴ y(π/3) = log[cos(π/3)] = log(1/2) = − log 2

1
y1 = · − sin x
cos x
√
ic.. y1 = − tan x ∴ y1 (π/3) = − tan(π/3) = − 3

y2 = − sec2 x = − (1 + tan2 x)
 √ 
ie., y2 = − (1 + y12 ) y2 (π/3) = − 1 + ( 3)2 = −4
∴
√ √
y3 = −2y1 y2 ∴ y3 (π/3) = −2 · − 3 · −4 = −8 3
√ √
y4 = −2 [y1 y3 + y22 ] ∴ y4 (π/3) = −2[− 3 · −8 3 + 16] = −80

Substituting these values in (1) we have,

√ (x − π/3)2
log(cos x) = − log 2 − (x − π/3) 3 − ·4
2

(x − π/3)3 √ (x − π/3)4
− ·8 3− · 80 + · · ·
6 24
√
Thus log(cos x) = − log 2 − 3(x − π/3) − 2(x − π/3)2

4 10
− √ (x − π/3)3 − (x − π/3)4
3 3

8. Expand log(1 + sin x) in powers of x by Maclaurin’s series upto the term con-
taining x4

Solution: We have Maclaurin’s expansion

 13

x2 x3 x4
y(x) = y(0) + xy1 (0) + y2 (0) + y3 (0) + y4 (0) + . . .
2! 3! 4!
Consider y = log(1 + sin x) ⇒ y(0) = log 1 = 0

cos x
y1 = ⇒ y1 (0) = 1
1 + sin x

ie., (1 + sin x)y1 = cos x

Differentiating w.r.t. x we get,

(1 + sin x)y2 + cos xy1 = − sin x ⇒ y2 (0) = −1

Differentiating again we get,

(1 + sin x)y3 + 2y2 cos x − y1 sin x = − cos x ⇒ y3 (0) = 1

Differentiating again we get,

(1 + sin x)y4 + cos xy3 + 2 (−y2 sin x + cos xy3 ) − (y1 cos x + sin xy2 ) = sin x

⇒ (1 + sin x)y4 + 3 cos xy3 − 3y2 sin x − y1 cos x = sin x ⇒ y4 (0) = −2

Thus by substituting these values in the expansion we get

x2 x3 x4
log(1 + sin x) = x − + −
2 6 12

9. Obtain the Machurin’s expansion of sin−1 x upto the terms containing x5 .

Or

Expand sin−1 x in ascending powers of x upto the first three non vanishing
terms.
x2
Solution: We have y(x) = y(0) + xy1 (0) + y2 (0) + . . .
2!

y = sin−1 x ∴ y(0) = sin−1 0 = 0.

1
y1 = √ y1 (0) = 1
1 − x2
14

Squaring on bothside, we get

Thus we have (1 − x2 ) y12 = 1
Differentiating now w.r.t. x, we get,

1 − x2 2y1 y2 + y12 (−2x) = 0. Dividing by 2y1 we get,

1 − x2 y2 − xy1 = 0

Now putting x = 0 ⇒ (1) · y2 (0) − 0 = 0 ∴ y2 (0) = 0.

Now differentiating w.r.t. x, we obtain

1 − x2 y3 + y2 (−2x) − [xy2 + y1 · 1] = 0

1 − x2 y3 − 3xy2 − y1 = 0

x=0 we have y3 (0) − 0 − 1 = 0, ∴ y3 (0) = 1

Differentiating again w.r.t. x we obtain,

1 − x2 y4 + y3 (−2x) − 3 [xy3 + y2 .1] − y2 = 0.

ie. (1 − x2 ) y4 − 5xy/3 − 4y2 = 0

Putting x = 0 we have y4 (0) − 0 − 0 = 0
∴ y4 (0) = 0
Differentiating again w.r.t. x we have,

1 − x2 y5 + y4 (−2x) − 5 [xy4 + y3 · 1 | −4y3 = 0

ie., (1 − x2 ) y5 − 7xy4 − 9y3 = 0

Putting x = 0 we have y5 (0) − 0 − 9.1 = 0 ∴ y5 (0) = 9
Substituting these values in the expansion of y(x) we have,

x2 x3 x4 x5
sin−1 x = 0 + x · 1 + · 0 + (1) + (0) + · (9)
2 6 24 120
x3 3x5
Thus sin−1 x = x + +
6 40
10. Expand esin x in ascending powers of x upto the terms containing x4 .
Solution: We have Maclaurin’s expansion,
 15

x2 x3 x4
y(x) = y(0) + xy1 (0) + y2 (0) + y3 (0) + y4 (0) + . . . .
2! 3! 4!
Let y = esin x ∴ y(0) = e0 = 1
y1 = esin x cos x or y1 = y cos x ∴ y1 (0) = y(0) · cos 0 = 1
y2 = −y sin x + cos x · y1 ∴ y2 (0) = 0 + 1 = 1
y3 = − (y cos x + y1 sin x) + (cos xy2 − y1 sin x)

= −y1 − 2y1 sin x + cos x · y2 ∴ y3 (0) = −1 − 0 + 1 = 0

y4 = −y2 − 2 (y1 cos x + sin x y2 ) + (cos xy3 − sin xy2 )

= −y2 − 2y1 cos x − 3 sin xy2 + cos x · y3

y4 (0) = −1 − 2 − 0 + 0 = −3 ∴ y4 (0) = −3
Thus by substituting these values in the expansion of y(x) we get,

sin x x2 x4
e =1+x+ −
2 8
11. Expand log(sec x) upto the term containing x6 using Maclaurin’s series
Or
Expand log(sec x) in ascending powers of x upto the first three non vanishing
terms.
Solution: We have Maclaurin’s expansion

x2 x3 x4
y(x) = y(0) + xy1 (0) + y2 (0) + y3 (0) + y4 (0) + . . .
2! 3! 4!
y = log(sec x) ∴ y(0) = log 1 = 0
sec x tan x
y1 = = tan x ⇒ y1 (0) = 0
sec x
y2 = sec2 x ⇒ y2 (0) = 1.
y2 = 1 + tan2 x = 1 + y12

Now y2 = 1 + tan2 x = 1 + y12

Differentiating w.r.t. x we have,
16

y3 = 2y1 y2 ∴ y3 (0) = 0
y4 = 2 (y1 y3 + y22 ) ∴ y4 (0) = 2
y5 = 2 (y1 y4 + y2 y3 + 2y2 y3 ) = 2y1 y4 + 6y2 y3 ∴ y5 (0) = 0
y6 = 2 (y1 y5 + y2 y4 ) + 6 (y2 y4 + y32 )
y6 = 2y1 y5 + 8y2 y4 + 6y32 ∴ y6 (0) = 16

Substituting these values in the expansion of y(x) we get,

x2 x4 x6
log(sec x) = ·1+ ·2+ · 16
2 24 720

x2 x4 x6
Thus log(sec x) = + +
2 12 45

12. Expand tan−1 x in powers of (x) upto the term containing fourth de-
gree.
Solution: Taylor’s expansion in powers of (x) is given by

(x)2 (x)3 (x)4 (x)5

y(x) = y(0) + (x)y1 (0) + y2 (0) + y3 (0) + y4 (0) + y4 (0) . . .
2! 3! 4! 5!

y = tan−1 x ∴ y(1) = tan−1 (0) = 0

Differentiating w.r.t x, we get,

1
y1 = ∴ y1 (0) = 1,
1 + x2

We have (1 + x2 ) y1 = 1
Hence we have on differentiating w.r.t x we get,

1 + x2 y2 + 2xy1 = 0


∴ y2 (0) = 0

Differentiating w.r.t x, we get,

1 + x2 y3 + 4xy2 + 2y1 = 0


∴ y3 (0) = −2

Differentiating w.r.t x, we get,

1 + x2 y4 + 6xy3 + 6y2 = 0


∴ y4 (0) = 0
 17

Substituting these values in the expansion we get

x3 (x)5 (x)7
tan−1 x = x − + −
3 5 7

13. Expand tan−1 (1 + x) as far as the term containing x3 .

Solution: We have Maclaurin’s expansion

x2 x3
y(x) = y(0) + xy1 (0) + y2 (0) + y3 (0) + · · ·
2! 3!
Consider

y = tan−1 (1 + x) ⇒ y(0) = tan−1 (1) = π/4

1 1
y1 = = ⇒ y1 (0) = 1/2
1 + (1 + x)2 x2 + 2x + 2

ie., x2 + 2x + 2 y1 = 1

Differentiating w.r.t. x,

x2 + 2x + 2 y2 + 2(x + 1)y1 = 0

x = 0 we get 2y2 (0) + 2 · (1/2) = 0 ⇒ y2 (0) = −1/2

Differentiating w.r.t. x we have,

x2 + 2x + 2 y3 + 2(x + 1)y2 + 2(x + 1)y2 + 2y1 = 0

ie., (x2 + 2x + 2) y3 + 4(x + 1)y2 + 2y1 = 0

2y3 (0) + 4 · (−1/2) + 2 · (1/2) = 0 ⇒ y3 (0) = 1/2

Thus by substituting these values in the expansion of y(x) we get,

π x x2 x3
tan−1 (1 + x) = + − +
4 2 4 12
√ x2 x3 x4
1 + sin 2x = 1 + x −
14. Using Maclaurin’s series, prove that − + ...
2 6 24
Solution: We have Maclaurin’s expansion
18

x2
y(x) = y(0) + xy1 (0) + y2 (0) + . . .
2!
√ √
Let y= 1 + sin 2x = cos2 x + sin2 x + 2 sin x cos x

p
= (cos x + sin x)2 = cos x + sin x

Thus y = cos x + sin x ⇒ y(0) = 1

y1 = − sin x + cos x ⇒ y1 (0) = 1

y2 = − cos x − sin x = −y ie. y2 = −y ⇒ y2 (0) = −1

y3 = −y1 ; y3 (0) = −1. y4 = −y2 ⇒ y4 (0) = 1

Thus by substituting these values in the expansion of y(x) we get,

√ x2 x 3 x4
1 + sin 2x = 1 + x − − + ...
2 6 24

15. Using Maclaurin’s series, expand ex sin x upto the fourth degree terms.
Solution: We have Maclaurin’s expansion

x2
y(x) = y(0) + xy1 (0) + y2 (0) + . . .
2!

Let y = ex sin x ∴ y(0) = 1

y1 = ex sin x (x cos x + sin x) ∴ y1 (0) = 0

ie., y1 = y(x cos x + sin x)

Differentiating w.r.t x we have

Now y2 = y(−x sin x + 2 cos x) + y1 (x cos x + sin x)

Hence y2 (0) = 1(0 + 2) + 0 ∴ y2 (0) = 2

Differentiating w.r.t x we have

y3 = y(−x cos x − 3 sin x) + y1 (−x sin x + 2 cos x) + y1 (−x sin x + 2 cos x) +

y2 (x cos x + sin x)

ie. y3 = y(−x cos x − 3 sin x) + 2y1 (−x sin x + 2 cos x) + y2 (x cos x + sin x)

y3 (0) = 0 + 0 + 0 ∴ y3 (0) = 0
Differentiating w.r.t x we have
 19

y4 =y(x sin x − 4 cos x) + y1 (−x cos x − 3 sin x) + 2y1 (−x cos x − 3 sin x)
+ 2y2 (−x sin x + 2 cos x) + y2 (−x sin x + 2 cos x) + y3 (x cos x + sin x)
⇒ y4 (0) = −4 + 0 + 0 + 8 + 4 = 8 ∴ y4 (0) = 8

Thus by substituting these values in the expansion of y(x) we get,

ex sin x = 1 + x2 + x4 /3 + . . .

16. Using Maclaurin’s series, expand ex cos x upto the fourth degree terms.
Solution: We have Maclaurin’s expansion

x2 x3 x4
y(x) = y(0) + xy1 (0) + y2 (0) + y3 (0) + y4 (0) + . . .
2! 3! 4!
y(x) = ex cos x ∴ y(0) = 1
y ′ (x) = ex cos x − ex sin x = ex (cos x − sin x) ∴ y ′ (0) = 1
y ′′ (x) = ex (cos x − sin x) + (− sin x − cos x)ex
= ex (−2 sin x) = −2ex sin x ∴ y ′′ (0) = 0
y ′′′ (x) = −2 [ex sin x + ex cos x] = −2ex (sin x + cos x) ∴ y ′′′ (0) = −2
y ′′′′ (x) = −2 [ex (sin x + cos x) + ex (cos x − sin x)] = −2ex [2 cos x] = −4 cos x · ex ∴ y ′′′′ (0) = −4

x2 ′′ x3 x4 ′′′′
Hence, ex cos x = y(0) + xy ′ (0) + y (0) + y ′′ (0) + · y (0) + . . .
2! 3! 4!

2 3 22 4
=1+x− x − x + ...
3! 4!

17. Using Maclaurin’s series, expand log(1 + cos x) upto the fourth degree terms.
Solution: We have Maclaurin’s expansion

x2 x3 x4
y(x) = y(0) + xy1 (0) + y2 (0) + y3 (0) + y4 (0) + · · ·
2! 3! 4!

y = log(1 + cos x) = log 2 cos2 (x/2)

 

ie., y = log 2 + 2 log cos(x/2) ∴ y(0) = loge 2

Now y1 = − tan(x/2) ∴ y1 (0) = 0
1
y2 = − sec2 (x/2) ∴ y2 (0) = −1/2
2
20

1 1
Also y2 = − [1 + tan2 (x/2)] = − (1 + y12 )
2 2

1
∴ y3 = − (2y1 y2 ) = −y1 y2 ∴ y3 (0) = 0
2
y4 = −y1 y3 − y22 ∴ y4 (0) = −1/4

Thus the required Maclaurin’s series is given by

x2 x4
loge (1 + cos x) = loge 2 − − ···
4 96

Alternate Method:
Consider, y = log(1 + cos x); y(0) = loge 2

− sin x
y1 = ∴ y1 (0) = 0
1 + cos x

ie., (1 + cos x)y1 = − sin x

Differentiating w.r.t x we have,

(1 + cos x)y2 − sin xy1 = − cos x ∴ y2 (0) = −1/2

Differentiating w.r.t x we have

(1 + cos x)y3 − sin x y2 − [sin x y2 + cos xy1 ] = sin x

ie., (1 + cos x)y3 − 2 sin xy2 − cos xy1 = sin x ∴ y3 (0) = 0

Differentiating w.r.t x we have,

h i
(1 + cos x)y4 − sin x y3 − 2 [sin x y3 + cos x y2 ] − cos x y2 − sin x y1 = cos x

ie., (1 + cos x)y4 − 3 sin xy3 − 3 cos xy2 + sin xy1 = cos x ∴ y4 (0) = −1/4

Thus the required Maclaurin’s series is given by

x2 x4
loge (1 + cos x) = loge 2 − − ···
4 96
r
1+x
18. Using Maclaurin’s series, expand log(1 + x). Hence deduce that log =
1−x
 21

x3
   5
x
x+ + + ···
3 5
Solution: We have Maclaurin’s expansion

x2 x3
y(x) = y(0) + xy1 (0) + y2 (0) + y3 (0) + . . .
2! 3!

Let y = log(1 + x) ∴ y(0) = log 1 = 0

1 −1
y1 = ∴ y1 (0) = 1; y2 = ∴ y2 (0) = −1
1+x (1 + x)2
2 −6
y3 = ∴ y3 (0) = 2; y4 = ∴ y4 (0) = −6
(1 + x)3 (1 + x)4
24
y5 = ∴ y5 (0) = 24
(1 + x)5

Substituting these values in the expansion we get,

x2 x3 x4 x5
log(1 + x) = 0 + x · 1 + · (−1) + ·2+ · (−6) + · 24 + . . .
2 6 24 120
x2 x3 x4 x5
Thus log(1 + x) = x −
+ − + − ··· (4)
2 3 4 5
r  
1+x 1 1+x 1
Next, log = log = {log(1 + x) − log(1 − x)} (5)
1−x 2 1−x 2
Changing x to −x in (1) we obtain

x2 x3 x4 x5
log(1 − x) = −x − − − − − ··· (6)
2 3 4 5

Using (4) and (6) in (5) we have

r
x2 x3 x4 x5 x2 x3 x 4 x5
   
1+x 1
log = x− + − + − . . . − −x − − − − ···
1−x 2 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5
r
x3 x5 x3 x5
 
1+x 1
ie., log = 2x + 2 + 2 + . . . = x + + + ...
1−x 2 3 5 3 5
r  3  5
1+x x x
Thus log =x+ + + ···
1−x 3 5

19. Using Maclaurin’s series, expand tan(π/4 + x) upto the fourth degree terms.
x2 x3 x4
Solution: y(x) = y(0) + xy1 (0) + y2 (0) + y3 (0) + y4 (0)
2! 3! 4!
22

Consider

y = tan(π/4 + x) ∴ y(0) = tan(π/4) = 1

2 2 2
y1 = sec (π/4 + x) = 1 + tan (x) = 1 + y ∴ y1 (0) = 2
y2 = 2yy1 ∴ y2 (0) = 4
y3 = 2 (yy2 + y12 ) ∴ y3 (0) = 2(4 + 4) = 16
y4 = 2 (yy3 + 3y1 y2 ) ∴ y4 (0) = 2(16 + 24) = 80

Substituting these values in the expansion of y(x) we have,

x2 x3 x4
tan(π/4 + x) = 1 + x · 2 + ·4+ · 16 + · 80
2 6 24
8 10
tan(π/4 + x) = 1 + 2x + 2x2 + x3 + x4
3 3

4x3 4x7
20. Show that log[tan(π/4 + x)] = 2x + + + . . ., Using Maclaurin’s
3 3
series.
x2 x3
Solution: y(x) = y(0) + xy1 (0) + y2 (0) + y3 (0) + . . .
2! 3!
Consider, y = log tan(π/4 + x); y(0) = log 1 = 0

Also ey = tan(π/4 + x)

Differentiating w.r.t. x we get,

ey y1 = sec2 (π/4 + x) = 1 + (ey )2

ey y1 = 1 + e2y ∴ y1 (0) = 2

Differentiating w.r.t. x we get,

ey y2 + ey y12 = 2e2y y1 or y2 + y12 = 2ey y1

Differentiating w.r.t. x we get,

y3 + 2y1 y2 = 2 ey y2 + ey/ y12

∴ y3 (0) = 8
 23

Differentiating w.r.t. x we get,

y4 + 2y1 y3 + 2y22 = 2 ey′ y3 + eyy y1 y2 + 2ey y1 y2 + ey y13

y4 + 2y1 y3 + 2y22 = 2ey′ y3 + 3y1 y2 + y13

∴ y4 (0) = 0

Differentiating w.r.t. x we get,

y5 + 2y1 y4 + 2y2 y3 + 4y2 y3 =2ey (y4 + 3y1 y3 +3y22 + 3y12 y2 + 2ey y1 y3 + 3y1 y2 + y13

∴ y5 (0) = 2(48) + 2 · 2(8 + 8) = 160

Substituting these values in the expansion of y(x) we have,

x3 x5
log {tan(π/4 + x)} = x · 2 + 6
·8+ 120
· 160 + . . .
4x3 4x5
Thus log {tan(π/4 + x)} = 2x + 3
+ 3
+ ...

