General

Science
by Arnold Centural Jr.
 Science and Technology

Science
is a systematic study that is concerned with facts and principles, and
methods that could be observed in our natural or physical and social
environment.

By studying science, we gain insights into how things work, from natural
laws to social behaviors, and we use these insights to develop new
technologies, solve complex issues, and better understand our world.
The Branches
PHYSICAL SCIENCES
This branch studies non-living systems and includes fields like:
Physics
Chemistry

of Science Astronomy

EARTH SCIENCES
studies the Earth and its systems, covering:
Geology
Oceanography
Paleontology
Meteorology

LIFE SCIENCES
focuses on living organisms and life processes. It includes areas such as:
Botany
Zoology
Genetics
Medicine
Scientific Method
is the logical method used by scientists to acquire knowledge that is used to explain
different phenomena in nature. A thing observed by the senses is called a phenomenon; a
scientifically tested observation is called a fact. The scientific method has six basic steps,
namely:

A. Identify and clearly state the problem. Questions arise from something observed as unusual;
problem that is specific, measurable, and attainable is identified.

B. Gather information pertinent to the problem. This is done by recalling past experiences
concerning the problem, interviewing people who are knowledgeable of the problem, and
researching in libraries and research centers.
C. Formulate hypothesis. Based on information or data gathered, an 'educated guess' can be
made.
Scientific Method

D. Carrying out experiments. Test the hypothesis.

Controlled experiment - manipulating one of the conditions or factors that may affect the result
of the experiment.

Trials - number of times experiment is repeated.

Controls - factors that are kept constant throughout the experiment
Variables - factors that change during the experiment.

Kinds:
1. Independent or experimental - factors that are changed.
2. Dependent - factors that change as a result of changes in the independent variable. It is what
you measure, as it depends on the independent variable.

E. Draw a generalization or conclusion. Test the hypothesis.

F. Apply the principle (conclusion) to other situations.
Scientific Traits 3. Open-mindedness - readiness or willingness to
change or modify ideas or principles when necessary.
Johannes Kepler changed his notion about the popular
In scientific study, some standards or belief during his time that the planets moved along
procedures must be observed. Scientists perfect circles to more accurate information that these
should always exhibit scientific attitudes like follow elliptical orbits.
the following:
4. Intellectually honest - acknowledging the contribution
of others to one's success.
Isaac Newton recognized the role of Galileo and others
1. Curiosity - readiness or willingness to change or in his formulation of the Laws of Motion.
modify ideas or principles when necessary.
Galileo's intensive desire to study heavenly bodies 5. Hardwork and Perseverance - Marie Curie and his
drove him to use a telescope to study the moon, the husband Pierre had to work on several thousand
planets, the sun, and the stars kilograms of uranium ore to strain a tenth of a gram of
pure uranium.
2. Logic and System - use of step-by-step
experimental method and keeping of accurate 6. Not-opinionated - using hard evidences to prove ones
theory.
records.
John Dalton used experimental evidences to support his
Gregor Mendel was successful in his study of atomic theory.
hereditary traits because he used logical
experimental methods and accurately recorded 7. Creativity and Critical Thinking - Albert Einstein did
his observations. not just depend on established facts and accepted
beliefs during his days. Rather, he used these to develop
his own theory in different perspective.
Technology 1. Machines - include tools, gadgets or devices
that help us do our activities faster and better.
is defined as the application of They make life more pleasant to us to do certain
scientific knowledge to practical things which we normally cannot do. (e.g.,
airplane, internet, CT scan. and computers.)
purposes. In short, it is an applied
science. It is classified into three
2. Products - materials produced or made
kinds, namely: through artificial or natural means. They make
life more pleasant, more convenient, and more
comfortable. (e.g., steel, toothpaste, chemical
fertilizers, and pesticides)

3. Processes - include the ways of doing things.

(e.g., food Preservation, prawn culture, etc.)
Measurement
International System (SI) of Measurement
Measurement is the process of comparing a quantity with a chosen standard. The (SI) is
the system of units that scientists have agreed upon and is legally enforced in of the
world. There are seven basic quantities in this system:
Measurement
Metric Prefixes
Metric prefixes are pretty easy to understand and very handy for metric conversions. You
don't have to know the nature of a unit to convert, for example, from kilo-unit to mega-
unit. All metric prefixes are powers of 10.
Temperature
There are three temperature scales in use today, Fahrenheit, Celsius and
Kelvin.

