Module 1: Basic Concepts

Overview
Child development or child and adolescent development refer to the process of growth and
maturation of the human individual from conception to adulthood. The emotional, social and
physical development of young children has a direct effect on their overall development and on the adult they
will become.

WHO - World Health Organization defines a child as a person 19 years or younger unless national law defines
a person to be an adult at an earlier age. Adolescence is frequently defined by several UN agencies as ranging
from 10 to 19 years of age, which more accurately encapsulates the lower and upper secondary levels of
education (UNESCO, 2009b; UNICEF, 2002; WHO,2009). As children up to the age of 18, most adolescents
are protected under the Convention on the Rights of the Child. In US, adolescent ages between 12 and 14
and ends at 19 or 20. Philippines consider those aged 15-24 years as young adult and those aged 15-19
years as adolescents.

UNICEF –According to UNICEF, a child is any person under the age of 18, or a child means every human
being below the age of eighteen years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier.
Childhood is the time for children to be in school and at play, to grow strong and confident with the love and
encouragement of their family and an extended community of caring adults. It is a precious time in which
children should live free from fear, safe from violence and protected from abuse and exploitation. It refers to the
state and condition of a child’s life, to the quality
of those years.

UNESCO – A child means every human being below the age of eighteen years unless under the law applicable
to the child .Early childhood, defined as the period from birth to eight years old, is a time of remarkable growth
with brain development at its peak. During this stage, children are highly influenced by the environment and
the people that surround them, stated by UNESCO.
 In general, for the first year after birth, a baby is called an infant.
 Early childhood begins at age two, when a child may be referred to as a toddler.
 Childhood continues until adolescence, which generally coincides withthe teen years.
 Adolescence is the period of transition into adulthood.

BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT

Child development - refers to the biological and psychological and emotional changes that occur in
human beings between birth and the end of adolescence then through adulthood, as the individual
progresses from dependency to increasing autonomy.

Growth and Development - growth and development are influenced by maturational, environmental and
genetic factors. All humans follow the same pattern of growth and development. There are sequences in
growth and development that even individual differences cannot changes.

The term development and growth both refer to two different meanings.
1. Development (qualitative) – is the changes in a person’s physical and behavioral traits that emerge in
orderly ways and last for a reasonable period of time. The changes could be:
 PROGRESSIVE (results in acquisition of skills and abilities that are complex, finer and more efficient)
 IN ORDER (there is an order in development.)
 LONG LASTING

2. GROWTH (quantitative)
 refers to physical increase in the size of the body. (Increase in weight, height, etc.)
 refers to a quantitative change (can be measured)
 There is a change in form and increase in the complexity of body parts and their functioning,
thinking abilities and social skills.
 Growth is only one aspect of the larger process of development.

The Main Areas of Growth and Development

1. Physical - weight, height, muscles, systems, organs
2. Emotional - extend trusting relationships to other adults and to children, show a strong sense of self as
an individual, recognize feelings, label their own feelings
3. Social - enjoy playing alongside other children, but won’t interact a great deal with them, show
awareness of others’ feelings and might try to give basic help, look to adults for comfort.
4. Spiritual - concerns the broad search for transcendental meaning that may be as simple as a young
child’s inquiries into how the world came into being
5. Intellectual
 The Sensorimotor Stage: period of time between birth and age two during which an infant’s
knowledge of the world is limited to his or her sensory perceptions and motor activities. Behaviors
are limited to simple motor responses caused by sensory stimuli.
 The Preoperational Stage: A period between ages two and six during which a child learns to use
language. During this stage, children do not yet understand concrete logic, cannot mentally
manipulate information and are unable to take the point of view of other people.
 The Concrete Operational Stage: A period between ages seven and eleven during which children
gain a better understanding of mental operations. Children begin thinking logically about concrete
events, but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts.
 The Formal Operational Stage: A period between age twelve to adulthood when people develop
the ability to think about abstract concepts. Skills such as logical thought, deductive reasoning and
systematic planning also emerge during this stage.