3 5
21. Prove that: log(sec x + tan x) = x + x6 + x24 + . . ., Using Maclaurin’s series.
Solution: Let y = log(sec x + tan x) ∴ y(0) = 0

y1 = sec x, ∴ y1 (0) = 1
Differentiating w.r.t x, we have
y2 = sec x · tan x ∴ y2 (0) = 0
y2 = y1 tan x
Differentiating w.r.t x
y3 = y2 tan x + y1 sec2 x = y2 tan x + y1 · y12 ∴ y3 (0) = 1
y3 = y2 tan x + y13
Differentiating w.r.t x, we have
y4 = y3 tan x + y2 sec2 x + 3y12 · y2
y4 = y3 tan x + y2 · y12 + 3y12 · y2
y4 = y3 tan x + 4y1 2 · y2 , ∴ y4 (0) = 0 + 4(1)(0) = 0
Differentiating w.r.t x, we have
y5 = y4 tan x + y3 sec2 x + 8y1 · y2 2 + 4y12 · y3
y5 = y4 tan x + y3 · y12 + 8y1 · y2 2 + 4y1 2 · y3
y5 = y4 tan x + 5y12 · y3 + 8y1 · y22 ∴ y5 (0) = 5 · (12 )(1) = 5

x2 x3 x4 x5
Hence, log(sec x+tan x) = y = y(0)+xy1 (0)+ y2 (0)+ y3 (0)+ y4 (0)+ y5 (0)+. . .
2! 3! 4! 5!
24

x3 x5
log(sec x + tan x) = x + + · 5...
3! 5!
x3 x5
log(sec x + tan x) = x + + + ...
6 24
Hence proved.

22. Using Maclaurin’s series, expand log (1 + ex ) upto the fourth degree terms.

Solution: We have Maclaurin’s expansion

x2
y(x) = y(0) + xy1 (0) + y2 (0) + . . .
2!

Let y = log (1 + ex ) ∴ y(0) = loge 2

ex 1
y1 = ∴ y1 (0) =
1 + ex 2

ie., (1 + ex ) y1 = ex

Differentiating w.r.t. x we get,

(1 + ex ) y2 + ex y1 = ex ∴ y2 (0) = 1/4

Differentiating w.r.t. x we get,

(1 + ex ) y3 + 2ex y2 + ex y1 = ex ∴ y3 (0) = 0

Differentiating w.r.t. x we get,

(1 + ex ) y4 + 3ex y3 + 3ex y2 + ex y1 = ex ∴ y4 (0) = −1/8

Thus by substituting these values in the expansion of y(x) we get,

x x2 x4
log (1 + ex ) = loge 2 + + −
2 8 192

23. Using maclarin’s series, Expand log 1 + sin2 x in powers of x as far as

the term in x6 .
x3 x5 x7
Solution: Let sin x = x − + − + ...
3! 5! 7!
 25
2  2
x3 x5
 3
x5

2 x
sin x = x − + + ... = x − − + ...
6 120 6 120
 3 2
x5 x3 x5 x4 x6 x6
  
2 x
= x − 2x − + ... + − + . . . = x2 − + + + ...
6 120 6 120 3 60 36
x4 2x6
= x2 − + + . . . = z (say)
3 45
z2 z3
∴ log 1 + sin2 x = log(1 + z) = z −


+ − ...
2 3 2
x4 2x6 x4 2x6
  
1 3
= x − 2
+ − ... − 2 x − 2
+ − . . . + 13 (x2 − . . .) − . . .
3 45  3  45
4 6
x 2x
log 1 + sin2 x = x2 −


+ − ...
3 45
x4 2x6 2x6
   
1 1 3
− 2
x − + − ... − 2 x − 4
− . . . + 13 (x2 − . . .)
2 3 45 3 
4 4 6
  
2 x 2x6 x x x6 2 4 1 1 6 2 1 1
=x − + 45 − + + 3 =x −x + +x + +
3 2 3 3 2 45 3 3
5 32 6
= x2 − x4 + 45 x − ...
6

EXERCISES

Apply Maclaurin’s series, to prove :

x2 x3
1. ax = 1 + x log a + +
2! 3!

−1 x3 x5 x7
2. tan x=x− + −
3 5 7
x2 7x4
3. x cosec x = 1 + + + ...
6 360
ex 1 x x3
4. = + − + ...
ex + 1 2 4 48
x3 x5
5. log(1 + tan x) = x + x2 + −
3 30
π
6. Obtain tan x about the point x = uptothethirddegreeterms
4
ANSWERS

π π 8 π
6. 1 + 2(x − ) + 2(x − )2 + (x − )3
4 4 3 4
26

Unit - II
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS - 2
Indeterminate forms
Introduction
0 ∞
If an expression F (x) at x = a assumes forms like , , 0 × ∞, ∞ − ∞, 00 , ∞0 , 1∞
0 ∞
which do not represent any value are called indeterminate forms. The concept of
limit gives a meaningful value for the function F (x) at x = a overcoming these
indeterminate forms.
0 ∞
The reader is familiar with the evaluation of limit mostly in the cases of or
0 ∞
without the involvement of differentiation. Few more indeterminate forms: ∞ − ∞,
0 ∞
∞ × 0, ∞0 , 00 , 1∞ can be reduced to the two basic indeterminate forms and .
0 ∞
Then limit is found passing through a process of differentiation warranted by a very
simple rule called L’ Hospital’s (French Mathematician) rule which is established by
using Cauchy’s mean value theorem.

L’Hospital’s rule (Theorem)

Statement: If f (x) and g(x) are two functions such that
(i) limx→a f (x) = 0 and limx→a g(x) = 0 ie., f (a) = 0 = g(a)
(ii) f ′ (x) and g ′ (x) exist and g ′ (a) ̸= 0, then
f (x) f ′ (x)
limx→a = limx→a ′
g(x) g (x)
Note : Extension of the theorem
If f ′ (a) = 0 and g ′ (a) = 0 then we have
f (x) f ′′ (x)
limx→a = limx→a ′′ and so on.
g(x) g (x)

Working procedure for problems by applying L’

Hospital’s rule
0
The rule is applicable for the form . It can also be applied for the form ∞/∞ as we
0
can write  
f (x) 1/g(x)
limx→a = limx→a
g(x) 1/f (x)
where f (x) → ±∞ and g(x) → ±∞ as x → a
However while applying the rule in this case also, we follow the usual procedure of
differentiating the numerator f (x) and the denominator g(x) separately. If the inde-
terminate form persists after applying the rule once, we can apply the rule repeatedly
till we arrive at a definite value. It is highly advisible to look for simplification at
 27

each stage. Problems have been bifurcated into four types and the procedure too has
been explained separately in each type.
- The following four standard limits and well known simple properties connected
with limitscan bereadily used.  
sin x  x  tan x
(i) lim =1 (ii) lim = 1 (iii) limx→0 = 1 (iv)
 x→0 x x→0 sin x x
x 
lim =1
x→0 tan x

Type-1
The rule can be applied directly in the case of forms 0/0 and ∞/∞. In the cases of
∞−∞ and ∞×0, we have to employ simple methods (taking L.C.M, using equivatent
trigonometric expressions etc.) to simplify the given expression in bringing it to the
form 0/0 or ∞/∞ so that the L’ Hospital’s rule can be employed.
SOLVED PROBLEMS

0 ∞
Problems on and forms
0 ∞
Determine the following limits:
 2
xex − log(1 + x)
    
x − 4x + 3 tan x
1. lim 2
2. lim 3. lim
x→1
 x − 3x + 2  x→0
x  x→0
 x2 
x cos x − log(1 + x) log cos x 1 − cos x
4. lim 2
5. lim 6. lim
x→0
 x x→π/2 x tanx x x→0
 x log (1 + x) 
x − tan x a −b sinh x
7. lim 3
8. lim 9. lim
x→0
 x x x x→0
 2x x x→0 sin x − x cos x
e − (1 + x)2

x −a
10. lim 11. lim
x→a x a − aa x→0 x log(1 + x)
 2   
x − 4x + 3 0
1. Solution: Let k = lim 2
···
x→1 x − 3x + 2 0
Applying the L’Hospital’s Rule,
   
2x − 4 2−4
= lim = = 2.
x→1 2x − 3 2−3
∴ k=2
   
tan x 0
2. Solution: Let k = lim ...
x→0 x 0
Applying L’ Hospitals rule,
sec2 x
k = lim =1
x→0 1

Thus k = 1
28

xex − log(1 + x)
   
0
3. Solution: Let k = lim ...
x→0 x2 0
Applying L’ Hospitals rule,

xex + ex − 1/1 + x
   
0
k = lim ···
x→0 2x 0
 x x x 2
  
xe + e + e + 1/(1 + x) 0+1+1+1 3
= lim = =
x→0 2 2 2

3
∴ k=
2
   
x cos x − log(1 + x) 0
4. Solution: Let k = lim ···
x→0 x2 0
Applying L’Hospital’s rule,
   
cos x − x sin x − 1/(1 + x) 0
k = lim ···
x→0 2x 0

Again Applying L’Hospital’s rule,

−2 sin x − x cos x + 1/(1 + x)2

   
0−0+1
k = lim =
x→0 2 2

1
∴ k=
2
   
log (sin x) 0
5. Solution: Let k = lim ···
x→
π (π/2 − x)2 0
2
Applying L’Hospital’s rule,
     
cos x/ sin x cot x 0
k = lim = lim ···
x→π/2 −2(π/2 − x) x→π/2 −2(π/2 − x) 0
2
 
− cosec x −1
Now = lim =
x→π/2 2 2

∴ k = −1/2

   
1 − cos x 0
6. Solution: Let k = lim ···
x→0 x log(1 + x) 0
Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,
 29

 
 
 sin x 
··· 0
= lim   
x→0  1  0
x· + log(1 + x)
1+x
 
 cos x  1 1
= lim    =
 0+1+1 = 2
x→0  −1 1 1
x + +
(1 + x)2 (1 + x) (1 + x)

∴ k = 1/2
   
x − tan x 0
7. Solution: Let k = lim 3
···
x→0 x 0
Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,

1 − sec2 x
   
0
k = lim 2
···
x→0 3x 0

Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,

(−2 sec x)(sec x tan x)

k = lim
x→0 6x
Again Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,
 2   
−1 sec x tan x 0
= lim ···
3 x→0 x 0

, Again Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,

2 sec2 x tan2 x + sec4 x

 
1 1
k = − lim =−
3 x→0 1 3

1
Thus k =
3
ax − b x
   
0
8. Solution: Let k = lim ...
x→0 x 0
Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,
 x
a log a − bx log b
 a  0
b0 = 1

k = lim = log a−log b = log ∵ a = 1,
x→0 1 b
a
∴ k = log
b
30
   
sinh x − x 0
9. Solution: Let k = lim ···
x→0 sin x − x cos x 0
Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,
   
cosh x − 1 cos hx − 1
k = lim = lim ...
x→0 cos x + x sin x − cos x x→0 x sin x
   
sinh x 0
k = lim ...
x→0 x cos x + sin x 0
 
cosh x 1
= lim =
x→0 −x sin x + cos x + cos x 2

1
∴ k=
2
x x − ax
   
0
10. Solution:Let k = lim ···
x→a x a − aa 0
Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,
 x
x (1 + log x) − ax log a
  
0
k = lim a−1
...
x→a ax −0 0
 a a

a (1 + log a) − a log a
k=
a · aa−1
 a
a + aa log a − aa log a aa

k= = =1
a · aa−1 aa

∴ k=1

e2x − (1 + x)2
   
0
11. Solution: Let k = lim ···
x→0 x log(1 + x) 0
Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,

2e2x − 2(1 + x)
   
0
= lim ···
x→0 log(1 + x) + x/(1 + x) 0
2x
 
4e − 2 4−2
= lim 2
= =1
x→0 {1/(1 + x)} + {1/(1 + x) } 1+1

∴ k=1

12. Find the constants a and b, so that

 
x(1 + a cos x) − b sin x
lim = 1.
x→0 x3
 31

Solution:We have
   
x(1 + a cos x) − b sin x 0
k = lim 3
··· .
x→0 x 0
 
x(−a sin x) + (1 + a cos x) − b cos x
= lim (7)
x→0 3x2
 
1+a−b
=
0
Therefore we must have  
0
For 1 + a − b = 0, i.e., for b = 1 + a, we have form. Applying L’Hospital’s
0
rule
   
x(−a sin x) + (1 + a cos x) − (1 + a) cos x 0
k = lim · · ·
x→0 3x2 0
   
−a sin x − ax cos x − a sin x + (1 + a) sin x 0
= lim ···
x→0 6x 0
 
ax sin x − a cos x + (1 − a) cos x 1 − 2a
= lim =
x→0 6 6

Therefore, k = 1 if 1 − 2a = 6, or a = −5/2. Then b = 1 + a = −3/2. Thus,

a = −5/2 and b = −3/2 are the values of a and b.

EXERCISES

1. Determine the following limits:

     
1 − cos x x − tan x x cos x − sin x
i. lim ii. lim iii. lim
xto0 x2 xto0 x2 xto0 x2 sin x
     
2 sin x − sin 2x 1 − cos x cosh x − cos x
iv. lim v. lim vi. lim
xto0 x3 xto0 x sin x xto0 x sin x
 
sin 2x + a sin x
2. Find the values of a so that lim is finite
x→0 x3
ae − b cos x + ce−x
 x 
3. Find the values of a and b so that lim =2
x→0 x sin x
 
a sinh x + b sin x 5
4. Find the values of a and b so that lim 3
=
x→0 x 3

ANSWER
1 −1 1
1. i. ii. 0 iii. iv. 1 v. vi. 1
2 3 2
2. a = 2
32

3. a = 1, b = 2, c = 1

4. a = 5, b = −5
0 ∞ sinh x−sin x
2.1.1.
 Evaluation of limits of the form ,
0 ∞
83 (ii) limx→0 x sin2 x
=
x 2
limx→0 sin2 x
· sinh x−sin
x3
x

( )
1 sinh x − sin x sinh x − sin x 0
= sin x

lim = 1 · lim =
limx→0 x
x→0 x3 x→0 x3 0
cosh x − cos x 0
= lim 2
=
x→0 3x 0
sinh x + sin x 0
= lim =
x→0 6x 0
cosh x + cos x 2 1
= lim = =
x→0 6 6 3
 
log(1+x)3 x3 log(1+x3 )
(iii) limx→0 sin3 x = limx→0 sin3 x · x3

( )3
1 log (1 + x3 )
= sin x

· lim =
limx→0 x
x→0 x3
3x / (1 + x3 )
2
1
= lim = lim =1
x→0 3x2 x→0 1 + x3

log (1 + x3 ) 0
1 · lim =
x→0 x3 0
(iv) limx→0 tan x−x
= limx→0 tanx x · tanxx−x = limx→0 tanx x · limx→0 tanxx−x = 00 ,


x2 tan x 3 3
2 2
because limx→0 tanx x = 1 = limx→0 sec3xx−1 2 = 00 = limx→0 2 sec 6xx tan x = 00 =
1 2 2 4
3
limx→0 2 sec x tan1 x+sec x = 13 .

Determine the following limits:

   
(x − π/2) log x log x
1. lim 2. lim 3. lim
 tan x 
x→π/2 x→0 cot x
  x→0 cosec x
log sin x log cos x
6. lim 1 − x2 tan(πx/2)


4. lim 5. lim
x→0 cot x x→π/2 tan x x→1
7. lim (logsin x sin 2x) 8. lim (logtan bx tan ax)
x→0 x→0

(x − π/2)
1. Determine: lim
x→π/2 tan x  
log(x − π/2) −∞
Solution: Let x = lim ...
x→π/2 tan x ∞
Applying L’Hospital’s rule,
 33

cos2 x
 
1/(x − π/2) 0
k = lim = lim ···
x→π/2 sec2 x x→π/2 (x − π/2) 0
−2 cos x sin x
k = lim =0
x→π/2 1

∴ k=0
 
log x
2. Determine: lim
x→0 cot
x   
log x −∞
Solution: Let k = lim ···
x→0 cot x ∞
Applying L’Hospital’s rule,

sin2 x
 
(1/x)
k = lim = lim −
x→0 − cosec2 x x→0 x
 
sin x
= − lim lim x = −1 (0) = 0
x→0 x x→0

∴ k=0
 
log x
3. Determine: lim
x→0 cosec
 x   
log x −∞
Solution: Let k = lim ···
x→0 cosec x ∞
Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,
   
1/x sin x
k = lim = − lim · tan x
x→0 − cosec x cot x x→0 x
 
sin x
= − lim · lim tan x = −1 · 0 = 0
x→0 x x→0

∴ k=0

 
log sin x
4. Determine: lim
x→0
 cot x   
log sin x −∞
Solution: Let lim ···
x→0 cot x ∞
Applying L’Hospital’s rule,
cot x  ∞
= lim ··· −
x→0 − cosec2 x ∞
− cosec2 x 1
= lim = − lim tan x = 0
x→0 2 cosec2 x cot x 2 x→0
∴ k=0
34
 
log cos x
5. Determine: lim
x→π/2 tan
 x   
log cos x −∞
Solution: Let k = lim ···
x→π/2 tan x ∞
Applying L’Hospital’s rule,
  
− tan x ∞
= lim = −
x→π/2 sec2 x ∞
2
     
− sec x 1 1
= lim = − lim cot x = − · 0 = 0
x→π/2 2 sec2 x tan x 2 x→π/2 2
∴ k=0

6. Determine: lim (logsin x sin 2x)

x→0
Solution:Let k = lim (logsin x sin 2x)
x→0
     
log(sin 2x) −∞ log a
Now k = lim ... ∵ logb a =
x→0 log(sin x) −∞ log b
Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,
   
2 cos 2x/ sin 2x 2 cot 2x
k = lim = lim
x→0 cos x/ sin x x→0 cot x
   
2 tan x 0
k = lim ··· Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,
x→0 tan 2x 0
2 sec2 x
 
k = lim = 1.
x→0 2 sec2 2x

∴ k=1

7. Determine: lim (logx tan x)

x→0  
−∞
Solution: Let k = lim (logx tan x) · · ·
x→0 ∞
Applying L’Hospital’s rule,

sec2 x/ tan x
   x 
= lim = lim · sec2 x
x→0 1/x x→0 tan x
 x     
= lim · lim sec2 x = 1 · lim sec2 x = 1
x→0 tan x x→0 x→0

∴ k=1

8. Determine: lim (logtan bx tan ax)

x→0    
log(tan ax) −∞
Solution: lim logtan bx tan ax = lim ···
x→0 x→0 log(tan bx) −∞
 35

Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,

a sec2 ax
   
tan bx
k = lim · lim
x→0 b sec2 bx x→0 tan ax
a    
tan bx 0
= lim ··· [∵ sec 0 = 1]
b x→0 tan ax 0

Now, applying the rule again we get

b sec2 bx
a  
k= lim =1
b x→0 a sec2 ax

∴ k=1

EXERCISES

Determine the following limits:

       
log(x − a) tan 3x log sin x log tan x
a. lim b. lim c. lim d. lim
x→a log(ex − ea ) x→π/2 tan x x→0 cot x x→0 log x
 
tan x
e. lim f. lim (logtan x tan 2x)
x→π/2 tan 3x x→0

ANSWERS
1
(a) 1 (b) (c) 0 (d) 1 (e) 3 (f ) 1
3
Determine the following limits:
 πx i  
h 1 1
lim xn e−x
 
1. lim (1 − x) tan 2. lim − 3.
x→1 2 x→0 sin x
 x  x→∞
1 1
1 − x2 tan(πx/2)


4. lim [tan x · log x] 5. lim − 6. lim
x→0 x→2 x − 2 log(x − 1) x→1
 
x 1 ha  x i
7. lim − 8. lim [x tan(1/x)] 9. lim − cot
x→1 x − 1 log x x→∞ x→0 x a
 
h  x i 1 log(1 + x)
10. lim [x log x] 11. lim log 2 − cot(x − a) 12. lim −
x→0 x→a
 a  x→0 x x2
1 1
13. lim [2x tan x − π sec x] 14. lim − x 15. lim [sin x log x]
x→π/2 x→0 x e −1 x→0

h  πx i
1. Solution: Let k = lim (1 − x) tan · · · (0 × ∞)
x→1 2
  " ! #
 
1 − x 0 π
k = lim   πx   · · · ∵ cot =0
x→1
cot 0 2
2
36

Applying L’Hospital’s rule,

 
 