Fahrenheit temperature is a scale based on 32 for the freezing point

of water and 212 for the boiling point of water, the interval between
the two being divided into 180 parts. The conversion formula for a
temperature that is expressed on the Celsius (C) scale to its
Fahrenheit (F) representation is:

F = 9/5C + 32.
Temperature
Celsius temperature scale also called centigrade temperature scale, is
the scale based on 0 for the freezing point of water and 100 for the
boiling point of water.

Invented in 1742 by the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius, it is

sometimes called the centigrade scale because of the 100-degree
interval between the defined points.

The following formula can be used to convert a temperature from its

representation on the Fahrenheit ( F) scale to the Celsius (C) value:

C = 5/9(F - 32)
Temperature
The Kelvin scale is a temperature scale used primarily in science to measure
absolute temperature. Unlike Celsius or Fahrenheit, the Kelvin scale starts at
absolute zero (0 K), which is the theoretical point where particles have minimal
motion and no thermal energy.

The Kelvin (symbol K without the degree sign) is also the fundamental unit of the
Kelvin scale, an absolute temperature scale named for the British physicist
William Thomson, Baron Kelvin.

To convert Celsius to Kelvin:

K = __°C + 273
Volume APPLICATION: Regular Solid
Volume refers to the amount of space that an object
occupies. It is often used to signify more accurate
measurements.

VOLUME OF A REGULAR SOLID

A regular solid is one having length, width, and

thickness or height and each can be measured in a
single straight line. To measure the volume, we use a
standard unit of measurement which is the meter. The
volume of a regular solid is obtained by multiplying its
length, width and thickness. The volume is expressed
in cubic units ( ex. Cubic meter, cubic cm, etc)
APPLICATION: Clear or colored liquids

VOLUME OF A LIQUID
Liquid volume is also measured in cubic meters but the
use of liter (L) is widely accepted. Graduated cylinder is
used to measure the volume of liquid. In reading the
measurement of the volume of clear liquid, read the
lower meniscus. For colored liquids, read the upper
meniscus.
Volume

VOLUME OF AN IRREGULAR SOLID APPLICATION

An irregular solid is one where a dimension cannot be

measured in a single straight line. The displacement
method is used to determine the volume of irregular
solids.

Displacement method used by Archimedes: Fill a

container with water, put the object in the container
and catch the overflow. Get the volume of the overflow)
Density
APPLICATION
Density is the mass of the object per unit volume.
Substances differ in their densities. Each substance
has a specific density.

All materials with a density les than 1 g./cc (density of

water) will float on water, and all those with
density greater than 1 g/cc will sink.

D= Mass / Volume (g/cc )

Force
normally refers to the measurement of a push or a pull
anything that changes the speed and direction of moving objects or that which
causes a stationary object to start moving in a straight line

TYPES OF FORCES

01 02 03
Gravitational Force Nuclear Force Electromagnetic
Force
downward force that the earth the strongest known force which force that holds atoms together. It
exerts on objects holds together the protons and causes electrically charged
neutrons in the nucleus of an particles (like protons and
atom. electrons) to attract or repel each
other
Force
MASS vs WEIGHT

Mass indicates the quantity of matter in a material object. It does not change, thus it a
property that is constant.

It is measured in a unit called kilogram.

Weight on the other hand, is the measure of the pull of gravity on an object. On earth, it
depends on the mass of the object and its distance from the center of the earth.

The greater the mass of an object, the greater its weight.

Weight is expressed in N unit. 100g = 1N.

Work

In science, work is done only when the force applied to an object actually moves the object
in the direction of the force. This is represented as:

Force- anything that causes motion or a change in motion

Displacement – the distance and direction through hich an object is moved
Work
Machines
Machine is any mechanical device that we use yo help us do our work, or make our
work easier.