Nature versus Nurture

genetics (NATURE) nativism
environment (NURTURE) empiricism

.Environmental inputs can affect the expression of genes, a relationship called gene-environment interaction.
An individual’s genes and their environment work together, communicating back and forth to create traits. This
is often referred to as the nature vs. nurture debate, or a nativist (“nature”) account of development would argue
that the processes in question are innate and influenced by an organism’s genes.
 An empiricist (“nurture”) acquired through interaction with the environment. Nurtured human
behavior is seen as the result of environmental interaction, which can provoke changes in brain structure and
chemistry. For example, situations of extreme stress can cause problems like depression.
We are all born with specific genetic traits inherited from our parents, such as eye color, height, and
certain personality traits. Beyond our basic genotype, however, there is a deep interaction between our genes
and our environment: our unique experiences in our environment influence whether and how particular traits
are expressed, and at the same time, our genes influence how we interact with our environment (Diamond,
2009; Lobo, 2008). There is a reciprocal interaction between nature and nurture as they both shape who we
become, but the debate continues as to the relative contributions of each.

Periods of Development
1. Prenatal Development
 Conception occurs and development begins.
 All of the major structures of the body are forming and the health of the mother is of primary
concern.
 Understanding nutrition, teratogens (or environmental factors that can lead to birth defects), and
labor and delivery are primary concerns.

2. Infancy and Toddlerhood

 from birth to 2 years of age
 A newborn, with a keen sense of hearing but very poor vision is transformed into a walking, talking
toddler within a relatively short period of time.
 The child is totally dependent on the caregiver for the fulfilment of her needs.
 The period of the most rapid growth and development.
 Their skills and abilities increase

3. Early Childhood
 ages 3 to 5 years old
 referred to as the preschool years consisting of the years which follow toddlerhood and precede
formal schooling.
 the child is busy learning language, is gaining a sense of self and greater independence, and is
beginning to learn the workings of the physical world.
 A toddler’s fierce determination to do something may give way to a four-year-old’s sense of guilt for
doing something that brings the disapproval of others.

4. Middle Childhood
 Ages from 6 to 11 years old
 Comprise middle childhood and much of what children experience at this age is connected to their
involvement in the early grades of school.
 the world becomes one of learning and testing new academic skills and by assessing one’s abilities
and accomplishments by making comparisons between self and others.
 Schools compare students and make these comparisons public through team sports, test scores, and
other forms of recognition.
 Growth rates slow down and children are able to refine their motor skills at this point in life.
  Children begin to learn about social relationships beyond the family through interaction with
friends and fellow students.

5. Adolescence
 from 12 to 18 years of age
 a period of dramatic physical change marked by an overall physical growth spurt and sexual
maturation, known as puberty.
 a time of cognitive change as the adolescent begins to think of new possibilities and to consider
abstract concepts such as love, fear, and freedom.
 have a sense of invincibility that puts them at greater risk of dying from accidents or contracting
sexually transmitted infections that can have lifelong consequences.
 the beginning of this period is marked by puberty.
 Puberty refers to the stage around 11-14 years of age, when there is a spurt in physical growth.
 This results in a rapid increase in height and weight and the emergence of secondary sexual
characteristics (face hair, pubic hair, sexual organs)
 Conflicts due to peer pressure occur and there will be needs for emotional adjustment.

6. Early Adulthood
 The twenties and thirties are often thought of as early adulthood.
 The time when we are at our physiological peak but are most at risk for involvement in violent
crimes and substance abuse.
 The time of focusing on the future and putting a lot of energy into making choices that will help one
earn the status of a full adult in the eyes of others.
 Love and work are primary concerns at this stage of life.

7. Middle Adulthood
 The late thirties through the mid-sixties is referred to as middle adulthood.
 A period in which aging, that began earlier, becomes more noticeable and a period at which many
people are at their peak of productivity in love and work.
 It may be a period of gaining expertise in certain fields and being able to understand problems and
find solutions with greater efficiency than before.
 Also be a time of becoming more realistic about possibilities in life previously considered; of
recognizing the difference between what is possible and what is likely.

8. Late Adulthood
 Late adulthood is sometimes subdivided into two or three categories such as the “young old” and
“old old” or the “young old”, “old old”, and “oldest old”.
 the “young old” are the people between 65 and 79 and the “old old” or those who are 80 and older.
 One of the primary differences between these groups is that the young old are very similar to midlife
adults; still working, still relatively healthy, and still interested in being productive and active.
 The “old old” remain productive and active and the majority continues to live independently,
but risks of the diseases of old age such as arteriosclerosis, cancer, and cerebral vascular disease
increases substantially for this age group.
  Issues of housing, healthcare, and extending active life expectancy are only a few of the topics of
concern for this age group.