−1 1 2
k = lim   π   πx   =   =
x→1
− cosec2 2 π
2 2 π
2
∴ k=
π
 
1 1
2. Solution: Let k = lim − · · · (∞ − ∞)
x→0 sin x x

   
x − sin x 0
k = lim ···
x→0 x sin x 0
Applying L’Hospital’s rule,
   
1 − cos x 0
k = lim ···
x→0 x cos x + sin x 0
 
sin x 0
k = lim = =0
x→0 −x sin x + cos x + cos x 0+2
∴ k=0
3. Solution: Let k = lim xn e−x · · · (∞ × 0)
 
x→∞
 n !
x ∞
k = lim ··· [∵ e∞ = ∞]
x→∞ ex ∞
Applying L’Hospital’s rule,
   
n! n!
k = lim = =0
x→∞ ex ∞
∴ k=0
4. Solution: Let k = lim tan x · log x . . . (0 × −∞)
x→0
   ∞
log x
k = lim ··· −
x→0 cot x ∞
Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,
   2 
1/x sin x
k = lim 2
= − lim
x→0 − cosec x x→0 x
  
sin x 
= − lim · lim sin x = −1 · 0 = 0
x→0 x x→0

∴ k=0
 37
 
1 1
5. Let k = lim − · · · (∞ − ∞)
x→2 x − 2 log(x − 1)
   
log(x − 1) − (x − 2) 0
k = lim ···
x→2 (x − 2) log(x − 1) 0
Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,
 
(1/x − 1) − 1
= lim
x→2 (x − 2/x − 1) + log(x − 1)
   
2−x 0
= lim ···
x→2 (x − 2) + (x − 1) log(x − 1) 0
 
−1 −1
∴ k = lim =
x→2 1 + 1 + log(x − 1) 2
∴ k = −1/2

6. Solution: Let k = lim 1 − x2 tan(πx/2) . . . (0 × ∞)

x→1
ie.,
(1 − x2 )
 
0
k = lim ···
x→1 cot(πx/2) 0
Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,
 
−2x 4
k = lim 2
=
x→1 −π/2 cosec (πx/2) π
4
∴ k=
π
 
x 1
7. Let k = lim − · · · (∞ − ∞)
x→1 x − 1 log x
   
x log x − (x − 1) 0
= lim ···
x→1 (x − 1) log x 0
Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,

     
x · 1/x + log x − 1 x log x 0
k = lim = lim ···
x→1 (x − 1) · 1/x + log x x→1 (x − 1) + x log x 0
Again Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,
 
1 + log x 1+0 1
∴ k = lim = =
x→1 1 + (1 + log x) 2+0 2
1
∴ k=
2
38

8. Solution: Let k = lim [x tan(1/x)] . . . (∞ × 0)

x→∞
 
tan(1/x) 0
k = lim ···
x→∞ (1/x) 0
Put 1/x = y; y → 0 as x → ∞
 
tan y
Hence k = lim =1
y→0 y

∴ k=1
ha i
9. Solution: Let k = lim − cot(x/a) . . . (∞ − ∞)
x→0 x
 
a cos(x/a)
k = lim −
x→0 x sin(x/a)
   
a sin(x/a) − x cos(x/a) 0
= lim ···
x→0 x sin(x/a) 0

Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,

 
a (1/a) cos(x/a) + x (1/a) sin(x/a) − cos x
k = lim
x→0 x · 1/a · cos(x/a) + sin(x/a)
   
x sin(x/a) 0
= lim ···
x→0 x cos(x/a) + a sin(x/a) 0
Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,
 
x (1/a) cos(x/a) + sin(x/a) 0+0 0
∴ k = lim = = =0
x→0 x (−1/a) sin(x/a) + cos(x/a) + cos(x/a) 0+1+1 2

∴ k=0

10. Solution: Let k = lim [x log x] . . . (0 × −∞)

x→0
   
log x −∞
k = lim ...
x→0 (1/x) ∞

Now applying L’ Hospital’s rule,

 
1/x
k = lim = lim (−x) = 0
x→0 −1/x2 x→0

∴ k=0
 39

11. Solution: Let k = lim log[2 − (x/a)] cot(x − a) . . . (0 × ∞)

   
log[2 − (x/a)] 0
k = lim ...
x→a tan(x − a) 0

Now applying L’ Hospital’s rule,

   
1 −1 1 1
k = lim 2
=−
x→a 2 − (x/a) a sec (x − a) a

1
∴ k=−
a
   
1 log(1 + x) 0
12. Solution: Let k = limx→0 − ··· ∞ −
x x2 0
   
x − log(1 + x) 0
k = lim 2
...
x→0 x 0
Applying L’Hospital’s rule,
 
1
1−  
1+x 0
k = lim ...
x→0 2x 0
2
 
1/(1 + x) 1
k = lim =
x→0 2 2

∴ k = 1/2

13. Solution: Let k = lim (2x tan x − π sec x) . . . (∞ − ∞)

π
x→
2
 
sin x 1
k = lim 2x · −π·
x→π/2 cos x cos x
   
2x sin x − π 0
k = lim ···
x→π/2 cos x 0

Applying L’Hospital’s rule,

 
2x cos x + 2 sin x
k = lim = −2
x→π/2 − sin x

∴ k = −2

EXERCISES
40

Determine the following limits:

   
1 2 1 1
a. lim − cot x b. lim − c. lim (sec x − tan x)
x→0 x2 x→0 x sin x x→π/2

ANSWERS
2
(a) (b) 0 (c) 0
3

.3 Type-2
The given expression or its simplified form will be in the 0/0 form when x = 0 or
as x → 0 but will involve terms of the form x2 sin x, x sin3 x, x tan2 x etc. In the
event of applying the rule, the differentiation becomes tedious and we should not
venture to do so. We can conveniently modify such terms so as to involve (sin x/x)k
or (tan x/x)k or (x/ sin x)k or (x/ tan x)k which can be separated out from the given
expression. These terms become 1 as x → 0 with the result we will be left with a
simple expression (product gets eliminated) in the 0/0 form for the application of L’
Hospital’s rule. Simplification at each step has to be explored.
Determine the following limits:
     
tan x − x 1 2 1 1
1. lim 2. lim − cot x 3. lim −
x→0 2
 x2 tan x x→0
 xx
2 x→∞ x2 sin2 x
e − e− x − 2 log(1 + x) log(1 + x)3
  
x + 2 cos x − 2
4. lim 5. lim 6. lim
x→0
 x sin3 x  x→0 x sin x x→0 sin3 x
x 1 h a  x i
7. lim − 8. lim [x tan(1/x)] 9. lim − cot
x→1 x − 1 log x x→∞ x→0 x a
 
1 log(1 + x)
10. lim [x log x] 11. lim [log (2 − (x/a)) cot(x − a)] 12. lim −
x→0 x→a
  x→0 x x2
1 1
13. lim [2x tan x − π sec x] 14. lim − x 15. lim [sin x log x]
x→π/2 x→0 x e −1 x→0

h  πx i
1. Solution: Let k = lim (1 − x) tan
x→1 2

tan x−x
. . . 00 ie., = limx→0 xtan x−x tan x−x x



21. Let k = limx→0 x2 tan x 2 · tan x ·x = limx→0 x3
·limx→0 tan x
x
tan x−x 0


Hence k = limx→0 x3 · 1 . . . 0 Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,

sec2 x − 1 tan2 x
k = lim = lim
x→0 3x2 x→0 3x2
 2
1 tan x 1 1
= lim = ·1=
3 x→0 x 3 3
Thus k = 1/3
 41

2
22. Let k = limx→0 x +2 cos x−2 0


x sin3 x
... 0
2
x +2 cos x−2 x2 +2 cos x−2 x

3
ie., = limx→0 sin3 x 3 = limx→0 x4
· limx→0 sin x
x· ·x
x3
2
limx→0 x +2 xcos x−2 0


Hence k = 4 · 1... 0
Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,
 
2x − 2 sin x 0
k = lim 3
...
x→0 4x 0
 
2 − 2 cos x 0
= lim 2
...
x→0 12x 0
2 sin x 1 sin x 1 1
= lim = lim = ·1=
x→0 24x 12 x→0 x 12 12
Thus k = 1/12
ex −e−x −2 log(1+x) 0


23. Let k = limx→0 x sin x
... 0
ie.,

ex − e−x − 2 log(1 + x)
= lim
x→0 x · sinx x · x
ex − e−x − 2 log(1 + x) x
= lim · lim
x→0 x2 x→0 sin x
x −x
 
e − e − 2 log(1 + x) 0
= lim 2
· 1...
x→0 x 0
Applying L’Hospital’s rule,

ex + e−x − (2/1 + x)
 
0
k = lim ...
x→0 2x 0
x −x 2
e − e + 2/(1 + x)
k = lim =1
x→0 2
Thus k = 1
1+sin x−cos x+log(1−x) 0


24. Let k = limx→0 x tan2 x
... 0

1 + sin x − cos x + log(1 − x)  x 2

= lim · lim
x→0 x3 x→0 tan x
ie.,  
1 + sin x − cos x + log(1 − x) 0
= lim 3
· 1...
x→0 x 0
Applying L’ Hospitals rule,
 
cos x + sin x − 1/1 − x 0
k = lim 2
...
x→0 3x 0
2
 
− sin x + cos x − 1/(1 − x) 0
= lim ...
x→0 6x 0
3
− cos x − sin x − 2/(1 − x) −3 −1
= lim = =
x→0 6 6 2
42

Thus k = −1/2
25. Let k = limx→0 x12 − cot2 x . . .h(∞ − ∞)i
 
2 x−x2
ie., = limx→0 x12 − tan12 x = limx→0 tan
 
x2 tan2 x

tan2 x − x2  x
= lim · lim
x→0 x4 x→0 tan x
2 2
 
tan x − x 0
= lim 4
· 1...
x→0 x 0
Applying L’Hospital’s rule,

2 tan x sec2 x − 2x
 
0
k = lim 3
...
x→0 4x 0
2 tan x · 2 sec x tan x + 2 sec4 x − 2
2
= lim
x→0 12x2
2 sec x tan x + sec4 x − 1
2 2
 
0
ie., =2 lim 2
...
x→0 12x 0
(Further differentiation will be tedious and hence we simplify the term sec4 x − 1
)
Now, (sec4 x − 1) = (sec2 x − 1) (sec2 x + 1)
ie., (sec4 x − 1) = tan2 x (sec2 x + 1) = sec2 x tan2 x + tan2 x
2 2 2 x tan2 x+tan2 x
Hence k = limx→0 2 sec x tan x+sec 6x2

tan2 x (3 sec2 x + 1)
= lim
x→0 6x2
 2
1 tan x
· lim 3 sec2 x + 1


= lim
6 x→0 x x→0
1 2
= ·1·4=
6 3
Thus k = 2/3
26. Let k = limx→0 x12 − sin12 x . . . (∞ − ∞)
 
2 x−x2
ie., = limx→0 sin . . . 00


x2 sin2 x
2
2 2
= limx→0 sin xx−x
4 · limx→0 sinx x
2 2
= limx→0 sin xx−x · 1 . . . 00


4

Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,

 
2 sin x cos x − 2x sin 2x − 2x 0
k = lim = lim ...
x→0 4x3 x→0 4x3 0
2 cos 2x − 2 cos 2x − 1
= lim 2
or lim
x→0 12x x→0 6x2
2
−2 sin2 x

1 −1 sin x −1 −1
= lim 2
= lim = ·1=
6 x→0 x 3 x→0 x 3 3
Thus k = −1/3
 43

.4 Type-3

.5 Indeterminate forms : 00, ∞, 1∞

It is evident that the function involved will be of the form [f (x)]g(x) and we have to
find the limit as x → a.
Let k = limx→a [f (x)]g(x)
Taking logarithms on both sides we have,

loge k = lim g(x) · log[f (x)]

x→a

We can evaluate the limit on the R.H.S as already discussed and let us suppose
that the limit is equal to l.
ie., loge k = l ⇒ k = el which is the required limit.
Remark : One of the common question is that why 1∞ is indeterminate?
Let k = limx→a [f (x)]g(x) . . . 1∞
⇒ loge k = limx→a g(x) log f (x) . . . ∞ × log 1 = ∞ × 0
which is indeterminate. On the otherhand if k = limx→a [f (x)]g(x) is of the form
c∞ where c ̸= 1 we have

loge k = lim g(x) log f (x) = ∞ × log c = ∞

x→a

27. lim x1/1−x 31. lim

33.
35. lim ax+1


ax−1
37.
lin(tan x)1/x
39. lim
1/4
11. lim (π/2 − tan−1 )
41.
27. Let k = limx→1 x1/1−x . . . (1∞ ) ⇒ loge k = limx→1 1
1−x
log x =
limx→1 log x 0


1−x
. . . 0
Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,

1/x
loge k = lim = −1
x→1 −1
ie., loge k = −1
Thus k = e−1 = 1/e
2
28. Let k = limx→0 (cos x)1/x · · · (1∞ )
sec2
⇒ loge k = limx→0 log(cos x)
. . . 00 32. lim sin2 (π/2 − x)


x2

(π/2 − x)
π sin x
34. lim 1 + x 36. lim x
38. limx→0 xsin x
44

.6 0. limx→0(cot x)tan x
40. limx→0(cot x)sin x
Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,
loge k = limx→0 − sin 2x
x/ cos x
= −12
limx→0√tan x
x
= −1
2
·1
−1/2
ie., loge k =√ −1/2 ⇒ k = e = 1/ e
Thus k = 1/ e
Thus 29. Let k = lim(sin x)tan x . . . (1∞ )
x → π/2
⇒ loge k = lim tan x log(sin x) . . . (∞ × 0)
x → π/2
ie.,
 
log(sin x) 0
= lim ...
x→π/2 cot x 0
Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,

cos x/ sin x
loge k = lim = lim − sin x cos x = 0
x→π/2 − cosec2 x x→π/2

ie., loge k = 0
Thus k = e0 = 1
30. Let k = limx→a [2 − (x/a)]tan(πx/2a) . . . (1∞ )
⇒ loge k = limx→a tan(πx/2a)
· log[2 − (x/a)] . . . (∞ × 0)
ie., = limx→a log[2−(x/a)]
cot(πx/2a)
· · · 0
0
Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,
1
[2−(x/a)]
× −1
a 2
loge k = lim 2
=
x→a − cosec (πx/2a) × π/2a π
ie., loge k = 2/π
Thus k = e2/π
x x
1/x
31. Let k = limx→0 a +b2
. . . (1∞ )
x x
⇒ loge k = limx→0 log{(a x+b )/2 . . . 00

Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,

2
ax +bx
· 12 (ax log a + bx log b)
loge k = lim
x→0 1
1 1 √
= (log a + log b) = log(ab) = log ab
2 2
√
ie., loge k =
√ log ab
Thus k = ab
sec2 (π/2−x 
32. Let k = lim sin2 (π/2 − x) . . . (1∞ )


Put y = π/2 − x for convenience. As x → 0, y → π/2

sec2 y
Hence k = lim sin2 y . . . (1∞ )
 45

loge k = lim sec2 y · log sin2 y . . . (∞ × 0)

⇒
y→π/2

log sin2 y

 
0
= lim . . .
y→π/2 cos2 y 0
Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,

2 sin y cos y/ sin2 y

loge k = lim = −1
y→π/2 −2 cos y sin y
ie., loge k = −1
Thus k = e−1 = 1/e
1/ log(1−x)
33. Let k = limx→1 (1 − x2 ) . . . (00 )
log(1−x2 )
⇒ loge k = limx→1 log(1−x) . . . −∞


−∞
Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,

−2x/1 − x2 2x(1 − x)
loge k = lim = lim
x→1 −1/1 − x x→1 (1 − x)(1 + x)

2x
ie., loge k = limx→1 1+x =1
a x
· · · (1∞ )
1


Thus k = e = e 34. Let k = limx→∞ 1 + x
a


⇒ loge k = limx→∞ x log 1 + x . . . (∞ × 0)

log 1 + xa

 
0
= lim ...
x→∞ (1/x) 0
Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,

1/ 1 + xa · − xa2


loge k = lim =a
x→∞ (−1/x2 )
ie.,
., loge k = a
Thus k = ea
ax+1 x


35. Let k = limx→∞ ax−1
We need to effect a basic simplification
x in this case of x → ∞
a+(1/x) ∞
ie., k = limx→∞ a−(1/x) . . . (1 )
Put 1/x = y for convenience, so that y → 0 as x → ∞
 1/y
a+y
ie., k = limy→0 a−y · · · (1∞ )
 
⇒ loge k = limy→0 y1 log a+y a−y
 
log(a + y) − log(a − y) 0
= lim ...
y→0 y 0
Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,
46

1/(a + y) + 1/(a − y) 1/a + 1/a 2

loge k = lim = =
y→0 1 1 a
ie., loge k = 2/a

2
sin x 1/x
Thus k = e2/a 36. Let k = limx→0 x
. . . (1∞ ) ⇒ loge k =
log(sin x/x) 0


limx→0 x2
··· 0
Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,
1
· x cos x−sin x
loge k = limx→0 (sin x/x) 2x x2
loge k = limx→0 sinx x · limx→0
x cos2x x−sin x
3

= 1 · limx→0 x cos2x
x−sin x
3 . . . 00
= limx→0 −x sin x+cos
6x2
x−cos x

ie., = limx→0 −1 6
· sinx x = −1 6
· 1 = −1 6
ie., loge k = −1/6
Thus k = e−1/6
1/x
37. Let k = limx→0 tanx x . . . (1∞ )
 
log(tan x/x) 0
⇒ loge k = lim ...
x→0 x 0
Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,
ie.,
1 x sec2 x−tan x
(tan x/x)
· x2
loge k = lim
x→0 1
x x sec2 x − tan x
= lim · lim
x→0 tan x x→0 x2  
2
x sec x − tan x 0
= 1 · lim 2
...
x→0 x 0
x · 2 sec2 x tan x + sec2 x − sec2 x
loge k = lim
x→0 2x
2
= lim sec x · tan x = 0
x→0

ie., loge k = 0
Thus k = e0 = 1
38. Let k = limx→0 xsin x . . . (00 )

⇒ loge k = lim sin x log x . . . (0 × −∞)

x→0
 
log x −∞
= lim ...
x→0 cosec x ∞
Applying L’Hospital’s rule,

1/x sin x
loge k = lim = − lim · lim tan x
x→0 − cosec x cot x x→0 x x→0

ie., loge k = −1 · 0 = 0
 47

Thus k = e0 = 1
2 sin x
39. Let k = limx→0 x1 . . . (∞0 )
⇒ loge k = limx→0 2 sin x · log(1/x) = − limx→0 2 sin x · log x

= −2 lim sin x log x = 0 (same as the previous example)

x→0

∴ loge k = 0
Thus k = e0 = 1
40. Let k = limx→0 (cot x)tan x . . . (∞0 )
⇒ loge k = limx→0 tan x · log(cot x) . . . (0 × ∞)

log(cot x) ∞
= lim ...
x→0 cot x ∞
Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,

− cosec2 x/ cot x
loge k = lim = lim tan x = 0
x→0 − cosec2 x x→0

ie., loge k = 0
Thus k = e0 = 1
1/x
41. Let k = lim (π/2 − tan−1 x) · · · (00 )
1/x 1/x
ie., k = limx→∞ (cot−1 x) = limx→∞ [tan−1 (1/x)]
Put 1/x = y. As x → ∞, y → 0
y
Hence k = limy→0 (tan−1 y) . . . (00 )