Simple Machines – machines that have only one or two parts

Compound Machines – machines that make use of or more simple machines

SIMPLE MACHINES
a. Lever – any rigid body which is pivoted about a point called fulcrum (e.g. crowbar, hammer, pliers, nutcracker,
tongs, table knife, baseball bat)
b. Pulley - a wheel with a grooved rim over which a rope passes.(flag pole)
c. Wheel and axle – consists of a wheel attached to an axle so that if you push on the wheel, the
axle turns also ( e.g. doorknob, eggbeater, screw driver)
d. Inclined plane –a flat surface with one and higher than the other. The longer it is in relation to its height, the
larger is its mechanical advantage (e.g. plank, ladder, winding road)
e. Wedge – an inclined plane with either one or two sloping sides. The smaller the angle of the
wedge, the greater the mechanical advantage ( nail,scissors, chisel, knife)
f. Screw – spiral inclined planes.Works by transferring force exerted on the circumference of
the screw (food grinder, metal screws)
Energy
The term energy is derived from the Greek word, energeial. This word combines en-
(meaning "in") and ergon (meaning "work" or "activity"). The idea of being active or
having the capacity to produce work. Anything that is able to do work possess energy.

FORMS OF ENERGY
a. Mechanical Energy
kinetic energy – energy possessed by an object or a body in motion
potential energy - energy possessed by a body because of its position or state
b. Internal Energy or Thermal Energy – total energy coming from the attractive and repulsive forces of all the particles or
molecules in a body
c. Heat Energy – energy which flows from one body to another due to a temperature difference between them, and the flow
is always from the hotter to the colder body
d. Electrical Energy – electricity is the energy of electrons flowing through conductors, like copper wires and aluminum
wires.
e. Chemical Energy – energy stored in matter due to forces of attraction and to the arrangement of subatomic particles in
atoms and of atoms in the molecules of substances.
f. Radiant Energy – energy of the electromagnetic waves , radio waves, infrared rays, visible light, ultraviolet rays, x rays and
gamma rays.
g. Nuclear Energy – energy released from nuclear fusion or fission of atomic nuclei of heavy element or light element.
Energy

Convection
METHODS OF HEAT
TRANSFER
The movement of a gas or liquid
brought about by temperature
differences creates a convection
Conduction current. Heat is transferred by
Convection when a gas or liquid
moves from one place to another.
The molecules in a material are always
moving. When one part of a material is
heated, the molecules in that part move
faster and collide with other molecules.
Radiation
As this goes on, heat is conducted
from molecule to molecule until the
heat is spread throughout the material.

Heat transfer when heat is given of

A conductor is the material through
which heat passes easily.
in all directions around them is
An insulator is a material that radiation. The sun and other hot
conducts heat poorly. objects radiates energy.
Energy

ENERGY RESOURCES
a. Fossil Fuels
Coal - being mined formed from trees and other vegetation buried in swamps crated by the encroaching sea
Petroleum - a liquid mixture of gaseous liquid and solid hydrocarbons.
Natural Gas - composed entirely of carbon and hydrogen. It is 50 to 94% methane and other hydrocarbons.
b. Hydroelectric Power - pertains to the production of electricity by means of generators driven by water
turbines.
c. Geothermal Energy - Thermal energy inside the earth, energy of steam from beneath the earth’s surface
d. Wind Energy - energy harnessed through the windmill
e. Solar Energy - energy from the sun, radiant energy. The visible light is harnessed to produce the electricity by
means of so-called solar cells or photovoltaic cells, which generate eletricity when exposed to sunlight
Earth
Formation of the Earth

BIG BANG

The Big Bang theory explains that the universe began as an incredibly hot and dense point. About 13.8 billion
years ago, this point suddenly expanded, releasing huge amounts of energy.

During this expansion, the gravitational forces that held this dense body together were broken, leading to an
explosion that scattered particles across space.

In the first moments, tiny particles like protons, neutrons, and electrons formed. As the universe expanded and
cooled, these particles combined to create simple atoms, mostly hydrogen.

Over time, gravity pulled these atoms together to form gaseous clouds. These clouds collapsed and created
stars, where hydrogen atoms fused into heavier elements. When stars died, they exploded, spreading these
elements across space. This process eventually led to the formation of planets, galaxies, and the universe as
we know it.
Earth
Formation of the Earth

FORMATION OF SOLAR SYSTEM

The Solar System started to form when matter in space began to come together, creating stars. One of these
stars formed where the Sun is now. This star began burning its fuel through a process called fusion, but
eventually, it exploded, spreading matter all around.