The Developmental Stages according to Robert Havighurst

A developmental stage is a task which arises at or about a certain period of life of the individua l,
successful achievement of which leads to his happiness and to success with later tasks, while failure leads to
unhappiness in the individual, disapproval by the society, and difficulty with later tasks.
Robert Havighurst emphasized that learning is basic and that it continues throughout life span. Growth and
Development occurs in six stages.

Developmental Tasks of Infancy and Early Childhood (ages birth to 6)

 Learning to walk
 Learning to take solid foods
 Learning to talk
 Learning to control the elimination of body wastes
 Learning sex differences and sexual modesty
 Forming concepts and learning language to describe social and physical reality
 Getting ready to read

Developmental Tasks of Middle Childhood (ages 6-12)

 Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games
 Building wholesome attitudes toward oneself as a growing organism
 Learning to get along with age-mates
 Learning an appropriate masculine or feminine social role
 Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating
 Developing concepts necessary for everyday living
 Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values
 Achieving personal independence
 Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions

Developmental Tasks of Adolescence (ages 12-18)

 Achieving new and more mature relations with age-mates of both sexes
 Achieving a masculine or feminine social role
 Accepting one’s physique and using the body effectively
 Achieving emotional independence of parents and other adults
 Preparing for marriage and family life
 Preparing for an economic career
 Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior; developing an ideology
 Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior

Developmental Tasks of Early Adulthood

 Selecting a mate
 Achieving a masculine or feminine social role
  Learning to live with a marriage partner
 Starting a family
 Rearing children
 Managing a home
 Getting started in an occupation
 Taking on civic responsibility
 Finding a congenial social group

Developmental Tasks of Middle Age

 Assisting teen-age children to become responsible and happy adults
 Achieving adult social and civic responsibility
 Reaching and maintaining satisfactory performance in one’s occupational career
 Developing adult leisure-time activities
 Relating oneself to one’s spouse as a person
 To accept and adjust to the physiological changes of middle age
 Adjusting to aging parents

Developmental Tasks of Later Maturity

 Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health
 Adjustment to retirement and reduced income
 Adjusting to death of a spouse
 Establishing an explicit affiliation with one’s age group
 Adopting and adapting social roles in a flexible way
 Establishing satisfactory physical living arrangements

Domains of Development
1. Physical Development
Physical development is defined as the biological changes that occur in the body and brain, including
changes in size and strength, integration of sensory and motor activities, and development of fine and gross
motor skills.
Physical development in children follows a directional pattern. Muscles in the body's core, legs and arms
develop before those in the fingers and hands. Children learn how to perform gross (or large) motor skills such
as walking before they learn to perform fine (or small) motor skills such as drawing. Muscles located at the core
of the body become stronger and develop sooner than those in the feet and hands. Physical development goes
from the head to the toes.
As kids enter the preschool years, their diets become much more similar to that of adults. Eating a variety of
foods is also important to ensure that kids get the nutrients that they need for healthy physical development.
Instead of allowing children to fill up on juice and milk, experts recommend limiting the intake of such drinks.
If a child is filling up on juice and milk, then they are probably missing out on eating other foods.

2. Cognitive Development
Cognitive development is defined as the changes in the way we think, understand, and reason about the
world.
 the Theorists tab Jean Piaget developed great theories regarding the cognitive development of children.
Piaget's 4 stages of cognitive development illustrates a child's growth.

Stages of Cognitive Development

1. The Sensorimotor Stage: A period of time between birth and age two during which an infant's
knowledge of the world is limited to his or her sensory perceptions and motor activities. Behaviors
are limited to simple motor responses caused by sensory stimuli.
2. The Preoperational Stage: A period between ages two and six during which a child learns to use
language. During this stage, children do not yet understand concrete logic, cannot mentally
manipulate information and are unable to take the point of view of other people.
3. The Concrete Operational Stage: A period between ages seven and eleven during which children
gain a better understanding of mental operations. Children begin thinking logically about concrete
events, but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts.