⇒ logek k = lim y log tan−1 y . . . (0 × −∞)

y→0

log (tan−1 y)
 
−∞
ie., = lim ...
y→0 (1/y) ∞
Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,

1/ tan−1 y · 1/1 + y 2
loge k = lim
y→0 −1/y 2
−y 2
 
0
= lim −1 2
···
y→0 tan y · (1 + y ) 0
−2y 0
loge k = lim = =0
y→0 tan−1 y · 2y + 1 0+1
ie., loge k = 0
Thus k = e0 = 1

.7 Miscellaneous Examples
a cos hx−b cos x
42. Find the value of the constants a and b such that limx→0 x2
may be
equal to unity.
> Let k = limx→0 a cos hx−b
x2
cos x
= a−b
0
48

We must have a − b = 0 in order to
apply the L’ Hospital’s rule,

Hence k = limx→0 a sin hx+b
2x
sin x
. . . 00
a cosh x + b cos x a+b
k = lim =
x→0 2 2
But we must have k = 1
∴ (a + b)/2 = 1 or a + b = 2
By solving the equations, a − b = 0 and a + b = 2 we get a = 1, b = 1
Thus a = 1, b = 1
x x+ce−x
43. Find the constants a, b, c such that lim ae −bxcos
sin x
may be cqual to 2 .
aex −b cos x+ce−x
> Let k = limx→0 x sin x
x x+ce−x
ie., = limx→0 ae −b cos
x 2 · limx→0 sinx x

aex − b cos x + ce−x a−b+c

= lim 2
·1=
x→0 x 0
Therefore we must have,

a−b+c=0
With (1) we have 0/0 form. Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,

aex + b sin x − ce−x a−c

k = lim =
x→0 2x 0
Again we must have a − c = 0 to get 0/0 form. That is

a=c
Applying the rule again we have,

aex + b cos x + ce−x a+b+c

k = lim = and k = 2 by data.
x→0 2 2
ie., (a + b + c)/2 = 2 and therefore

a+b+c=4 . . . (3)
Since c = a, (1) and (3) becomes 2a − b = 0 and 2a + b = 4
By solving we get a = 1 and b = 2. Hence c = 1
Thus a = 1, b = 2, c = 1
44. Find the value of the constant a such that lim sin 2x+a
x3
sin x
is finite. What is
the finite limit?
> Let k = limx→0 sin 2x+a sin x 0


x 3 . . . 0
Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,
2 cos 2x + a cos x 2+a
k = lim 2
=
x→0 3x 0
We must have 2 + a = 0 or a = −2
for the 0/0 form.
∴ k = limx→0 −4 sin 2x−a
6x
sin x
. . . 00
 49

−8 cos 2x − a cos x −(8 + a)

k = lim = = −1 since a = −2
x→0 6 6
Thus a = −2 and finite limit = −1
Thus a = . . . , . . . . . . . . .
1/x
45. Evaluate limx→0 (1+x)x −e
1/x
≫ Let k = limx→0 (1+x)x −e . . . 00

We note that lim(1 + x)1/x = e and hence we have 0/0 form.

Applying L’ Hospital’s rule,
d
 
dx
(1 + x)1/x du
k = lim = lim
x→0 1 x→0 dx
1/x du
where u = (1 + x) and let us find dx
Now log u = x1 log(1 + x) = log(1+x) x
Differentiating w.r.t. x we get,
1
1 du x · 1+x − log(1 + x)
=
u dx  x2 
du x − (1 + x) log(1 + x)
=u
dx (1 + x)x2
 
du x − (1 + x) log(1 + x)
lim = lim u · lim
x→0 dx x→0 x→0 x2 + x3
But lim u = e. By using (1) we have
   
x − (1 + x) log(1 + x) 0
k = e · lim 2 3
···
x→0 x +x 0
n o
Hence k = e limx→0 1−1−log(1+x) · · · 00


2x+3x2

−1/(1 + x) −1 −e
= e lim =e· =
x→0 2 + 6x 2 2
Thus k = −e/2

.8 EXERCISES
.9 Evaluate the following limits.
1. limx→0 x cos x−log(1+x)
x2
3. limx→0 x−log(1+x)
1−cos x
√ √
x−1+ x−1 2 x−2 tan x
5. limx→1 √
x2 −1
2. limx→π/4 sec1+cos 4x
sin x·sin−1 x
4. limx→0 x2
log(1+kx2 )
6. limx→0 1−cos x 7. limx→1 log(1−x)
cot πx
50

8. limx→∞ x cos(1/x)
1+x
9. limx→0 logx tan x x → 0
log(cos x)
10. limx→π/2
 1 tan x1 
11. limx→0 x − ex −1
h (sec x − tan
12. limx→π/2 i x) x → π/2
13.limx→1 log1 x − logx x
14.lim x log tan x x → 0
15.limx→π/4 (tan x)tan 2x x → π/4
16.lim(2 − x)tan(πx/2) x → 1
x x x
1/x
17.limx→0 a +b3 +c

1/x2
18. limx→0 tanx x x→0
19. Find the constants a and b such that limx→0 x(1+a cosx3x)−b sin x may be equal to
unity .
20. If limx→0 x(1−a cosx2x)+b sin x = 31 , show that the constants a and b satisfy the
identity a + b = 0

.10 ANSWERS
1. 1/2
2. 1/2
3. 1
6. 2k
7. 0
10. 0
11. 1/2
13. −1
14. 0
15. 1/e
15. 1/4 4. 1
8. 1
12. 0
16. e2/π 17. (abc)1/3
18. e1/3
19. a = −5/2, b = −3/2

.10.1 Polar Curves

.10.2 Introduction
We are conversant in representing the position of a point P (x, y) in the cartesian
system and accordingly (x, y) are called cartesian coordinates.
In this topic we discuss another important system to represent a point in a plane
known as the polar system.
 51

.10.3 Polar Coordinates

Initial reference is chosen by spotting a point O in the plane called as the pole.
A line OL drawn through O is called the initial
line. If P is any given point in the plane, join the points O and P with the result
an angle is formed at O.
The length of OP denoted by r is called the radius vector of the point P and
the angle LOP denoted by θ measured in the anticlockwise direction is called the
vectorial angle.
The pair r and θ represented by P = (r, θ) or P (r, θ) are called as the polar
coordinates of the point P .
It is evident that r is positive and θ lies between 0 and 2π according as the position
of the point P in the four quadrants.
We now proceed to establish the relationship between the Cartesian coordinates
(x, y) and the polar coordinates (r, θ).
Let (x, y) and (r, θ) respectively represent the Cartesian and polar coordinates of
any point P in the plane where the origin O is taken as the pole and the x-axis is
taken as the initial line.
From the figure we have OQ = x, P Q = y.
Also from the right angled triangle OQP we have

OQ x
cos θ = = ∴ x = r cos θ
OP r
QP y
sin θ = = ∴ y = r sin θ
OP r
Further squaring and adding
(1) and (2) we get
x2 + y 2 = r2 cos2 θ + sin2 θ = r2 · 1 = r2
p
∴ r = x2 + y 2
Also dividing (2) by (1) we get

r sin θ y
= ie., tan θ
r cos θ x 
−1 y
θ = tan
x
The relations (1) and (2) determine the cartesian coordinates in terms of polar
coordinates whereas relations (3) and (4) determine the polar coordinates in terms of
cartesian coordinates.
It is evident that r is a function of θ(r depends on θ) and the equation in the form

r = f (θ) or f (r, θ) = c, c being a constant

is called the equation of the curve in the polar form or simply a polar curve.
We now proceed to establish some results related to polar curves.
52

.10.4 Angle between radius vector and tangent

Let P (r, θ) be any point on the curve r = f (θ).
∴ X ÔP = θ and OP = r.
Let P L be the tangent to the curve at P subtending an angle ψ with the positive
direction of the initial line (x − axis) and ϕ be the angle between the radius vector
OP and the tangent P L. That is OP L = ϕ.
From the figure we have

ψ =ϕ+θ
(Recall from geometry that an exterior angle is equal to the sum of the interior
opposite angles)
⇒ tan ψ = tan(ϕ + θ)
tan ϕ+tan θ
or tan ψ = 1−tan ϕ tan θ
Let (x, y) be the cartesian coordinates of P so that we have,

x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ
Since r is a function of θ, we can as well regard these as parametric equations in
terms of θ.
We also know from the geometrical meaning of the derivative that
dy
tan ψ = = slope of the tangent P L
dx
dy dx
ie., tan ψ = / since x and y are functions of θ.
dθ dθ
d
(r sin θ) r cos θ + r′ sin θ dr
ie., tan ψ = d dθ
= ′
where r′ =
dθ
(r cos θ) −r sin θ + r cos θ dθ
(We try to correlate this expression with the already existing expression for tan ψ
in (1). Observe that the positive term in the denominator of (1) is equal to 1 )
Dividing both the numerator and denominator by r′ cos θ we have,
r cos θ ′ sin θ
r′ cos θ
+ rr′ cos θ
tan ψ = −r sin θ r′ cos θ
r′ cos θ
+ r′ cos θ
r
r′
+ tan θ
tan ψ =
1 − rr′ · tan θ
Comparing equations (1) and (2) we get
 
r r dθ
tan ϕ = ′ = dr
or tan ϕ = r
r dθ
dr
Equivalently we can write it in the form
   
1 1 dr 1 dr
= or cot ϕ =
tan ϕ r dθ r dθ
Note: A question format :- Prove with usual notations tan ϕ = r dθ
dr
 53

.11 2.24 Length of the perpendicular from the pole

to the tangent
Let O be the pole and OL be the initial line. Let P (r, θ) be any point on the curve
and hence we have OP = r and LOP = θ.
Draw ON = p (say) perpendicular from the pole
on the tangent at P and let ϕ be the angle made by the radius vector with the
tangent.
From the figure ON̂ P = 90◦ and LÔP = θ Now from the right angled triangle
ON P
ON
sin ϕ =
OP
ie., sin ϕ = pr or p = r sin ϕ
(This expression is the basic expression for the length of the perpendicular p. We
proceed to present the expression for p in terms of θ in two standard forms)
We have p = r sin ϕ
and cot ϕ = 1r dθ dr

Squaring equation (1) and taking the reciprocal we get,

1 1 1 1 1
= · ie., = cosec2 ϕ
p2 r2 sin2 ϕ p2 r2
or p12 = r12 (1 + cot2 ϕ)
Now using (2) we get,
"  2 #
1 1 1 dr
= 2 1+ 2
p2 r r dθ
or
 2
1 1 1 dr
2
= 2+ 4
p r r dθ
Further, let 1r = u
Differentiating w.r.t. θ we get,
   2  2
1 dr du 1 dr du
− 2 = ⇒ 4 = , by squaring .
r dθ dθ r dθ dθ
Thus (3) now becomes
 2
1 du
= u2 +
p2 dθ
Note : The usual format of the question is as follows.
dr 2
(i) Prove with usual notations p12 = r12 + r14 dθ

(ii) Prove that for the curve r = f (θ),

54

 2
1 du 1
= u2 + where u =
p2 dθ r

.12 WORKED PROBLEMS

.13 Angle of intersection of two polar curves
Basically we know that the angle of intersection of any two curves is equal to the
angle between the tangents drawn at the point of intersection of the two curves.
Let r = f1 (θ) and r = f2 (θ) be two curves intersecting at the point P .
Let P T1 and P T2 be the tangents drawn to the curves at the point P .
It can be scen from the figure that ϕ1 is the angle between the radius vector OP
and the tangent P T1 and ϕ2 is the angle made by the radius vector OP with P T2 . It
can be clearly seen that the angle
between the two tangents is equal to ϕ2 − ϕ1
∴ the acuie angle of the intersection of the curves is equal to |ϕ2 − ϕ1 |
If |ϕ2 − ϕ1 | = π/2 then we say that the two curves intersect orthogonally.
Furtherif ϕ2 − ϕ1 = π2 then ϕ2 = π2 + ϕ1
∴ tan ϕ2 = tan π2 + ϕ1 = − cot ϕ1 = − tan1ϕ1

or tan ϕ1 · tan ϕ2 = −1.

Tris result serves as an alternative condition for the orthogonality of two polar
curves.

.14 Working procedure for problems

9 Given the equation in the form r = f (θ) we prefer to take logarithms first on both
sides of the equation and then differentiate w.r.t θ which always gives the term 1r dθ dr

being the derivative of log r w.r.t θ.

-We directly substitute cot ϕ or cot ϕ1 , cot ϕ2 as the case may be for the term 1r dθ
dr

- We simplify R.H.S too and try to put it in terms of cotangent ie., ”cot” so that
we obtain ϕ or ϕ1 and ϕ2 as the case may be.
→ |ϕ2 − ϕ1 | or |ϕ1 − ϕ2 | will give the angle of intersection.
9 If this contains θ then we have to find θ by solving the pair of equations to
obtain the angle of intersection independent of θ.
9 Suppose we are not able to obtain ϕ1 and ϕ2 explicitly then we have to write
the expressions for tan ϕ1 , tan ϕ2 and use the formula
tan ϕ1 − tan ϕ2
tan (ϕ1 − ϕ2 ) =
1 + tan ϕ1 tan ϕ2
9 If tan (ϕ1 − ϕ2 ) = α (say) then the angle of intersection is equal to tan−1 (α)
Also if tan ϕ1 · tan ϕ2 = −1 then,

tan (ϕ1 − ϕ2 ) = ∞ ⇒ ϕ1 − ϕ2 = π/2

 55

Note : The following allied and compound angles trigonometric formulae will
have frequent reference in problems. 1. sin(π/2 − θ) = cos θ cos(π/2 − θ) = sin θ
tan(π/2−θ) = cot θ cot(π/2−θ) = tan θ 2. sin(π/2+θ) = cos θ cos(π/2+θ) = − sin θ
tan(π/2+θ) = − cot θ cot(π/2+θ) = − tan θ 3. tan(π/4+θ) = 1+tan θ
1−tan θ
; cot(π/4+θ) =
1−tan θ
1+tan θ
Also we use the results :

1 + cos θ = 2 cos2 (θ/2), 1 − cos θ = 2 sin2 (θ/2)

sin θ = 2 sin(θ/2) cos(θ/2), cos θ = cos2 (θ/2) − sin2 (θ/2)

.15 Find the angle between the radius vector and

the tangent for the following curves.
46. r = a(1 − cos θ) 47. r2 cos 2θ = a2 48. rm = am (cos mθ + sin mθ) 49. l/r =
1 + e cos θ
46. r = a(1 − cos θ)
Taking logarithms on both sides, log r = log a + log(1 − cos θ)
Differentiating w.r.t θ we get,

1 dr sin θ
=0+
r dθ 1 − cos θ
2 sin(θ/2) cos(θ/2)
cot ϕ = = cot(θ/2)
2 sin2 (θ/2)

Thus cot ϕ = cot(θ/2) ⇒ ϕ = θ/2

47. r2 cos 2θ = a2
Taking logarithms on both sides we have

2 log r + log(cos 2θ) = 2 log a

Differentiating w.r.t θ we get,

2 dr
r dθ
+ (−2cossin2θ2θ) = 0
1 dr
ie., r dθ
= tan 2θ
or cot ϕ = cot(π/2 − 2θ) ⇒ ϕ = π/2 − 2θ

48. rm = dm (cos mθ + sin mθ)

Taking logarithms on both sides we have, m log r = m log a + log(cos mθ + sin mθ)
Differentiating w.r.t θ we get,
56

m dr (−m sin mθ + m cos mθ)

=0+
r dθ (cos mθ + sin mθ)
m dr m(cos mθ − sin mθ)
ie., =
r dθ (cos mθ + sin mθ)
cos mθ(1 − tan mθ) 1 − tan mθ
Thus cot ϕ = =
cos mθ(1 + tan mθ) 1 + tan mθ
or cot ϕ = cot(π/4 + mθ) ⇒ ϕ = π/4 + mθ
49. l/r = 1 + e cos θ
Taking logarithms on both sides we have,

log l − log r = log(1 + e cos θ)

Differentiating w.r.t θ we get,
1 dr −e sin θ
0− =
r dθ 1 + e cos θ
e sin θ
ie., cot ϕ = 1+e cos θ
(This cannot be simplified)
or tan ϕ = e sin θ ⇒ ϕ = tan−1 1+e
1+e cos θ cos θ


e sin θ
Find the angle between the radius vector and the tangent and also find the slope
of the tangent as indicated for the following curves.
50. r = a(1 + cos θ) at θ = π/3
51. r cos2 (θ/2) = a at θ = 2π/3
52. 2a/r = 1 − cos θ at θ = 2π/3
53. r = a(1 + sin θ) at θ = π/2
50. r = a(1 + cos θ)
⇒ log r = log a + log(1 + cos θ)
Differentiating w.r.t θ we get,

1 dr − sin θ −2 sin(θ/2) cos(θ/2)

=0+ = = − tan(θ/2)
r dθ 1 + cos θ 2 cos2 (θ/2)
Thus cot ϕ = cot(π/2 + θ/2) ⇒ ϕ = π/2 + θ/2
At θ = π/3, ϕ = π/2 + π/6 or ϕ = 2π/3 = 120◦
Also we have ψ = θ + ϕ = π/3 + 2π/3 = π = 180◦
∴ slope of the tangent = tan ψ = tan 180◦ = 0
51. r cos2 (Q/2) = a
⇒ log r + 2 log cos(θ/2) = log a
Differentiating w.r.t θ we get,

1 dr −1/2 · sin(θ/2)
+2· =0
r dθ cos(θ/2)
∴ 1r dθdr
= tan(θ/2)
ie., cot ϕ = cot(π/2 − θ/2) ⇒ ϕ = π/2 − θ/2
At θ = 2π/3, ϕ = π/2 − π/3 = π/6 = 30◦
 57

Also ψ = θ + ϕ = 2π/3 + π/6 = 5π/6 = 150◦ √

∴ slope of the tangent = tan ψ = tan 150◦ = −1/ √3

∵ tan (150◦ ) = tan (90◦ + 60◦ ) = − cot 60◦ = −1/ 3
52. 2a/r = 1 − cos θ
⇒ log 2a − log r = log(1 − cos θ)
Differentiating w.r.t θ we get,

1 dr sin θ 2 sin(θ/2) cos(θ/2)

0− = = = cot(θ/2)
r dθ 1 − cos θ 2 sin2 (θ/2)
ie., − cot ϕ = cot(θ/2) or cot(−ϕ) = cot θ/2 ⇒ ϕ = −θ/2
At θ = 2π/3, ϕ = −π/3 = −60◦
Also ψ = θ + ϕ = 2π/3 − π/3 = π/3 = 60◦ √
∴ slope of the tangent = tan ψ = tan (60◦ ) = 3
53. r = a(1 + sin θ)
⇒ log r = log a + log(1 + sin θ)
Differentiating w.r.t θ we get,

1 dr cos θ cos θ
=0+ ie., cot ϕ =
r dθ 1 + sin θ 1 + sin θ
0
At θ = π/2, cot ϕ = 1+1 = 0 ∴ cot ϕ = 0 ⇒ ϕ = π/2
Also ψ = θ + ϕ = π/2 + π/2 = π
∴ slope of the tangent = tan ψ = tan π = 0
Note: We can simplify R.H.S and explicitly obtain ϕ as shown below.