The matter cooled down and, because of gravity, started to come together in certain areas, forming planets and
the asteroid belt. The asteroid belt is made of leftover material that didn’t form a planet because Jupiter’s gravity
was too strong.

Some early planets may have crashed into each other, creating larger planets, moons, or space rocks. At the
same time, a smaller star formed in the center of the explosion, and that’s when our Sun started burning and
became the center of our Solar System.
Earth
Formation of the Earth

EARTH’S STRUCTURE
The earth consists of several layers. The three main layers are the core, the mantle and the crust.
Core - The inner part of the earth is the core. The core is a dense ball of the elements iron and nickel. It is
divided into two layers, the inner core and the outer core.
Mantle - The layer above the core is the mantle. It is about 1,800 miles (2,900 km) thick and makes up nearly
80 percent of the Earth's total volume.
Crust - The crust lies above the mantle and is the earth's hard outer shell, the surface on which we are living.
a. Oceanic crust - about 4-7 miles (6-11 km) thick and consists of heavy rocks, like basalt
b. Continental crust - is thicker than the Oceanic crust, about 19 miles (30 km) thick. It is mainly made up of light material, like
granite.

Till this moment it hasn't been possible to take a look inside the earth because the current technology doesn't
allow it. Therefore all kinds of research had to be done to find which material the earth consists, what different
layers there are and which influence those have (had) on the earth's surface. This research is called seismology.
Earth
Formation of the Earth

PLATE TECTONICS

The earth's crust consists of a number of moving pieces or plates that are always colliding or
pulling
apart.

The Lithosphere (crust and uppermost mantle) consists of nine large plates and twelve smaller
ones. The continents are embedded in continental plates; the oceanic plates make up much of
the sea floor.

The study of Tectonic plates - called plate tectonics - helps to explain continental drift, the
spreading of the sea floor, volcanic eruptions and how mountains are formed.
Earth
Formation of the Earth

PLATE TECTONICS

The movement of tectonic plates is likely

driven by the slow churning of the mantle
beneath them.

Mantle rock is constantly moved upwards

to the surface by the high temperatures
below and then sinks by cooling.

This process is done through Convection

Current. This cycle takes millions of years.
Earth
Formation of the Earth

CONTINENTAL DRIFT
The drift of the plates across the
surface of the earth has been going
on over millions of years, which still
changes the outward appearance of
the earth.

When you look at the map of the

world, you see how well the east
coast of North and South America fits
into the west coast of Europe and
Africa. Over millions of years these
continents have slowly drifted apart.
Earth
Formation of the Earth

DIVERGING PLATES
Where plates pull apart, hot molten rock (fluid
magma) emerges as lava and so new matter is
added to the plates. In this way new oceanic plates
are formed. The place where this happens is known
as a mid-ocean ridge. Mid-ocean ridges are rarely
more than about 4,920 ft. (1,500 m) high, but they
may snake along the ocean bed for thousands of
miles. Beneath each of the world's great oceans
there is a mid-ocean ridge. An example is the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge in the Atlantic Ocean, which
stretches from the North Pole to the South Pole.
Mid-ocean ridges are areas of much volcanic and
earthquake activity.
Earth
Formation of the Earth

CONVERGING PLATES
In many places the huge plates of the earth's surface are slowly
moving together with unimaginable force. Sometimes the edge of
one plate is gradually destroyed by the force of collision,
sometimes the impact simply crimps the plates' edges, thereby
creating great mountain ranges.

When one tectonic plate bends beneath the other, it is called

subduction. Most of the time this happens because a dense
oceanic plate collides with a lighter continental plate.

Through the heat of the Asthenosphere the subducted plate

melts. At the surface an ocean trench is created, followed by an
arc of islands. In this area also volcanic activities and earthquakes
occur.
Earth
Formation of the Earth

SEAFLOOR SPREADING

Occurs at divergent plate boundaries.

specifically at mid-ocean ridges, where two
tectonic plates are moving away from each other

This process continuously renews the ocean

floor, gradually moving older crust away from the
ridge and creating symmetrical patterns of rock
on both sides of the ridge. Seafloor spreading is
one of the primary drivers of plate tectonics and
plays a crucial role in reshaping Earth's ocean
basins.
Earth
Formation of the Earth

DIASTROPHISM

the process which involves movements of the

earth’s crust such that a portion is pushed
up, push down or forced sideways

Folding – the process when the sideward

forces acting on rocks deform the rocks into
wavelike folds after tilting, bending of
wrinkling.
Faulting - sliding or moving over of rock
layers over one another along the break or
fracture, may occur vertically or horizontally.
Earth
Formation of the Earth

VOLCANOES

A Volcano is a gap in the earth where molten rock and other materials come to the earth's surface.