4. The Formal Operational Stage: A period between age twelve to adulthood when people develop
the ability to think about abstract concepts. Skills such as logical thought, deductive reasoning and
systematic planning also emerge during this stage.

3. Social-emotional Development
Social-emotional development is defined as the changes in the ways we connect to other individuals and
express and understand emotions. The core features of emotional development include the ability of a child to
identify and understand their own feelings, to accurately read and comprehend emotional states of
others, to manage strong emotions and their expression in a beneficial manner, to regulate their own behavior,
to develop empathy for others, and to establish and maintain relationships.

4. Language Development
Infants understand words before they can say. In other words, comprehension precedes production of
language. Children differ enormously in the rate at which they develop language.

The four different aspects of language include all of the following;

1. Phonology - the sounds that make up the language
2. Syntax - the grammar of the language
3. Semantics - the meanings of words
4. Pragmatics - how we use language in social situations to communicate.

Two areas of the brain are particularly important for language development and use:
1. Broca's area is important for the production of speech
2. Wernicke's area is important for understanding and making sense out of speech.

Children move through stages of language development, but there is a good deal of variability from
child to child in the age at which each stage appears. Before they are able to use words, infants communicate
by crying, cooing, babbling, and gesturing. Infants and toddlers begin verbalizing by using one word at a time
and then create primitive sentences when they put two words together. When children make sentences that
contain only the essential words this is called telegraphic speech. Fast mapping allows children to add words
to rapidly to their vocabulary.
 PRINCIPLES OF
DEVELOPMENT

A. Development
~ the progressive series of changes of an orderly coherent type toward the goal of maturity.
1.Progressive – refers to the changes that are directional,leading forward rather than backward
2.”Orderly” and “Coherent” – the development is not of a haphazard casual type but rather that there is a
definite relationship between each stage and the next stage in the developmental sequence.
B. Aspects of Development
1. Anatomic
2. Physiologic
3. Behavioral
Types of Change in Development
A. The major types of change are:
1. Changes in size- change in physical and mental growth.
2. Changes in proportion- physical development is not limited to size. It is also apparent in mental
development.
e.g. At first, the child is interested in himself alone, but later I others and toys, and finally his interests are
directed to members of opposite sex.
3.Disappearance of old features-These are thymus glands, baby hair, Babinski reflex,
Darwinian reflex and baby forms of locomnotion such as creeping and crawling.
 Darwinian Reflex
 Babinski Reflex
 Creeping
 Crawling
4.Acquisition of new features- new features are acquired such as the first and secondary sex characteristic.
New mental traits are acquired also such as curiosity, sex urge, knowledge, morals and standards, religious
beliefs different forms of language and all types of neurotic tendencies.

CAUSES OF DEVELOPMENT
A. Two causes of development
1. Maturation
a. Is the development or unfolding of traits potentially present in from his hereditary endowment.
b. According to Gesell, it is the net sum of the gene effects operating self-limited life cycle.
c. It is not only changes in physical characteristics but also in function, capacity to perform or behave which
are possible through changes in any part of the organism.
2. Learning
a. The result of the activities of the child himself.

B. Studies of Maturation and Learning

1.Method of lsolation. This is the isolation of the young from older members of the same species to see if
certain traits of behavioural characteristics of that species will appear.
2.Method of co-twin control. Identical twins serve as subjects.One twin is given training or practice in
learning different functions while the other twin is given no training. Results are compared.
3.The matched-group method. Uses two or more groups with
Identical characteristics. One group is given training while the other group is not. Results are compared.
4.The genetic study of large groups. Instead of small groups, large groups are used to see if development appe
ars even if there were differences in the environments.

RATE OF DEVELOPMENT
A. Rates Of Development
1. Rapid- during the pre-natal period and continues throughout babyhood (except for the first two weeks
known as “plateau stage” when no physical development takes place) up to the first 6 years.
2.Slow- from six years to adolescence.

B. Implications of the Rates Of Development

1.BBecause development is dependent on maturation and learning, it makes variation possible.
2.Maturation which depends upon the hereditary endowment of the individual, sets limit beyond which
development cannot go on even when learning is encouraged.
3.The effectiveness of learning depends upon maturation. A child cannot le arn until he is ready to learn. The
necessary physical and mental development must be present before new skills or abilities can be built upon the
foundations.