cos2 (θ/2) − sin2 (θ/2)

cot ϕ =
cos2 (θ/2) + sin2 (θ/2) + 2 sin(θ/2) cos(θ/2)
[cos(θ/2) − sin(θ/2)][cos(θ/2) + sin(θ/2)]
cot ϕ =
[cos(θ/2) + sin(θ/2)]2
[cos(θ/2) − sin(θ/2)] cos(θ/2)[1 − tan(θ/2)]
= =
[cos(θ/2) + sin(θ/2)] cos(θ/2)[1 + tan(θ/2)]
1−tan(θ/2)
ie., cot ϕ = 1+tan(θ/2)
Thus cot ϕ = cot(π/4 + θ/2) ⇒ ϕ = π/4 + θ/2
If we put θ = π/2 we obtain ϕ = π/4 + π/4 = π/2

.16 Show that the following pairs of curves inter-

sect each other orthogonally
54. r = a(1 + cos θ) and r = b(1 − cos θ) 55. r = a(1 + sin θ) and r =
a(1 − sin θ) 56. rn = an cos nθ and rn = bn sin nθ 57. r2 sin 2θ = a2 and
r2 cos 2θ = b2 58. r = 4 sec2 (θ/2) and r = 9 cosec2 (θ/2) 59. r = aeθ and
reθ = b
54. r = a(1 + cos θ) : r = b(1 − cos θ)
58

⇒ log r = log a + log(1 + cos θ) : log r = log b + log(1 − cos θ)

Differentiating these w.r.t θ we get,

1 dr − sin θ 1 dr sin θ
=0+ : =0+
r dθ 1 + cos θ r dθ 1 − cos θ
−2 sin(θ/2) cos(θ/2) 2 sin(θ/2) cos(θ/2)
cot ϕ1 = : cot ϕ2 =
2
2 cos (θ/2) 2 sin2 (θ/2)
ie., cot ϕ1 = − tan(θ/2) = cot(π/2 + θ/2) : cot ϕ2 = cot(θ/2)
⇒ ϕ1 = π/2 + θ/2 : ϕ2 = θ/2
∴ angle of intersection = |ϕ1 − ϕ2 | = |π/2 + θ/2 − θ/2| = π/2
Hence the curves intersect orthogonally. 55. r = a(1 + sin θ) : r = a(1 − sin θ)
⇒ log r = log a + log(1 + sin θ) : log r = log a + log(1 − sin θ)
Differentiating these w.r.t θ we get,

1 dr cos θ
=
r dθ 1 + sin θ
1 dr − cos θ
: =
r dθ 1 − sin θ
cos θ − cos θ
ie., cot ϕ1 = : cot ϕ2 =
1 + sin θ 1 − sin θ
(Refering to the note in Ex-53, it requires quite a number of steps to obtain ϕ1
and ϕ2 explicitly in order to find |ϕ1 − ϕ2 |. But it will suffice if we can show that
tan ϕ1 · tan ϕ2 = −1)
We have tan ϕ1 = 1+sin
cos θ
θ
and tan ϕ2 = 1−sin θ
− cos θ
2 2
∴ tan ϕ1 · tan ϕ2 = 1−sin
− cos2 θ
θ
= −cos θ
cos2 θ
= −1
Hence the curves intersect orthogonally.
56. rn = an cos nθ : rn = bn sin nθ
Taking logarithms we have,

n log r = n log a + log(cos nθ) : n log r = n log b + log(sin nθ)

Differentiating these w.r.t θ we get,

n dr −n sin nθ n dr n cos nθ
= : =
r dθ cos nθ r dθ sin nθ
1 dr 1 dr
ie., = − tan nθ : = cot nθ
r dθ r dθ
ie., cot ϕ1 = cot(π/2 + nθ) : cot ϕ2 = cot nθ
⇒ ϕ1 = π/2 + nθ : ϕ2 = nθ
∴ |ϕ1 − ϕ2 | = |π/2 + nθ − nθ| = π/2
Hence the curves intersect orthogonally. 57. r2 sin 2θ = a2 : r2 cos 2θ = b2
Taking logarithms we have,

2 log r + log(sin 2θ) = 2 log a : 2 log r + log(cos 2θ) = 2 log b

 59

Differentiating these w.r.t θ we get,

2 dr 2 cos 2θ 2 dr 2 sin 2θ
+ =0 : − =0
r dθ sin 2θ r dθ cos 2θ
1 dr 1 dr
ie., = − cot 2θ : = tan 2θ
r dθ r dθ
ie., cot ϕ1 = − cot 2θ : cot ϕ2 = tan 2θ
ie., cot ϕ1 = cot(−2θ) : cot ϕ2 = cot(π/2 − 2θ)
⇒ ϕ1 = −2θ : ϕ2 = π/2 − 2θ
∴ |ϕ1 − ϕ2 | = | − 2θ − π/2 + 2θ| = π/2
Hence the curves intersect orthogonally.
58. r = 4 sec2 (θ/2) : r = 9 cosec2 (θ/2)
Taking logarithms we have,

log r = log 4 + 2 log sec(θ/2) : log r = log 9 + 2 log cosec(θ/2)

Differentiating these w.r.t θ we get,

1 dr 2 1
= · sec(θ/2) tan(θ/2) ·
r dθ sec(θ/2) 2
1 dr −2 cosec(θ/2) cot(θ/2) 1
: = ·
r dθ cosec(θ/2) 2
ie., 1r dθ
dr
= tan(θ/2) : 1r dθ dr
= − cot(θ/2)
ie., cot ϕ1 = cot(π/2 − θ/2) : cot ϕ2 = cot(−θ/2)
⇒ ϕ1 = π/2 − θ/2 : ϕ2 = −θ/2
∴ |ϕ1 − ϕ2 | = |π/2 − θ/2 + θ/2| = π/2
Hence the curves intersect orthogonally. 59. r = aeθ : reθ = b
⇒ log r = log a + θ log e : log r + θ log e = log b
But log e = 1. Differentiating these w.r.t θ we get,

1 dr 1 dr
=0+1 : +1=0
r dθ r dθ
ie., cot ϕ1 = 1 : cot ϕ2 = −1
⇒ ϕ1 = π/4 : ϕ2 = −π/4 or 3π/4
∴ |ϕ1 − ϕ2 | = |π/4 + π/4| = π/2
Hence the curves intersect orthogonally.
Find the angle of intersection of the following pairs of curves. 60. r = sin θ + cos θ
and r = 2 sin θ 61. r = a log θ and r = a/ log θ 62. r2 sin 2θ = 4 and r2 =
16 sin 20 63. r = a(1−cos θ) and r = 2a cos θ 64. r = 6 cos θ and r = 2(1+cos θ) 65.
rn = an sec(nθ + α) and rn = bn sec(nθ + β) 66. r = a(1 + cos θ) and r2 = a2 cos 2θ
67. r = aθ/1 + θ and r = a/1 + θ2 68. r = aθ and r = a/θ 60. r = sin θ + cos θ
: r = 2 sin θ ⇒ log r = log(sin θ + cos θ) : log r = log 2 + log(sin θ)
Differentiating these w.r.t θ, we get,
60

dr
ie., 1r dθ cos θ−sin θ 1 dr
= sin θ+cos θ r dθ
= cos θ
sin θ
ie., cot ϕ1 = cot(π/4 + θ) ⇒ ϕ1 = π/4 + θ
∴ |ϕ1 − ϕ2 | = |π/4 + θ − θ| = π/4
cos θ(1−tan θ)
cot ϕ1 = cos θ(1+tan θ)
: cot ϕ2 = cot θ ⇒ ϕ2 = θ
The angle of intersection is π/4
61. r = a log θ : r = a log θ
⇒ log r = log a + log(log θ) : log r = log a − log(log θ)
Differentiating these w.r.t θ, we get,
1 dr 1 1 dr 1
= : =−
r dθ log θ · θ r dθ log θ · θ
1 1
cot ϕ1 = : cot ϕ2 = −
θ log θ θ log θ
Note : we cannot find ϕ1 and ϕ2 explicitly.
∴ tan ϕ1 = θ log θ : tan ϕ2 = −θ log θ
tan ϕ1 −tan ϕ2
Now consider, tan (ϕ1 − ϕ2 ) = 1+tan ϕ1 tan ϕ2
2θ log θ
ie., tan (ϕ1 − ϕ2 ) = 1−(θ log θ)2
We have to find θ by solving the given pair of equations :
r = a log θ and r = a/ log θ.
Equating the R.H.S we have a log θ = loga θ
ie., (log θ)2 = 1 or log θ = 1 ⇒ θ = e
Substituting θ = e in (1) we get,
2e
tan (ϕ1 − ϕ2 ) = (∵ log e = 1)
1 − e2
∴ angle of intersection = ϕ1 − ϕ2 = tan−1 1−e2e
= 2 tan−1 e


2
2 2
62. r sin 2θ = 4 : r = 16 sin 2θ

2 log r + log(sin 2θy) = log 4 : 2 log r = log 16 + log(sin 2θ)

Differentiating these w.r.t θ, we get,
2 dr 2 cos 2θ 2 dr 2 cos 2θ
+ =0 : =
r dθ sin 2θ r dθ sin 2θ
1 dr 1 dr
= − cot 2θ : = cot 2θ
r dθ r dθ
ie., cot ϕ1 = cot(−2θ) : cot ϕ2 = cot 2θ
⇒ ϕ1 = −2θ : ϕ2 = 2θ
∴ |ϕ1 − ϕ2 | = | − 2θ − 2θ| = 4θ
Now consider r2 = sin42θ and r2 = 16 sin 2θ
∴ sin42θ = 16 sin 2θ or 4 sin2 2θ = 1
ie., sin2 2θ = 1/4 or sin 2θ = 1/2 ⇒ 2θ = π/6 ∴ θ = π/12
Substituting θ = π/12 in (1) we get |ϕ1 − ϕ2 | = π/3
∴ angle of intersection = π/3 = 60◦
63. r = a(1 − cos θ) : r = 2a cos θ
Taking logarithms we have,
 61

log r = log a + log(1 − cos θ) : log r = log 2a + log(cos θ)

Differentiating these w.r.t θ, we get,
1 dr sin θ 1 dr − sin θ
= : =
r dθ 1 − cos θ̇ r dθ cos θ
2 sin(θ/2) cos(θ/2)
ie., cot ϕ1 = : cot ϕ2 = − tan θ
2 sin2 (θ/2)
ie., cot ϕ1 = cot(θ/2) : cot ϕ2 = cot(π/2 + θ)
⇒ ϕ1 = θ/2 : ϕ2 = π/2 + θ
∴ |ϕ1 − ϕ2 | = |θ/2 − π/2 − θ| = π/2 + θ/2
Now consider r = a(1 − cos θ) and r = 2a cos θ
∴ a(1 − cos θ) = 2a cos θ
or 3 cos θ = 1 or θ = cos−1 (1/3)
Substituting this value in (1) we get,
the angle of intersection = π/2 + 1/2 · cos−1 (1/3)

64. r = 6 cos θ : r = 2(1 + cos θ)

⇒ log r = log 6 + log(cos θ) : log r = log 2 + log(1 + cos θ)
Differentiating these w.r.t θ, we get,
1 dr
r dθ
= −cos
sin θ
θ
: 1r dθ
dr − sin θ
= 1+cos θ
ie., cot ϕ1 = − tan θ : cot ϕ2 = −2 sin(θ/2) cos(θ/2)
2 cos2 (θ/2)
ie., cot ϕ1 = cot(π/2 + θ) : cot ϕ2 = − tan(θ/2) = cot(
⇒ ϕ1 = π/2 + θ : ϕ2 = π/2 + θ/2
∴ |ϕ1 − ϕ2 | = θ/2
Equating the R.H.S of the given equations we have

6 cos θ = 2(1 + cos θ) or cos θ = 1/2 ⇒ θ = π/3

∴ from(1) |ϕ1 − ϕ2 | = π/6 = 30◦
Hence the angle of intersection = π/6 = 30◦
65. rn = dn sec(nθ + α) : rn = bn sec(nθ + β)
Taking logarithms we have,

n log r = n log a + log sec(nθ + α) : n log r = n log b + log sec(nθ + β)

Differentiating these w.r.t θ, we get,

n dr
r dθ
= n sec(nθ+α) tan(nθ+α)
sec(nθ+α)
: n dr
r dθ
= n sec(nθ+β) tan(nθ+
sec(nθ+β)
1 dr 1 dr
ie., r dθ
= tan(nθ + α) : r dθ
= tan(nθ + β)
ie., cot ϕ1 = cot[π/2 − (nθ + α)] : cot ϕ2 = cot[π/2 − (nθ + β)]
⇒ ϕ1 = π/2 − nθ − α : ϕ2 = π/2 − nθ − β
∴ |ϕ1 − ϕ2 | = | − α + β| = α − β, w
62

Hence the angle of intersection = α − β, where α > β 66. r = a(1 + cos θ) :

r2 = a2 cos 2θ
Taking logarithms we have,

log r = log a + log(1 + cos θ) : 2 log r = 2 log a + log(cos 2θ)

Differentiating these w.r.t θ, we get,

1 dr − sin θ 2 dr −2 sin 2θ
= : =
r dθ 1 + cos θ r dθ cos 2θ
ie., cot ϕ1 = −2 sin(θ/2) cos(θ/2)
2 cos2 (θ/2)
: cot ϕ2 = − tan 2θ
ie., cot ϕ1 = − tan(θ/2) : cot ϕ2 = cot(π/2 + 2θ)
ie., cot ϕ1 = cot(π/2 + θ/2) :⇒ ϕ2 = π/2 + 2θ
⇒ ϕ1 = π/2 + θ/2
∴ |ϕ1 − ϕ2 | = |π/2 + θ/2 − π/2 − 2θ| = 3θ/2
Now, squaring the first of the given equations and then equating the R.H.S of the
two equations we have

a2 (1 + cos θ)2 = a2 cos 2θ

ie., 1 + 2 cos θ + cos2 θ = 2 cos2 θ − 1
or cos2 θ − 2 cos θ − 2 =√0
√
2± 4+8 2±2 3
√
∴ cos θ = 2
= 2
= 1 ± 3
Since cos θ cannot exceed 1 numerically we have to take
√ √
cos θ = 1 − 3 ⇒ θ = cos−1 (1 − 3)
Otherwise we can also have,
√ √ p
1 − 2 sin2 (θ/2) = 1 − 3 or sin2 (θ/2) = 3/2 = 3/4
p
ie., sin(θ/2) = ( 3/4)1/2 = (3/4)1/4
∴ θ/2 = sin−1 (3/4)1/4
Substituting this value in (1) we get,
the angle of intersection = 3 sin−1 (3/4)1/4 67. r = aθ/1 + θ : r = a/1 + θ2
Taking logarithms we have,

log r = log a − log 1 + θ2

log r = log a + log θ − log(1 + θ) :
Differentiating these w.r.t θ, we get,

1 dr 1 1 1 dr −2θ
= − : =
r dθ θ 1+θ r dθ 1 + θ2
1 −2θ
ie., cot ϕ1 = : cot ϕ2 =
θ(1 + θ) 1 + θ2
1 + θ2
⇒ tan ϕ1 = θ + θ2 : tan ϕ2 =
−2θ
 63

Also by equating the R.H.S of the given equations we have,

aθ a
=
1+θ 1 + θ2
or θ + θ3 = 1 + θ or θ3 = 1 ⇒ θ = 1
∴ tan ϕ1 = 2 and tan ϕ2 = −1 at θ = 1
tan ϕ1 −tan ϕ2
Consider, tan (ϕ1 − ϕ2 ) = 1+tan ϕ1 tan ϕ2
2−(−1)
∴ tan (ϕ1 − ϕ2 ) = 1+(−2) = −3
Taking the absolute value, the angle of intersection = tan−1 (3)
68. r = aθ : r = a/θ
⇒ log r = log a + log θ : log r = log a − log θ
Differentiating these w.r.t θ, we get,

1 dr 1
=
r dθ θ
1 dr 1
=−
r dθ θ
1
cot ϕ2 = −
θ
tan ϕ2 = −θ
1
ie., cot ϕ1 =
θ
or tan ϕ1 = θ
Also by equating the R.H.S of the given equations we have

aθ = a/θ or θ2 = 1 ⇒ θ = ±1
When θ = 1, tan ϕ1 = 1, tan ϕ2 = −1 and
when θ = −1, tan ϕ1 = −1, tan ϕ2 = 1.
∴ tan ϕ1 · tan ϕ2 = −1 ⇒ ϕ1 − ϕ2 = π/2
The curves intersect at right angles.
69. Find the angles made by the tangent and the normal at any point P (r, θ) on
the curve r2 = a2 cos 2θ with the initial line.
≫ We have r2 = a2 cos 2θ
⇒ 2 log r = 2 log a + log(cos 2θ)
Differentiating w.r.t θ, we have,

2 dr −2 sin 2θ 1 dr
= or = − tan 2θ
r dθ cos 2θ r dθ
ie., cot ϕ = cot(π/2 + 2θ) ⇒ ϕ = π/2 + 2θ
If ψ is the angle made by the tangent with the initial line, ψ − (π/2) will be the
angle made by the normal with the initial line.
We know that ψ = ϕ + θ = (π/2 + 2θ) + θ = π/2 + 3θ
Hence ψ = π/2 + 3θ ⇒ ψ − (π/2) = 30
64

Thus (π/2) + 3θ and 3θ are respectively the angles made by the tangent and the
normal with the initial line.
70. Show that the tangents to the cardioide r = a(1 + cos θ) at the points θ = π/3
and θ = 2π/3 are respectively parallel and perpendicular to the initial line.

≫ We have r = a(1 + cos θ)

⇒ log r = log a + log(1 + cos θ)
Differentiating w.r.t θ, we have,

1 dr − sin θ −2 sin(θ/2) cos(θ/2)

= = = − tan(θ/2)
r dθ 1 + cos θ 2 cos2 (θ/2)
ie., cot ϕ = cot(π/2 + θ/2) ⇒ ϕ = π/2 + θ/2
If ψ is the angle made by the tangent with the initial line then,

ψ = ϕ + θ = π/2 + 3θ/2
θ = π/3 : ψ = π/2 + π/2 = π = 180◦

At θ = 2π/3 : ψ = π/2 + π = 3π/2 = 270◦

∴ slope of the tangents tan ψ are respectively 0 and ∞
Hence we conclude that the tangents to the given curve at θ = π/3 and
θ = 2π/3 are respectively parallel and perpendicular to the initial line.
71. For a given curve in the cartesian form prove that
xy ′ −y
tan ϕ = x+yy ′

≫ We have with usual notations ψ = θ + ϕ

∴ ϕ = ψ − θ ⇒ tan ϕ = tan(ψ − θ)
tan ψ−tan θ
or tan ϕ = 1+tan ψ tan θ
dy
We also have tan ψ = dx = y ′ and
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ gives tan θ = (y/x)
Substituting these in (1) we get,
y ′ −(y/x) xy ′ −y
tan ϕ = 1+y ′ (y/x) = x+yy ′

xy ′ −y
Thus tan ϕ = x+yy ′

.17 Pedal equation of a polar curve

In the context of deriving an expression for the length of the perpendicular (p) from
the pole to the tangent we obtained the expression in the form p = r sin ϕ.
The equation of the given curve r = f (θ) expressed in terms of p and r is called
as the pedal equation or p − r equation of the curve r = f (θ).
Remark: Many equations of the standard cartesian curves y = f (x) are expressible
in the parametric form x = f1 (t), y = f2 (t). Eliminating t we get y = f (x). We have
a similar concept in respect of r = f (θ).
 65

.18 Working procedure for finding the pedal equa-

tion of a polar curve
9 Given r = f (θ) we first obtain ϕ.
- We substitute ϕ (usually a function of θ ) into the equation p = r sin ϕ so that
this equation assumes the form p = rg(θ)
OWe need to eliminate θ between the equations:

r = f (θ)
p = rg(θ)
This will give us an equation in p and r being the required pedal equation.
It may be noted that if we are unable to obtain ϕ explicitly in terms of θ, we have
to sqaure and take the reciprocal of p = r sin ϕ.
This will give us :
1 1 1 1 
= 2 cosec2 ϕ = 2 1 + cot2 ϕ

2
or 2
p r p r
Wesubstitutefor cot ϕ itself in terms of θ. Elimination of θ by using the given
equation will give us the pedal equation.
Find the pedal equation of the following curves. 72. 2i/r = (1 + cos θ) 74.
r = a2 sec 2θ 76. rm = am (cos mθ + sin mθ) 78. 1/r = 1 + e cos θ 72. 2a
2
r
= 1 + cos θ
⇒ log 2a − log r = log(1 + cos θ)
73. r(1 − cos θ) = 2a
75. rn = an cos nθ
77. r = 2(1 + cos θ)
79. rn = an sec hnθ
Differentiating w.r.t θ, we get,

1 dr − sin θ −2 sin(θ/2) cos(θ/2)

− = = = − tan(θ/2)
r dθ 1 + cos θ 2 cos2 (θ/2)
ie., cot ϕ = cot(π/2 − θ/2) ⇒ ϕ = π/2 − θ/2
Consider p = r sin ϕ and substituting the value of ϕ we have

p = r sin(π/2 − θ/2) = r cos(θ/2)

2a
Now we have r
= 1 + cos θ

p = r cos(θ/2)
We have to eliminate θ from (1) and (2)
(It will be convenient for elimination if we can have similar functions of θ in the
R.H.S of the two equations )
(1) can be put in the form 2a r
= 2 cos2 (θ/2) or ar = cos2 (θ/2)

2 2
Also from (2), pr = cos(θ/2) Hence we get, ar = pr or ar = pr2 or p2 = ar
Thus p2 = ar is the required pedal equation.
66

73. r(1 − cos θ) = 2a

⇒ log r + log(1 − cos θ) = log 2a
Differentiating w.r.t θ, we get,
1 dr sin θ 1 dr − sin θ
+ = 0 or =
r dθ 1 − cos θ r dθ 1 − cos θ
−2 sin(θ/2) cos(θ/2)
cot ϕ = = − cot(θ/2)
2 sin2 (θ/2)
cot ϕ = cot(−θ/2) ⇒ ϕ = −(θ/2)
Consider p = r sin ϕ

∴ p = r sin(−θ/2) or p = −r sin(θ/2)
Now we have, r(1 − cos θ) = 2a

p = −r sin(θ/2)
We have to eliminate θ from (1) and (2).
(1) can be put in the form r · 2 sin2 (θ/2) = 2a
ie., r sin2 (θ/2) = a.
But p/−  r = sin(θ/2), from (2).
p2
∴ r r2 = a or p2 = ar
Thus p2 = ar is the required pedal equation.
74. r2 = a2 sec 2θ
⇒ 2 log r = 2 log a + log(sec 2θ)
Differentiating w.r.t θ, we get,
2 dr 2 sec 2θ tan 2θ 1 dr
= ie., = tan 2θ
r dθ sec 2θ r dθ
ie., cot ϕ = cot(π/2 − 2θ) ⇒ ϕ = π/2 − 2θ
Consider p = r sin ϕ ∴ p = r sin(π/2 − 2θ) ie., p = r cos 2θ Now we have, r2 =
a2 sec 2θ

p = r cos 2θ
From (2), p/r = cos 2θ or r/p = sec 2θ
Substituting in (1) we get, r2 = a2 (r/p) or pr = a2
Thus pr = a2 is the required pedal equation.
75. rn = dn cos nθ
⇒ n log r = n log a + log(cos nθ).
Differentiating w.r.t θ, we get,
n dr −n sin nθ 1 dr
= ie., = − tan nθ
r dθ cos nθ r dθ
cot ϕ = cot(π/2 + nθ) ⇒ ϕ = π/2 + nθ
Consider p = r sin ϕ
 67

∴ p = r sin(π/2 + nθ) ie., p = r cos nθ

Now we have, rn = an cos nθ

p = r cos nθ
∴ (1) as a consequence of (2) is rn = an (p/r)
Thus rn+1 = pan is the required pedal equation.
76. rm = am (cos mθ + sin mθ)
⇒ m log r = m log a + log(cos mθ + sin mθ)
Differentiating w.r.t θ, we get,

m dr −m sin mθ + m cos mθ
=
r dθ cos mθ + sin mθ
cos mθ(1−tan mθ)
ie., 1r dθ
dr
= cos mθ−sin mθ
cos mθ+sin mθ
= cos mθ(1+tan mθ)
∴ cot ϕ = cot(π/4 + mθ) ⇒ ϕ = π/4 + mθ
Consider p = r sin ϕ
∴ p = r sin(π/4 + mθ)
ie., p = r[sin(π/4) cos mθ + cos(π/4) sin mθ] ie., p = √r2 (cos mθ + sin mθ)
√(We have used the formula of sin(A+B) and also the values sin(π/4) = cos(π/4) =
1/ 2)
Now we have, rm = am (cos mθ + sin mθ)
r
p = √ (cos mθ + sin mθ)
2
Using (2) in (1) we get,
√
m p 2
m
√
r =a · or rm+1 = 2am p
r
√
Thus rm+1 = 2am p is the required pedal equation.
77. r = 2(1 + cos θ)
⇒ log r = log 2 + log(1 + cos θ)
Differentiating w.r.t θ, we get,

1 dr − sin θ −2 sin(θ/2) cos(θ/2)

= = = − tan(θ/2)
r dθ 1 + cos θ 2 cos2 (θ/2)
∴ cot ϕ = cot(π/2 + θ/2) ⇒ ϕ = π/2 + θ/2
Consider p = r sin ϕ
∴ p = r sin(π/2 + θ/2) = r cos(θ/2)
Now we have, r = 2(1 + cos θ)

p = r cos(θ/2)
(1) can be put in the form r = 2 · 2 cos2 (θ/2)
ie., r = 4 cos2 (θ/2)
From (2), p/r = cos(θ/2) and hence (1) becomes,
68

r = 4 · p2 /r2 or r3 = 4p2

Thus r3 = 4p2 is the required pedal equation.

78. l/r = 1 + e cos θ
⇒ log l − log r = log(1 + e cos θ)
Differentiating w.r.t θ, we get,

1 dr −e sin θ
− =
r dθ 1 + e cos θ
e sin θ
ie., cot ϕ = We cannot find ϕ explicitly.
1 + e cos θ
Consider p = r sin ϕ
By squaring and taking the reciprocal we have,
1 1 2 1 1 2


= cosec ϕ or = 1 + cot ϕ
p2 r2 p2 r2
Substituting for cot ϕ itself we have

e2 sin2 θ
 
1 1
= 2 1+
p2 r (1 + e cos θ)2
Also we have rl = 1 + e cos θ
We need to eliminate θ from (1) and (2).
From (2) rl − 1 = e cos θ
Also e2 sin2 θ = e2 (1 − cos2 θ) = e2 − e2 cos2 θ

2
By using (3) we have e2 sin2 θ = e2 − rl − 1
Now substituting (3) and (4) in (1) we have,
(
2 )
1 1 e2 − rl − 1
= 2 1+
p2 r (l2 /r2 )
(  2 )
1 1 1 2 l
= 2+ 2 e − −1
p2 r l r
l2

1 1 1 2 2l
2
= 2
+ 2
e − 2
+ −1
p r l r r
2
1 1 e 1 2 1
2
= 2+ 2 − 2+ − 2
p r l r lr l
2
Thus p12 = e l−1
2 + lr2 is the required pedal equation. 79. rn = an sech nθ
⇒ n log r = n log a + log(sech nθ)
Differentiating w.r.t θ, we get,

n dr −n sech nθ tanh nθ
=
r dθ sech nθ
1 dr
ie., r dθ
= −n tan hnθ
 69

∴ cot ϕ = − tan hnθ and ϕ cannot be found explicitly.

Consider p = r sin ϕ. Squaring and taking the reciprocal, we get

1 1 2 1 1
= cosec ϕ or = (1+
p2 r2 p2 r2
1 1
= 2 1 + tan h2 nθ


p 2 r
Also we have, rn = an sech nθ
n
∴ ar n = sech nθ and we have 1 − tanh h2 nθ = sech2 nθ
n
2
∴ tan h2 nθ = 1 − sech2 nθ = 1 − ar n
Substituting this expression in the R.H.S of (1) we get,

r2n
 
1 1
= 2 2 − 2n being the required pedal equation.
p2 r a
80. For the equiangular spiral r = aeθ cot α , a and α are constants show that the
tangent is inclined at a constant angle with the radius vector and hence find the pedal
equation of the curve.
≫ We have r = aeθ cot α
⇒ log r = log a + θ cot α log e But log e = 1
∴ log r = log a + cot α · θ
Differentiating w.r.t θ, we get,

1 dr
= cot α · 1
r dθ
ie., cot ϕ = cot α ⇒ ϕ = α = constant
∴ the tangent is inclined at a constant angle with the radius vector.
Consider p = r sin ϕ. But ϕ = α
∴ p = r sin α. This is independent of θ.
Hence p = r sin α is the required pedal
√ equation.
√
81. Show that for the curve r cos a2 − b2 /a θ = a2 − b2 , p2 (r2 + b2 ) = a2 r2
√
√
≫ We have r cos a2 − b2 /a θ = a2 − b2
√
For convenience let a2 − b2 /a = k, a constant.
We now have r cos kθ = ka
⇒ log r + log(cos kθ) = log(ka).
Differentiating w.r.t θ, we get,

1 dr −k sin kθ
+ =0
r dθ cos kθ
ie., cot ϕ = k tan kθ. We cannot find ϕ explicitly.
Consider p = r sin ϕ.
Squaring and taking the reciprocal, we have

1 1 1 1
= 2 cosec2 ϕ 2


2
or = 1 + cot ϕ
p r p2 r2
70

ie., p12 = r12 (1 + k 2 tan2 kθ)

But r cos kθ = ka
We need to eliminate θ from (1) and (2).
From (2), cos kθ = ka r
r
⇒ sec kθ = ka
2
Now tan2 kθ = sec2 kθ − 1 = kr2 a2 − 1
Substituting this expression in (1) we get,
  2 
1 1 2 r
= 2 1+k −1
p2 r k 2 a2
n 2
o 2 2
ie., p12 = r12 1 + ar 2 − k 2 But k 2 = a a−b
2
n o
1 1 r2 a2 −b2
∴ p2 = r2 1 + a2 − a2
n 2 2 2 2o
ie., p2 = r2 a +r a−a
1 1
2
+b

2 2
ie., p12 = rr2+b
a2
Thus p (r + b2 ) = a2 r2 as required.
2 2
√
82. Find the value of ϕ for the curve aθ = r2 − a2 − a cos−1 (a/r)
Note : Observing the complexity of the given equation we do not venture to take
logarithms. √
≫ We have aθ = r2 − a2 − a cos−1 (a/r)
Differentiating w.r.t θ on both sides keeping in mind that r is a function of θ we
obtain

1 dr 1 a dr
a= √ · 2r − a · − p ·− 2
2 r 2 − a2 dθ 1 − (a2 /r2 ) r dθ
2
ie., a= √ r · dr − ar2 √r2r−a2 dθ
dr
r2 −a2 dθ 
√ r dr a2
ie., a = 2
r −a 2 · dθ
1 − r2
 2 2

ie., a= √ r · dr r r−a
r2 −a2 dθ 2
√ √
2 2 dr 2 2
ie., a = r r−a dθ or r dθ dr
= r a−a
√ √ 
2 2 r2 −a2
ie., tan ϕ = r a−a ∴ ϕ = tan−1 a
83. Establish the pedal equation of the curve
rn = an sin nθ + bn cos nθ in the form p2 (a2n + b2n ) = r2n+2
≫ We have rn = an sin nθ + bn cos nθ
⇒ n log r = log (an sin nθ + bn cos nθ) Differentiating w.r.t θ, we get

n dr nan cos nθ − nbn sin nθ

= n
r dθ a sin nθ + bn cos nθ
n n
Dividing by n, cot ϕ = aan sin
cos nθ−b sin nθ
nθ+bn cos nθ
Consider p = r sin ϕ
Since ϕ cannot be found, squaring and taking the reciprocal we get,
 71

1 1 1 1
= 2 cosec2 ϕ or 2 = 2 1 + cot2 ϕ


p 2 r p r
( )
1 1 (an cos nθ − bn sin nθ)2
∴ = 2 1+
p2 r (an sin nθ + bn cos nθ)2
(
1 1 (an sin nθ + bn cos nθ)2 + (an cos nθ − bn sin nθ)2
ie., = 2
p2 r (an sin nθ + bn cos nθ)2
(
)
1 a2n sin2 nθ + cos2 nθ + b2n cos2 nθ + sin2 nθ


1
ie., = 2
p2 r (an sin nθ + bn cos nθ)2
(Product terms cancels out in the numerator)
2n +b2n
ie., p12 = r12 · (an sinanθ+b n cos nθ)2

1 1 a2n +b2n
or p2
= r2
· (rn )2
, by using the given equation.
Thus p (a + b ) = r2n+2 is the required pedal equation.
2 2n 2n

84. Find the length of the perpendicular from the pole to the tangent at the point
(a, π/2) on the curve r = a(1 − cos θ)
≫ We have r = a(1 − cos θ)
⇒ log r = log a + log(1 − cos θ)
Differentiating w.r.t θ, we get,

1 dr sin θ 2 sin(θ/2) cos(θ/2)

= = = cot(θ/2)
r dθ 1 − cos θ 2 sin2 (θ/2)
ie., cot ϕ = cot(θ/2) ⇒ ϕ = θ/2
Length of the perpendicular p = r sin ϕ ie., p = r sin(θ/2)
Substituting√ (r, θ) = (a, π/2) we get p = a sin(π/4)
Thus p = a/ 2
85. Determine the length of the perpendicular from the pole to the tangent at the
point
θ = π/3 on the curve r = a sec2 (θ/2)
≫ We have r = a sec2 (θ/2)
⇒ log r = log a + 2 log sec(θ/2)
Differentiating w.r.t θ, we get,

1 dr 2 · sec(θ/2) tan(θ/2) · 1/2

= = tan(θ/2)
r dθ sec(θ/2)
∴ cot ϕ = cot(π/2 − θ/2) ⇒ ϕ = π/2 − θ/2
Length of the perpendicular p = r sin ϕ
ie., p = r sin(π/2 − θ/2) or p = r cos(θ/2)
2
We have at θ = π/3, r = a sec
√
(π/6) = 4a/3
3
∴ p = 3 cos(π/6) = 3 · 2 = √2a3
4a 4a
√
Hence the length of the perpendicular p = 2a/ 3
72

.19 EXERCISES
Find the angle between the radius vector and the tangent for the following curves. 1.
r sec2 (θ/2) = 2a 2. r = a cosec2 (θ/2) 3. r2 = a2 (cos 2θ + sin 2θ) 4. rn cosec nθ = an
Find the slopes of the tangents for the following curves at the indicated points. 5.
r2 = a2 sin 2θ at θ = π/12 6. r cosec 2θ = a at θ = π/4 7. r = a sin 3θ at the pole 8.
r sec2 (θ/2) = 4 at θ = π/2
Show that the following pairs of curves intersect each other orthogonally.
9. r sec2 (θ/2) = a and r cosec2 (θ/2) = b
10. rn cos nθ = an and rn sin nθ = bn 11. 2a/r = 1+cos θ and 2a/r = 1−cos θ
12. r2 = a2 cos 2θ and r2 = a2 sin 2θ
Find the angle of intersection for the following pairs of curves.
13. r = a cos θ and r = a/2
14. rn = an (sin nθ + cos nθ) and rn = an sin nθ
15. r2 cos(2θ + α) = a2 and r2 cos(2θ + β) = b2
16. r2 = a2 cos 2θ + b2 and r = b
Obtain the pedal equation of the following curves.
17. r2 cos 2θ = a2 18. r = 2a/1 + cos θ
19. r = a sech nθ 20. r = a + b cos θ
21. r2 = a2 sin 2θ + b2 cos 2θ 22. r = a sin 3θ
23. rn sec nθ = an
24. Show that for the curve r sin2 (θ/2) = a the length of the perpendicular
√ from
the pole to the tangent at the point (2aπ/2) on the curve is equal to a 2.
25. Show that the length of the perpendicular from the √ pole to the tangent at the
2 2
point θ = π/6 on the curve r cos 2θ = a is equal to a/ 2.

.20 ANSWERS
1. π/2 + θ/2 2. −θ/2 3. π/4 + 2θ
4. nθ 5. 1 6. −1
7. 0 8. 1 13. π/3
14. π/4
15. α − β 16. tan−1 (a2 /b2 )
17. pr = a2
18. p2 = ar
2 2
19. p12 = n r+1
2 − na2
20. p2 [2ar + b2 − a2 ] = r4
21. r6 = p2 (a4 + b4 )
22. p2 (9a2 − 8r2 ) = r4
23. pan = rn+1
 73

.21 2.3 Derivative of Arc length

.21.1 Introduction
An arc of a curve is a part of it and we are familiar with the various form of curves:
Cartesian form [y = f (x)], Parametric form [x = x(t), y = y(t)], Polar form [r = f (θ)],
pedal form [f (r, p) = c]. Length of an arc of a curve is usually denoted by ’ s ’ and
several results connected with the derivative of arc length ’ s ’ can be established from
the basic definition. We assume these well established results as it is an essential pre-
requisite for the study of the following topic called Radius of Curvature.

.21.2 Formulae connected with the derivative of arc length.

q
dy 2
ds
(ii) sin ψ = dy (iii) cos ψ = dx


1. Cartesian curve: y = f (x) (i) dx
= 1+ dx ds ds
(iv)
dy
tan ψ = dx
ψ being the angle made by the tangent at P (x, y) on the curve with the X-axis.
2. Parametric curve : x = x(t), y = y(t)
s 
2  2
ds dx dy
= +
dt dt dt
q
ds dr 2
(ii) sin ϕ = r dθ (iii) cos ϕ = dr


3. Polar curve: r = f (θ) (i) dθ = r2 + dθ ds ds
ϕ being the angle made by the radius vector and the tangent at P (r, θ) on the
polar curve r = f (θ).

.21.3 Radius of curvature

.21.4 Introduction
If we traverse in a ghat section (hilly region) where the road is not straight, we often
see caution boards ”sharp bend ahead”, ”hairpin bend ahead” etc. which gives an
indication of the difference in the amount of bending of a road at various points which
is nothing but curvature at various points and we discuss the same in a mathematical
way. This aspect is discussed for cartesian, parametric, polar and pedal form of
curves.

.21.5 Curvature and Radius of Curvature

.22 Definition
Consider a curve in the XOY plane and let A be a fixed point on it. Let P and Q be
two neighbouring points on the curve such that,
PQ
ˆ = s and AQ
AP ˆ = s + δs so that ∩ = δs.
74

Let ψ and ψ + δψ respectively be the angles ψψ+δψO

made by the tangents at P
and Q with the X-axis.
The angle δψ between the tangents is called the bending of the curve which de-
pends on δs.δψ/δs is called as the mean curvature of the arc P Q. Also the amount of
bending of the curve at P is called as the curvature of the curve at P and is defined
mathematically as

δψ dψ
lim = be denoted by K
δs→0 δs ds
(Q→P )

ie., Curvature = K = dψ ds
. Further if K ̸= 0, the reciprocal of the curvature is
called as the radius of curvature and is denoted by ρ.
ie., Radius of curvature = ρ = K1 = dψds

.23 Note :
1. As it is obvious that ψ depends on s, the relationship between these is called as
the intrinsic equation and (s, ψ) are called the intrinsic coordinates of the point P
2. We always take the sign of K and ρ to be positive.
Remark: Curvature being the amount of bending is obviously zero for a straight
line at all the points on it. It is easy to visualize that the circle has an uniform
bending and hence the curvature of a circle is a constant which will be established
mathematically.