C.Three ways to indicate a Child’s Readiness to Learn

Are the following:
1. Child’s interest in learning.
2. How sustained his interest wil|
Remain over a period of time.
3. What progress he makes with practice.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DEVELOPMENT
A. The Characteristics of Developmet
1. Development follows a pattern. Development in every specie follows a pattern in rate and limit.The same
pattern is followed from the pre-natal to the post-natal and up to the adolescent stage.
a. Cephalo-caudial sequence. This means that the control of the body as well as
improvements in the structure itself, develops first in the head and progresses later to
regions farthest from the head.
 b. Proximo-distal. Developmental sequence starts from the center to the peripheral segments
of the body.
c. General Patterns of Development.There are great patterns that all babies follow as:
1. From 4 to 16 weeks, he gains command of his 12 oculo-motor muscles.
2. From 16-28 weeks, he gains command of the muscle which support his head and move his arms.He
then begins to reach out thee things.
3. From 28 to 40 weeks, he gains control of his trunk and hands. This enables him to sit, grasp, transfer,
and manipulate objects.
4. From 40 to 52 weeks, he extends control to his legs and feet, to his forefinger and thumb. He can now
stand upright, poke, and pluck.
5. During the second year, he walks and runs; articulates words and phrases; acquires bowel and bladder
control; and acquires a rudimentary sense of personal identity and of personal possession
6. During the third year, he speaks in sentences and uses words as tools of thoughts. He displays a
propensity to understand his environment and to comply with cultural demands.
7. During the fourth year, he asks innumerable questions, perceives analogies, and displays a tendency to
generalize and conceptualize. In the routines of home life, he is nearly self-dependent.
8. At the age of five years, the child is well matured in motor control.
d. Specific Phases of Development.Not only does total development follow a pattern but
specifc phases of development, such as motor, social and ply, follow a pattern also.
1. From 4 to 16 weeks, he gains command of his 12 oculo-motor muscles.
2. From 16-28 weeks, he gains command of the muscle which support his head and move his arms. He
then begins to reach out thee things.
3. From 28 to 40 weeks, he gains control of his trunk and hands. This enables him to sit, grasp, transfer,
and manipulate objects.
4.From 40 to 52 weeks, he extends control to his legs and feet, to his forefinger and thumb. He can now
stand upright, poke, and pluck.

2. Development proceeds from general to specific responses.

In all phases o development whether motor or mental, the
Child’s responses are of a general sort before they become specific.
3.Development is continuous.
Growth continues from the moment of conception until the
Individual reaches maturity
4.Individual differences in rate of development remain constant.
The common belief that the baby is physically or mentally below average
Will “catch up” to the average has not been substantiated by scientif c evidence.
On the contrary, there is plenty of evidence to show that the rate of growth is
Consistent. Those who developed rapidly at f rst will continue to do so, while
Those whose development was slow will continue to develop slowly.
5.Development occurs at different rates for different parts of the body.
Not all parts of the body grow at the same rate, nor do all aspects
Of mental growth proceed equally. The brain attains its mature
Size around the age of 6 to 8 years, but gains much in organization
After that. The feet, the hands and the nose reach the ir maximum
Development early in the adolescent years.
6.Most traits are correlated in development.
The child whose intellectual development is above average is generally
Above average in size, sociability and special aptitudes.
7.Development is predictable.
Because the rate of development for each child is fairly
Constant, the immensely important consequence is that it is
Impossible for us to predict at an early age the range within which
The mature development of the child is likely to fall.
8.Each development phase has traits characteristic of it.
At each age, some traits develop more rapidly and more conspicuously
Than others.
9.Many forms of so-called “problem behavior” are normal behavior of the age
In which they occur.
Lack of understanding of the normal behavior of children at different ages
Is responsible for much of the parent-child friction.
10.Every individual normally passes through each major stage of
Development.

B. The implications of the Characteristics of

Development
1. It helps us to know what to expect and when to expect
The development.
2. It gives the adult the information as to when to
Stimulate and when not to stimulate growth in the child.
3. Knowing what the normal developmental pattern is, makes
It possible for parents, teachers and others who work with
Children to prepare the child ahead of time for the changes
That will take place in his body, his interests, or behavior.