.24 A Question Format : Define curvature and

prove that the curvature of a circle is a con-
stant.
at P with the X-axis at the point B (interior angle being π − ψ ). Clearly CA =
CP = r = radius.
We have from the quadrilateral CABP, Ĉ + Â + B̂ + P̂ = 2π
ie., Ĉ + π/2 + (π − ψ) + π/2 = 2π ∴ ACPˆ =ψ
We have a known result

s dψ 1
s = rψ or ψ= ∴ = = constant.
r ds r
Thus the curvature K = 1/r = constant.
This proves that the curvature of a circle at any point on it is a constant and is
equal to the reciprocal of the radius.
We now proceed to derive expressions for the radius of curvature in respect of
cartesian, parametric, polar and pedal form of curves.
2.43 An expression for the radius of curvature in the case of a cartesian curve
 75

Let y = f (x) be the equation of the cartesian curve and A be a fixed point on it.
Let P (x, y) be a point on the curve such that AP = s. Let ψ be the angle made by
the tangent at P with the x-axis.
dy
Then we know that tan ψ = dx
Differentiating w.r.t s we have,
 
d d dy
(tan ψ) =
ds ds dx
ie., sec2 ψ dψ d dy dx


ds
= dx dx ds
But dx
ds
= cos ψ and by the definition dψ
ds
= ρ1
1 d2 y d y 2
∴ sec2 ψ · ρ
=
dx2
cos ψ or sec3 ψ = ρ dx2
d 2y
Hence ρ = sec3 ψ/ dx2
n o3/2
dy 2


(sec2 ψ)
3/2
(1 + tan2 ψ)
3/2 1+ dx
ie., ρ = d2 y
= d2 y
= d2 y
dx2 dx2 dx2
dy d2 y
Denoting y1 = dx
and y2 = dx2
we have,
3/2
(1 + y12 )
ρ=
y2
Note : Sometimes y1 at some point on the curve becomes infinity (ie., when the
tangent is perpendicular to the x-axis, tan ψ = tan 90◦ = ∞) in which case we cannot
apply the formula for ρ in the above form. In such a case we have to use the formula
in the alternative form,
3/2
(1 + x21 ) dx d2 x
ρ= where x1 = and x2 = 2
x2 dy dy
2.44 An expression for the radius of curvature in the case of a parametric curve
x = x(t), y = y(t)
[Note: The expression for ρ in the case of y = f (x) has to be established first.]
We have for a cartesian curve y = f (x),
3/2
(1 + y12 )
ρ=
y2
We shall express y1 and y2 in terms of the parameter t.

dy dy dx y′ dy dx
y1 = = = ′ where y ′ = , x′ =
dx dt dt  x  ′ dt dt
2
dy d dy d y dt x y − y ′ x′′ 1
′ ′′
y2 = 2 = = = · ′
dx dx dx dt x′ dx (x′ )2 x
′ ′′ ′ ′′ 2 2
xy −yx dy dx
y2 = 3 where y ′′ = 2 and x′′ = 2
(x′ ) dt dt
76

Substituting in (1) we get,

3/2
1 + (y ′ /x′ )2

3
ρ= · (x′ )
x′ y ′′ − y ′ x′′
 ′ 2 3/2
(x ) + (y ′ )2 3
= 3/2
· (x′ )
2
(x′ ) · (x′ y ′′ − y ′ x′′ )
 ′ 2 3/2
(x ) + (y ′ )2 3
= 3 · (x′ )
′ ′ ′′
(x ) (x y − y x ) ′ ′′
 ′ 2 3/2
(x ) + (y ′ )2
ρ=
x′ y ′′ − y ′ x′′
In an alternative notation with the same meaning the above expression is also put
in the form
3/2
{(ẋ)2 + (ẏ)2 }
ρ=
ẋÿ − ẏẍ
Note for problems
We prefer to use the cartesian formula itselffor finding ρ in the case of parametric
curves also as the work will be relatively easy.

.25 WORKED PROBLEMS

86. Find the radius of curvature for the curve whose intrinsic equation is s =
a log tan(π/4 + ψ/2)
ds
≫ s = a log tan(π/4 + ψ/2) and we have ρ = dψ
Differentiating w.r.t ψ we have,

ds 1 1
=a· · sec2 (π/4 + ψ/2) ·
dψ tan(π/4 + ψ/2) 2
a cos(π/4 + ψ/2) 1
= · · 2
2 sin(π/4 + ψ/2) cos (π/4 + ψ/2)
a
= But 2 sin θ cos θ = sin 2θ
2 sin(π/4 + ψ/2) cos(π/4 + ψ/2)
ds a a a
= = = = a sec ψ
dψ sin[2(π/4 + ψ/2)] sin(π/2 + ψ) cos ψ
Thus ρ = a sec ψ 87. Show that the radius of curvature for the catenary of uniform
strength y = a log sec(x/a) is a sec(x/a)
3/2
(1+y12 )
→ We have ρ = y2
Consider y = a log sec(x/a)
dy a
∴ dx = y1 = sec(x/a) · sec(x/a) tan(x/a) · a1
ie., y1 = tan(x/a). Also y2 = a1 sec2 (x/a)
 77

3/2 3/2
[1+tan2 (x/a)] ·a a[sec2 (x/a)]
Hence ρ = sec2 (x/a)
= sec2 (x/a)
a sec3 (x/a)
ie., ρ = sec2 (x/a)
= a sec(x/a)
Thus ρ = a sec(x/a)
88. Show that for the catenary y = c cosh(x/c) the radius of curvature is equal
to y 2 /c which is also equal to the length of the normal intercepted between the curve
and the x-axis. 3/2
(1+y12 )
≫ We have ρ = y2
y = c cosh(x/c) by data
∴ y1 = c · sinh(x/c) · 1c = sinh(x/c); y2 = 1c cosh(x/c)
3/2 3/2
[1+sinh2 (x/c)] c c[cosh2 (x/c)]
Hence ρ = cosh(x/c)
= cosh(x/c)
3
ie., ρ = c cosh(x/c)
cosh (x/c)
= c cosh2 (x/c)
But y/c = cosh(x/c) and hence ρ = c · (y 2 /c2 ) = y 2 /c
p
Also we know that q the length of the normal (l) is y 1 + y12
∴ l = c cosh(x/c) 1 + sinh2 (x/c) = c cosh2 (x/c) = y 2 /c
This proves the required √result 89. Find the radius of curvature for the curve
1
y = ax2 + bx + c at x = 2a a2 − 1 − b
≫ y = ax2 + bx + c, by data.
∴ y1 = 2ax + b, y2 = 2a √
1
√ 
At the given point, y1 = 2a · 2a a2 − 1 − b + b = a2 − 1 and y2 = 2a itself.
3/2
(1+y12 )
We have, ρ = y2

3/2 3/2
[1 + (a2 − 1)] (a2 ) a2
= = =
2a 2a 2
Thus ρ = a2 /2
90. Find the radius of curvature for the Folium of De-Cartes x3 + y 3 = 3 axy at
the point (3a/2, 3a/2) on it.
≫ x3 + y 3 = 3axy, by data.
Differentiating w.r.t. x we have
 
2 2 dy dy
3x + 3y = 3a x + y
dx dx
dy dy ay−x2
ie., 3 (y 2 − ax) dx = 3 (ay − x2 ) ∴ dx
= y1 = y 2 −ax
2
3a /2−9a /4 2
At (3a/2, 3a/2), y1 = 9a 2 /4−3a2 /2 = −1

d2 y (y −ax)(ay1 −2x)−(ay−x2 )(2yy1 −a)

2
Next dx 2 = y 2 = (y 2 −ax)2
At (3a/2, 3a/2) we note that, y 2 − ax = 9a2 /4 − 3a2 /2 = 3a2 /4 and ay − x2 =
3a2 /2 − 9a2 /4 = −3a2 /4.
Hence at (3a/2, 3a/2),

(3a2 /4) (−a − 3a) − (−3a2 /4) (−3a − a)

y2 =
(3a2 /4)2
78

3/2
−3a3 −3a3 16(−6a3 ) (1+y12 )
ie., y2 = 9a4 /16
= 9a4 = −32 3a
We have ρ= y2
3/2 √ √
(1+1)
Hence ρ = −32/3a
= 2 −32
2·3a
= −3162a = 8−3a
√
√ 2
Thus |ρ| = 3a/8 2
2
91. Find the radius of curvature for the curve y 2 = 4a (2a−x)
x
where the curve
meets the x-axis.
≫ If the curve meets the x-axis then y = 0.
2
∴ 4a (2a−x)
x
= 0 ⇒ 4a2 (2a − x) = 0 ∴ x = 2a
Thus (2a, 0) is the point on the curve at which we have to find ρ.
The given equation can be put in the form

8a3
y2 = − 4a2
x
3 3
Differentiating w.r.t. x we have 2yy1 = − 8a
x2
or y1 = −4ax2 y
At (2a, 0)y1 becomes infinity and hence we have to consider dx/dy.
2y
Let x1 = dx
dy
= −x
4a3
and x1 = 0 at (2a, 0)
2 −1
Now x2 = ddyx2 = 4a 2
3 [x · 1 + y · 2xx1 ]

∴ at (2a, 0) : x2 = −4a2 /4a3 = −1/a

3/2
(1+x21 )
We have ρ = x2

(1 + 0)3/2
= = −a
−1/a
Thus |ρ| = a
92. Find the radius of curvature for the curve x2 y = a (x2 + y 2 ) at the point
(−2a, 2a).
≫ Consider x2 y = a (x2 + y 2 ) and differentiate w.r.t. x
∴ x2 y1 + 2xy = 2ax + 2ayy1 ie., y1 (x2 − 2ay) = 2ax − 2xy
or y1 = 2ax−2xy
x2 −2ay
; At (−2a, 2a), y1 is infinity.
dx x2 −2ay
Hence x1 = dy
= y11 = 2ax−2xy and at (−2a, 2a) we have x1 = 0
d2 x (2ax−2xy)(2xx1 −2a)−(x2 −2ay )(2ax1 −2x−2x1 y)
Also dy2 = (2ax−2xy)2
We note that at (−2a, 2a)

(2ax − 2xy) = 4a2 and x2 − 2ay

(4a2 ) (−2a) −
(x2 )(−2a,2a) = =
16a4 2
2 3/2
(1 + x1 )
ρ=
x2
3/2
(1)
= = −2a
−1/2a
3/2
(1 + x21 )
We have, ρ =
x2
 79

Thus |ρ| = 2a √ √
93. Find the radius of curva ure of the curve x + y = 4 at the point where it
cuts the line passing through the origm making an angle 45◦ with the x-axis.
≫ The equation of the√ line√is y = x and we shall find the point of intersection of
this line with the curve x + y = 4.
This equation when y = x becomes,
√ √ √ √
x+ x = 4 or 2 x = 4 or x = 2 or x = 4
∴ the point
√ of√intersection is (4, 4)
Consider x + y = 4 and differentiate w.r.t. x
∴ 2√1 x + 2√1 y y1 = 0 or √y1y = √ −1
x
√ √
ie., y1 = − y/ x. At (4, 4) we get y1 = −1
√ √ √ √
d2 y x(−1/2 y·y1 )−(− y)(1/2 x) 1/2+1/2 1
Now y2 = dx 2 = x
∴ at (4, 4), y2 = 4
= 4
3/2
(1+y1 )
2
We have, ρ = y2

(2)3/2 √ √
= =4·2 2=8 2
1/4
√
Thus ρ = 8 2
94. For the curve y = ax/a + x, show that (2ρ/a)2/3 = (x/y)2 + (y/x)2
ax
≫ y = a+x , by data.
(a+x)a−ax·1 a2
∴ y1 = (a+x)2 = (a+x) 2
−2a2
Also y2 = (a+x)3
3/2
(1+y12 )
We have ρ = y2
i3/2
a4
h
1+ 4 ·(a+x)3
(a+x)
Hence ρ = −2a 2

3/2
[(a + x)4 + a4 ] · (a + x)3
=
−2a2 {(a + x)4 }3/2
3/2
[(a + x)4 + a4 ] · (a + x)3
=
−2a2 (a + x)6
3/2
[(a+x)4 +a4 ]
or −2ρ = a2 (a+x)3
4 +a4
⇒ (−2ρ) = a(a+x)
2/3
We note that (−2)2/3 = 22/3
4/3 (a+x)2 ;
  2 2 
1 a
2/3
∴ (2ρ) = a4/3 (a + x) + a+x 2
But a + x = ax
y
by data.
n 2 2 o
1 a x a2 y 2
∴ (2ρ)2/3 = a4/3 2 + 2
y  x 
2
x y 2
2/3 2/3


ie., (2ρ) = a y
+ x
Thus (2ρ/a)2/3 = (x/y)2 + (y/x)2
95. Find the radius of curvature of the curve x = a log(sec t + tan t), y = a sec t
80

≫ x = a log(sec t + tan t)

dx a a sec t(sec t + tan t)

= · sec t tan t + sec2 t =
dt sec t + tan t sec t + tan t
dx
= a sec t
dt
Also y = a sec t gives dy dt
= a sec t tan t
dy dy
Now, y1 = dx = dt dt = a sec
dx t tan t
a sec t
= tan t
dt
Differentiating w.r.t. x we get, y2 = sec2 t dx
1
∴ y2 = sec2 t · a sec t
= seca t
3/2
(1+y12 )
We have ρ = y2

3/2
(1 + tan2 t) a a sec3 t
= =
sec t sec t
Thus ρ = a sec2 t
96. Show that the radius of curoature at any point θ on the cycloid x = a(θ+sin θ),
y = a(1 − cos θ) is 4a cos(θ/2)

≫ x = a(θ + sin θ) ; y = a(1 − cos θ)

dx
dθ
= a(1 + cos θ) ; dy dθ
= a sin θ
y1 = dx = dθ dθ = a(1+cos θ) = 2 sin(θ/2)
dy dy dx a sin θ cos(θ/2)
2 cos2 (θ/2)

∴ y1 = tan(θ/2)
Differentiating w.r.t. x we get,

1 dθ
y2 = sec2 (θ/2) · ·
2 dx
1 1 sec2 (θ/2)
= sec2 (θ/2) · · =
2 a(1 + cos θ) 4a cos2 (θ/2)
1
∴ y2 = sec4 (θ/2)
4a
3/2
(1+y12 )
We have ρ = y2

3/2
[1 + tan2 (θ/2)] · 4a
=
sec4 (θ/2)
3/2
[sec2 (θ/2)] · 4a 4a sec3 (θ/2)
= =
sec4 (θ/2) sec4 (θ/2)
Thus ρ = 4a cos(θ/2)
97. Find the radius of curvature of the tractrix x = a[cos t + log tan(t/2)], y =
a sin t
> For the given curve we have
 81

 
dx 1 2 1
= a − sin t + · sec (t/2) ·
dt tan(t/2) 2
 
1
= a − sin t +
2 cos(t/2) sin(t/2)
 
1
= a − sin t +
sin t
2
cos2 t
 
− sin t + 1
=a =a·
sin t sin t
ie., dx
dt
= a cos2 t cosec t
Also dy
dt
= a cos t
dy sec2 t
Now, y1 = dx = dy / dx =
dt dt
a cos t
a cos2 t cosec t
dt
= tan t Hence y2 = sec2 t dx = a cos2 t cosec t
=
sec4 t sin t
a
3/2
(1+y12 )
We have, ρ = y2

3/2
(1 + tan2 t) · a a sec3 t
= =
sec4 t sin t sec4 t sin t
Thus ρ = a cot t
98. Find the radius of curvature of the astroid x = a cos3 θ, y = a sin3 θ at θ = π/4
≫ x = a cos3 θ ; y = a sin3 θ
∴ dx dθ
= −3a cos2 θ sin θ; dy dθ
= 3a sin2 θ cos θ
dy 3a sin2 θ cos θ
Now y1 = dx = dy / dx = −3a
dθ dθ cos2 θ sin θ
= − tan θ
− sec2 θ 4
Hence y2 = − sec θ · dx = −3a cos2 θ sin θ = sec θ3acosec θ
2 dθ
3/2
(1+y12 )
We have, ρ = y2

3/2
(1 + tan2 θ) · 3a 3a sec3 θ
= = = 3a cos θ sin θ
sec4 θ cosec θ sec4 θ cosec θ
Thus at θ = π/4, ρ = 3a/2
99. Show that the radius of curvature of the curve x = a(cos t + t sin t),
y = a(sin t − t cos t) is ’at’.
≫ x = a(cos t + t sin t) ; y = a(sin t − t cos t)
dx
dt
= a(− sin t + t cos t + sin t); dy dt
= a(cos t + t sin t − cos t)
dx dy
∴ dt = at cos t and dt = at sin t
dy 2 3
Now, y1 = dx = dy / dx = at
dt dt
at sin t
cos t
dt
= tan t Hence y2 = sec2 t dx = atseccostt = secat t
3/2
(1+y12 )
We have, ρ = y2

3/2
(1 + tan2 t) sec3 t
= · at = · at
sec3 t sec3 t
Thus ρ = at
100. If ρ be the radius of curvature at any point P (x, y) on the parabola y 2 = 4ax
show that ρ2 varies as (SP )3 where S is the focus of the parabola.
82

≫ Consider y 2 = 4ax and differentiate w.r.t. x

∴ 2yy1 = 4a or y1 = 2a/y
2
Further y2 = −2a
y2
· y1 = −4a
y3
3/2
(1+y12 )
We have, ρ = y2

3/2 3/2
{1 + (4a2 /y 2 )} y 3 {(y 2 + 4a2 ) /y 2 }
= =
−4a2 /y 3 −4a2
3/2 3/2
y3 (y 2 + 4a2 ) (y 2 + 4a2 )
= · =
−4a2 (y 2 )3/2 −4a2

3/2
(4ax+4a2 ) (4a)3/2 (x+a)3/2
ie., ρ = −4a2
= −4a2
By squaring we have,

(4a)3 (x + a)3 64a3 (x + a)3

ρ2 = =
16a4 16a4

ie., ρ2 = a4 (x + a)3
The co-ordinates of the focus of the parabola is S = (a, 0) and we have
P = (x, y)

p
∴ SP = (x − a)2 + (y − 0)2 by the distance formula.
p √
= x2 − 2ax + a2 + y 2 = x2 − 2ax + a2 + 4ax

√ p
= x2 + 2ax + a2 = (x + a)2 = (x + a)

Hence SP = (x + a) and using this result in (1) we have,

4
ρ2 = (SP )3
a

That is, ρ2 = const. (SP )3

Thus ρ2 ∝ (SP )3
101. Prove that for the ellipse x2 /a2 + y 2 /b2 = 1, the radius of curvature is equal
to a2 b2 /p3 where p is the length of the perpendicular from the centre of the ellipse
upon the tangent at (x, y). Hence deduce that ρ at the end of the major axis is equal
to the semilatus rectum.
≫ The parametric equations of the ellipse are x = a cos θ, y = b sin θ and we prefer
to apply the parametric formula for finding ρ.
 83

3/2
(ẋ2 + ẏ 2 )
ρ= ẍ for a parametric
ẋÿ − ẏ
dx dy d2 y
ẋ = = −a sin θ ; ẏ = = b cos ; ÿ = =
dθ dθ dθ2
d2 x
ẍ = = −a cos θ ;
dθ2

3/2
a2 sin2 θ + b2 cos2 θ
∴ ρ=
ab sin2 θ + cos2 θ



3/2
a2 sin2 θ + b2 cos2 θ
ie., ρ=
ab
Further, equation of the tangent to the ellipse at P (a cos θ, b sin θ) is given by
x
a
cos θ + yb sin θ = 1. Also the length of the perpendicular from a point (x1 , y1 ) upon
a straight line Ax + By + C = 0 is given by the formula

|Ax1 + By1 + C|
p= √
A2 + B 2
Hence the length of the perpendicular from the centre O = (0, 0) of the ellipse
upon the tangent (cos θ/a)x + (sin θ/b)y − 1 = 0 is given by

|0 + 0 − 1| 1
p= p 2
=q
cos2 θ/a2 + sin θ/b2 b2 cos2 θ + a2 sin2 θ /a2 b2

a3 b3
ie., p= √ ab
⇒ p3 = 3/2
a2 sin2 θ+b2 cos2 θ (a2 sin2 θ+b2 cos2 θ)
2

3/2
∴ a2 sin θ + b cos θ
2 2
= a3 b3 /p3
3 3 3 2 2
Using (2) in (1) we get, ρ = a bab/p = ap3b
Thus ρ = a2 b2 /p3
Further, at the end of the major axis we have (x, y) = (±a, 0)
∴ a cos θ = ±a ⇒ cos θ = ±1 or cos2 θ = 1. ∴ sin2 θ = 0
ab
Hence p = √0+b 2 or p = a

Thus ρ = a b /a = b2 /a being the length of the semi latus rectum.