C. The Major Developmental Tasks for Childhood

1. Infancy and early childhood (birth to 6 years)
a. Learning to walk
b. Learning to take solid foods.
c. Learning to talk.
d. Learning to control the elimination of body wastes.
e. Learning sex differences and sexual modesty.
f. Achieving physiological stability.
g. Forming simple concepts of social physical reality.
h. Learning to relate oneself emotionally to parents, siblings,
and other people.

2. Middle Childhood (6 to 12 years)

a. Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games.
b. Building wholesome attitudes toward onese lf as a growing organism.
c. Learning to get along with age mates.
d. Learning an appropriate masculine or feminine role
e. Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating.
f. Achieving physiological stability
g. Developing conscience, morality and a scale of values.
h. Achieving personal independence.
i. Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions.
Factors Influencing Development

There Are Nine Factors That Influence Development

1. Intelligence. Of all factors influencing the development of the child,
Intelligence seems to be the most important. High grade inteligence is
Associated with a speeding up of development, while low grade
Intelligence is associated with retardation.
2. Sex. Sex differences in physical growth are evident. At birth, boys are
Slightly larger than girls, but girls grow more rapidly and mature
Sooner than n boys.
3. Glands of internal secretion. Glands affect both the pre-natal and post-
Natal development.
4. Nutrition. The amount of food as well as the vitamin, protein, etc. content
Are important. Quality is s important, than the quantity. The higher
Stature of children are in part due to improved feeding in the early years
Of life.
Factors Influencing Development
5. Fresh air and sunlight. Fresh air and sunlight affect the size, general health
Condition and the maturing age of the child.
6. Injuries and diseases. Any injury to the child such as head injuries, toxic
Poisons from diseases and drugs, bacterial poisons from diseased ton sils,
Adenoids or typhoid fever, will retard to a certain extend the child’s
Development.
7. Race. Children of Mediterranean races develop sooner than do the
Children of the countries of northern Europe .Children of the Negro and
Italian races are slow in their development compared to children of
White and yellow races.
8.Culture. Children show the same social and motor responses despite the
Differences in culture.
8. Position in the Family. The second, third or fourth children in the family usually
Develop more quickly than the first born not because of their native endowment
But more because of the fact that the younger children imitate the older brothers

Developmental Periods
A. The Five Major Developmental Periods
1. Pre-natal Period
This period extends from conception, when the female ovum is
Fertilized by the male spermatozoon to the time of birth, roughly
Nine calendar months or 280 days. The zygote develops from a
Microscopic organism to an individual weighing from 6-8 pounds
And measuring approximately 20 inches in length
2. Infancy
From birth to the age of 10 to 14 days is the period of infancy. It is divided into two
Periods, the partunate and the neonate. During the first week, growth comes to a
Standstill and his growth is not resumed until the infant is able to cope with its
Environment.
3.Babyhood.
This period extends from the age of two weeks to approximately two years. This is
Followed by a period of independence.
e.g. the baby learns to control his muscles so that he can feed himself, walk, dress
himself, talk and play.
Periods
4. Childhood.
Strictly speaking, childhood extends from the age of two years to puberty.
Development is characterized first by growth of control over the
Environment. The name “gang” age is sometimes given to this period
Because group activities of all sorts play so important a role in the child’s life.
5.Adolescence.
The age of adole scence extends from the onset of puberty, between 11 to 13
Years in the average child, to the age of maturity, 21 years.
Subdivided into three shorter periods:
a. Pre-adolescence.
> 11-13 years for girls and it comes approximately for a year later for boys.
> Also called the “negative phase” or an “about face” in their behavior at this time.
b. Early adolescence.
>This extends from the age of 16 to 17 years.
>Usually called the “awkward age”.
> During this time, physical and mental growth are completed.
Periods
A. The Five Major Developmental Periods
c. Late adolescence.
This coincides with the college age.
> Usually referred to as the “smart” or “showW-off” age.
> The most important form of development is the adjustment to a mature form of life.
There is gradually an adjustment to the opposite sex in different activities.
At the end of adolescence, the individual becomes legally and socially re-graded as
Mature. He learns to be inde pendent of adult supervision and guidance.