2 2 3

This proves both the desired results.

102. If ρ1 and ρ2 be the radii of curvatures at the extrimities of the two conjugate
diameters of the ellipse, show that
2/3 2/3
ρ1 + ρ2 = (a2 + b2 ) /(ab)2/3
> Let P CP ′ and QCQ′ be the two conjugate diameters of the ellipse.
Noting that x = a cos θ and y = b sin θ represents the parametric equations of the
ellipse and recollecting a property of the canjugate diameters with reference to the
ecentric angle θ,
P = (a cos θ, b sin θ) and Q = [a cos(π/2 + θ), b sin(π/2 + θ)]
Let ρ1 be the radius of curvature at P and ρ2 be the radius of curvature at Q.
84

3/2
(a2 sin2 θ+b2 cos2 θ)
Hence ρ1 = ab
[Refer the previous example]
Changing θ to π/2 + θ we have sin(π/2 + θ) = cos θ and cos(π/2 + θ) = − sin θ.
Thus we have from (1)

3/2
a2 cos2 θ + b2 sin2 θ
ρ2 =
ab
a2 sin2 θ+b2 cos2 θ
2/3 2/3 2 2 θ+b2 sin2 θ
Hence ρ1 =(ab)2/3
; ρ2 = a cos(ab) 2/3

2/3 2/3 a2 (sin2 θ+cos2 θ)+b2 (cos2 θ+sin2 θ)

∴ ρ1 + ρ2 = (ab)2/3
2/3 2/3
Thus ρ1 + ρ2 = a + b /(ab)2/3
2 2

2.45 An expression for the radius of curvature in the case of a polar curve r = f (θ)
Let OP = r be the radius vector and ϕ be the angle made by the radius vector
with the tangent at P (r, θ).
Let ψ be the angle made by the tangent at P with the initial line.
Let A be a fixed point on the curve and let AP = S
We have ψ = θ + ϕ
∴ dψ = dθ + dϕ = dθ + dϕ · dθ ie., ρ1 = dθ 1 + dϕ


ds ds ds ds dθ ds ds dθ
or
ds


dθ
ρ= dϕ
1+ dθ

We know that tan ϕ = r dθ dr

dr
= r/ dθ
r dr
ie., tan ϕ = r1 where r1 = dθ
Differentiating w.r.t θ we get,

2 dϕ r1 · r1 − r · r2 d2 r
sec ϕ = where r2 = 2
dθ r12 dθ
dϕ r12 −rr2 r12 −rr2 dϕ r12 −rr2 r12 −rr2
or = r12 sec2 ϕ
= r12 (1+tan2 ϕ)
ie., = = r12 +r2
dθ dθ r12 [1+(r2 /r12 )]
dϕ r12 −rr2 r2 +r12 +r12 −rr2
Hence 1 + dθ
=1+ r2 +r12
= r2 +r12
dϕ r2 +2r12 −rr2
ie., 1+ dθ
= r2 +r12
q
dr 2
ds

p
Also, we know that = r2 + dθ dθ
= r2 + r12
Using (2) and (3) in (1) we get

(r2 + r12 )
q
ρ = r2 + r12 ·
r2 + 2r12 − rr2
3/2
(r2 +r12 )
Thus in the polar form, ρ = r2 +2r2 −rr2
1
2.46 An expression for the radius of curvature in the case of a pedal curve
 85

Let OP = r be the radius vector and ϕ be the angle made by the radius vector
with the tangent at P . Let ψ be the angle made by the tangent at P with the initial
line. Draw ON = p, a perpendicular from the pole to the tangent.
We have from the ∆ON P, sin ϕ = pr
ie., p = r sin ϕ
Differentiating (1) w.r.t r we get,

dp dϕ
= r cos ϕ + 1 · sin ϕ
dr dr
But we know that, sin ϕ = r dθ ds
and cos ϕ = dr ds
∴ dp dϕ dr dθ dϕ dθ d
 
dr
= r dr ds
+ r ds
= r ds
+ ds
= r ds
(ϕ + θ)
dp dψ ds dr
But ϕ + θ = ψ ∴ dr = r ds or dψ = r dp
dr
Thus ρ = r dp
Note for problems
To find ρ for a polar curve r = f (θ), we have two options
(i) Applying the polar form of ρ by finding r1 and r2
(ii) Applying the pedal form of ρ by first finding the pedal equation of the curve
as discussed already.
In the case of polar curves we prefer to take logarithms first and then differentiate
w.r.t. θ.

.26 WORKED PROBLEMS

103. Show that for the equiangular spiral r = aeθ cot α where a and α are constants,
ρ/r is a constant.
≫ r = ae0 cot α
⇒ log r = log a + θ cot α log e. But loge e = 1
Differentiating w.r.t. θ we have,
1 dr dr
r dθ
= 0 + 1 · cot α ie., dθ = r1 = r cot α
d2 r
Hence dθ2 = r2 = r1 cot α = (r cot α) cot α = r cot2 α
3/2
(r2 +r12 )
We have, ρ = r2 +2r2 −rr2
1
3/2 3/2 3/2
(r2 +r2 cot2 α) (r2 ) (cosec2 α)
∴ ρ= r2 +2r2 cot2 α−r2 cot2 α
= r2 (1+cot2 α)
r3 cosec3 α
ie., ρ = = r cosec α
r2 cosec2 α
Thus ρ/r = cosec α = constant.
Aliter : By applying the pedal form of ρ
The pedal equation of the given curve is p = r sin α
[Refer Example-80]
Differentiating w.r.t p we get,

dr dr 1
1= sin α ∴ = = cosec α
dp dp sin α
dr
Hence ρ = r dp = r cosec α
86

Thus ρ/r = cosec α = constant.

104. Show that the radius of curvature of the curve rn = an cos nθ varies inversely
as rn−1
≫ rn = an cos nθ
⇒ n log r = n log a + log(cos nθ)
Differentiating w.r.t. θ we have,

n dr −n sin nθ 1 dr
=0+ or = − tan nθ
r dθ cos nθ r dθ
r1 = −r tan nθ

∴ r1 = −r tan nθ
d2 r
Hence r2 = dθ2
= −r1 tan nθ − nr sec2 nθ
3/2
(r2 +r12 )
We have ρ= r2 +2r12 −rr2
3/2
(r2 +r2 tan2 nθ)
∴ ρ= r2 +2r2 tan2 nθ−r(−r1 tan nθ−nr sec2 nθ)

3/2 3/2
(r2 ) (sec2 nθ)
=
r2 + 2r2 tan2 nθ − r2 tan2 nθ + nr2 sec2 n
r3 sec3 nθ
= 2
r (1 + tan2 nθ + n sec2 nθ)
r sec3 nθ r sec nθ
= 2
=
sec nθ(1 + n) (1 + n)
r
Thus ρ = 1+n
sec nθ
an
 n 
r a 1
∴ ρ= · n = n−1
n n
But a /r = sec nθ by data. 1+n r 1+n r
1
ie., ρ = const · n−1
r
Thus ρ ∝ 1/rn−1
Aliter : By the pedal form of ρ
The pedal equation of the given curve is pan = rn+1
[Refer Example-75]
Differentiating w.r.t. p. we get,

dr dr an
an = (n + 1)rn ∴ =
dp dp (n + 1)rn
dr a n
a 1 n 1
Hence ρ = r dp = r · (n+1)r n = (n+1) · r n−1 = const. r n−1

Thus ρ ∝ 1/rn−1
105. Show that for the curve r(1 − cos θ) = 2a, ρ2 varies as r3
≫ r(1 − cos θ) = 2a
⇒ log r + log(1 − cos θ) = log 2a
Differentiating w.r.t. θ we get,
 87

1 dr sin θ dr −r sin θ
+ = 0 or =
r dθ 1 − cos θ dθ 1 − cos θ
dr −2r sin(θ/2) cos(θ/2)
= = −r cot(θ
dθ 2 sin2 (θ/2)
r1 = −r cot(θ/2)

Hence r2 = −r · −1
2
cosec2 (θ/2) − r1 cot(θ/2)
r
ie., r2 = 2 cosec (θ/2) + r cot2 (θ/2)
2
3/2
(r2 +r2 )
We have ρ = r2 +2r21−rr2
1

3/2
{r2 + r2 cot2 (θ/2)}
ρ= 2
r2 + 2r2 cot2 (θ/2) − r2 cosec2 (θ/2) − r2 cot2 (θ/2)
3/2 3/2
(r2 ) {cosec2 (θ/2)}
=
r2 1 + cot2 (θ/2) − 12 cosec2 (θ/2)


r cosec3 (θ/2)
= = 2r cosec(θ/2)
1/2 · cosec2 (θ/2)
ρ = 2r cosec(θ/2)
But r(1 − cos θ) = 2a, by data.
ie., r · 2 sin2 (θ/2) = 2a or sin2 (θ/2) = a/r
p
∴ cosec(θ/2) = r/a and hence (1) becomes
p √
ρ = 2r · r/a = 2r3/2 / a

Thus ρ2 = 4r3 /a = (4/a) · r3 ⇒ ρ2 ∝ r3

Aliter : By the pedal form of ρ
The pedal equation of the given curve is p2 = ar
[Refer Example-73]
Differentiating w.r.t. p,
√ √
dr dr 2p 2 ar 2 r
2p = a or = = = √
dp dp a a a
√
dr 2 r
Hence ρ = r dp =r· √
a
ie., ρ = √2a (r)3/2
Thus ρ2 = (4/a) · r3 ⇒ ρ2 ∝ r3
106. Find the radius of curvature of the curve r = a sin nθ at the pole.
≫ r = a sin nθ
∴ r1 = an cos nθ, r2 = −an2 sin nθ
At the pole we have θ = 0. When θ = 0 : r = 0, r1 = an, r2 = 0 We have
3/2 3/2
(r2 +r2 ) (a2 n2 ) a3 n3 an
ρ = r2 +2r21−rr2 ∴ ρ = 2a2 n2 = 2a 2 n2 = 2
1
Thus ρ = an/2 at the pole.
88

107. Show that at the point where the curve r = aθ intersects the curve r = a/θ
their curvatures are in the ratio 3:1
≫ Equating the R.H.S of the two given equations

r = aθ and r = a/θ we have,

a
aθ = or θ2 = 1 ∴ θ = ±1
θ
Now r = aθ, gives r1 = a, r2 = 0
At θ = +1, r = a, r1 = a, r2 = 0
Also r = a/θ gives r1 = −a/θ2 , r2 = 2a/θ3
At θ = +1, r = a, r1 = −a, r2 = 2a
3/2
(r2 +r2 )
We have ρ = r2 +2r21−rr2
1
3/2 3/2 √
(a2 +a2 ) (2a2 ) 2 2a
From (1), ρ = a2 +2a2
= 3a2
= 3
3/2 3/2 √
( 2 +a2 )
a ( 2)
2a
From (2), ρ = =
a2 +2a2 −2a2 a2
= 2 12a
Hence
√
we have from (3) and (4) the ratio of the corresponding curvatures is given
3/2 2a
by 1/2√2a = 31
Thus, the curvatures are in the ratio 3 : 1
108. (a) Show that for the curve r = a(1 + cos θ), ρ2 /r is a constant
(b) If ρ1 and ρ2 be the radii of curvatures at the extrimities of the polar chord of
the cardioide, show that ρ21 + ρ22 = 16a2 /9
≫ (a) r = a(1 + cos θ) ⇒ log r = log a + log(1 + cos θ) Differentiating w.r.t. θ, we
have,

1 dr − sin θ −2 sin(θ/2) cos(θ/2)

= = = − tan(θ/2)
r dθ 1 + cos θ 2 cos2 (θ/2)
∴ r1 = −r tan(θ/2)
Hence r2 = − 2r sec2 (θ/2) − r1 tan(θ/2)
ie., r2 = − 2r sec2 (θ/2) + r tan2 (θ/2)
3/2
(r2 +r12 )
We have ρ = r2 +2r2 −rr2
1
3/2
{r2 +r2 tan2 (θ/2)}
∴ ρ= 2
r2 +2r2 tan2 (θ/2)+ r2 sec2 (θ/2)−r2 tan2 (θ/2)

r3 {sec2 (θ/2)
=
r2 1 + tan2 (θ/2) + 12


r sec3 (θ/2) 2r
= 2
=
3/2 · sec (θ/2) 3
2r
ρ= sec(θ/2)
3
But r = a(1 + cos θ) = a · 2 cos2√ (θ/2)
∴ sec (θ/2) = r or sec(θ/2) = √2a
2 2a
r
√
2r √2a
√
Hence (1) becomes ρ = 3 r ie., ρ = 23 2ar
 89
2
∴ ρ2 = 94 (2ar) or pr = 8a9
= constant.
Thus ρ2 /r is a constant.
(b) Let P OP ′ be the polar chord (chord passing through the pole) of the cardioide
r = a(1 + cos θ). Let ρ1 and ρ2 be the radii of curvatures at the point P and P ′
corresponding to the vectorial angles θ and (π + θ) respectively. We have already
obtained
2r
ρ1 = sec(θ/2)
3
[first part of this example]
2
∴ ρ21 = 4r.9 sec2 (θ/2)
But r = a(1 + cos θ) = 2a cos2 (θ/2)
∴ r2 = 4a2 cos4 (θ/2)
Hence ρ21 = 49 · 4a2 cos4 (θ/2) sec2 (θ/2)
2
ie., ρ21 = 16a 9
cos2 (θ/2)
Now changing θ to (π + θ) we have from (2)

16a2 16a2
 
2 2 π+θ
ρ2 = cos = cos2 (π/2
9 2 9
16a2
ρ22 = sin2 (θ/2)
9
Thus we have by adding (2) and (3)

ρ21 + ρ22 = 16a2 /9 = constant .

109. Show that the radius of curvature of the curve pa2 = r3 is a2 /3r
Consider pa2 = r3 and differentiate w.r.t. p

dr dr a2
∴ a2 = 3r2 or = 2
dp dp 3r
dr
We have ρ = r dp

a2 a2
∴ ρ=r· =
3r2 3r
1 1 2
Thus ρ = a2 /3r 110. Show that for the ellipse in the pedal form p2
= a2
+ b12 − ar2 b2
the radius of curvature at the point (p, r) is a2 b2 /p3
2
≫ Consider p12 = a12 + b12 − ar2 b2
Differentiating w.r.t. p we get,

−2 −2r dr dr a2 b 2
3
= 2 2 ∴ = 3
p a b dp dp pr
dr
We have, ρ = r dp
2 2 a2 b2
∴ ρ = r · ap3br = p3
Thus ρ = a2 b2 /p3
90

Remark : Referring to Example-101, we have obtained the same result starting

from the equation of the ellipse in the parametric form. √
2 2
111. Find the radius of curvature of the curve θ = r a−a − cos−1 (a/r) at any
point on it.
> Differentiating the given equation w.r.t. r we have,
(
dθ 1 2r −1 −a
= · √ − p · 2
dr a 2 r −a 2 2 1 − (a/r) 2 r
r r a
= √ −√ · 2
a r −a2 2 r −a r
2 2

1  r a r 2 − a2
=√ − =√
r 2 − a2 a r r2 − a2 · ar
√
2 2
ie., dθ dr
= rar−a
We prefer to find the pedal equation of the given curve and then apply the formula
for ρ in the pedal form.
From (1) 1r dθ
dr
= √r2a−a2 ie., cot ϕ = √r2a−a2
1
Consider p = r sin ϕ ⇒ p2
= r12 cosec2 ϕ ie., p12 = r12 (1 + cot2 ϕ) ∴ 1
p2
=
1
h 2
i h 2
i √
r2
1 + r2a−a2 ie., p12 = r12 r2r−a2 ie., p1 = √r21−a2 ∴ p = r2 − a2 is the pedal
equation of the curve.
Differentiating w.r.t. p we get,

2r dr √ dr
1= √ ie., r 2 − a3 = r =ρ
2 r − a dp
2 2 dp
√
Thus ρ = r2 − a2
d2 p
112. Prove that ρ = p + dψ 2 with all the usual notations.

≫ We know that p = r sin ϕ

dp
Now dψ = dp dr ds
dr ds dψ
But dr ds
= cos ϕ and dψ ds dr
= ρ = r dp
dp
∴ dψ = dp
dr
dr
· cos ϕ · r dp or dψdp
= r cos ϕ
Squaring and adding (1) and (2) we get,
 2
2 dp
p + = r2
dψ
Differentiating w.r.t p, we have,
 
dp d dp dr
2p + 2 · = 2r
dψ dp dψ dp
 
dp d dp dψ dr
ie., p+ dψ
· dψ dψ
·dp
= r dp
2
d p
dr
But ρ = r dp and p + dψ 2
=ρ
d p 2
Thus ρ = p + dψ 2

Note : This form of expression for ρ is known as the tangential polar form.
 91

.27 EXERCISES
Find the radius of curvature for the following curves [1 to 9]
1. x2/3 + y 2/3 = a2/3 at any point (x, y)
2. xy 3 = a4 at the point (a, a)
3. y 2 = x3 + 8 at the point (−2, 0)
4. y = 4 sin x − sin 2x at the point (π/2, 4)
5. y = ex at the point where the curve cuts the y-axis.
6. y 2 = a2 (a − x)/x where the curve cuts the x-axis.
7. x = a log sec θ, y = a(tan θ − θ)
8. x = a(t − sin t), y = a(1 − cos√t) √
9. x = a cos θ, y = b sin θ at (a/ 2, b/ 2)
10. Show that for the curve rn = an sin nθ, ρ varies inversely as rn−1
11. Show that for the curve r2 sec 2θ = a2 , ρ = a2 /3r
12. Show that for the curve r cos2 (θ/2) = a, ρ2 varies as r3
13. Obtain
√ the pedal equation of the curve r = a(1 − cos θ) and hence show that
ρ = (2/3) 2ar
14. Using the pedal formula for ρ, prove that ρ = r3 /a2 for the curve r2 = a2 sec 2θ
15. Show that for the curve p2 = ar, ρ2 varies as r3

.28 ANSWERS
√ √ √
1. 3(axy)1/3 2. 5 10a/6 3. 6 4. 5 5/4 5. 2 2 6. a/2 7. a tan θ sec θ 8. 4a sin(t/2)
3/2
9. (a2 + b2 ) /ab