Some volcanoes are just cracks in the earth's crusts. Others are weak places in the earth's crust, which occur on
places where magma bubbles up through the crust and comes to the earth's surface.

Magma is molten rock that occurs by partial melting of the crust and the mantle by high temperatures deep
down in the ground.
Once magma comes to the earth's surface it is called lava.
Earth
Formation of the Earth

ACTIVE AND NON-ACTIVE VOLCANOES

There are volcanoes in different phases of activity:

Active volcanoes - which are likely to erupt at any moment,
Dormant volcanoes - which lie dormant for centuries, but then erupt suddenly and
violently
Extinct volcanoes - ones no longer likely to erupt.
 Earth
Formation of the Earth

TYPES OF VOLCANOES

Taal Volcano
Earth
Formation of the Earth

EARTHQUAKES

An Earthquake is in fact the shaking of the ground caused by sudden movements in the earth's crust. The biggest earthquakes are set off by the
movement of tectonic plates. Some plates slide past each other gently, but others can cause a heavy pressure on the rocks, so they finally crack and
slide past each other.

By this, vibrations or shock waves are caused, which go through the ground. It is these vibrations or seismic waves which cause an earthquake. The
closer to the source of the earthquake (the focus or hypocenter), the more damage occurs. Earthquakes are classified according to the depth of the
focus.

The closer the focus to the surface, the heavier the earthquake. The earthquake is always the most intense on the surface directly above the focus
(Epicenter). In general big earthquakes begin with light vibrations (foreshocks). These are the initial fractures in the rocks. After the main shock, there
may be minor aftershocks, most of the time for months. This occurs as the rocks settle down.

Most Destructive
Earth
Formation of the Earth

ROCKS

Rocks are classified in three types based on how they are formed.

1. Igneous rocks are formed when molten rock (magma) from within Earth cools and solidifies. There
are two types: intrusive igneous rocks solidify beneath Earth's surface; extrusive igneous rocks solidify
at the surface. Examples: Granite, basalt, obsidian
2. Sedimentary rocks are formed when sediment (bits of rock plus material such as shells and sand) gets
packed together. They can take millions of years to form. Most rocks that you see on the ground are
sedimentary. Examples: Limestone, sandstone, shale
3. Metamorphic rocks are sedimentary or igneous rocks that have been transformed by heat, pressure
or both. Metamorphic rocks are usually formed deep within Earth, during a process such as mountain
building. Examples: Schist, marble, slate
Earth
Formation of the Earth

THE ROCK CYCLE

The rock cycle is the process by which rocks are constantly changing from
one type to another over time. There are three main types of rocks in the
cycle: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

The rock cycle shows how these different types of rocks can transform into
one another.
Igneous rocks can break down into sediments, which form sedimentary
rocks.
Sedimentary rocks can be buried and subjected to heat and pressure,
turning into metamorphic rocks.
Metamorphic rocks can melt and become magma, which can then cool
to form new igneous rocks.
This cycle happens over millions of years, and the process is continuous.
Earth
Formation of the Earth
TYPES OF WEATHERING

A. Physical or mechanical weathering

Physical or mechanical weathering involves the breakdown of rocks into smaller pieces
without changing their chemical composition. This process typically happens due to physical
forces, such as temperature changes, water, wind, and biological activity. Key types of
physical weathering include:
Earth
Formation of the Earth
TYPES OF WEATHERING

A. Physical or mechanical weathering

Frost Wedging - Water enters cracks in the rock, freezes, and

expands, exerting pressure on the rock. Repeated cycles of
freezing and thawing cause the rock to break apart.
Thermal Expansion and Contraction - Rocks expand when
heated (often by the sun) and contract when cooled. Repeated
temperature fluctuations weaken the rock, causing it to crack
and fragment.
Exfoliation - When rocks formed deep within the Earth are
exposed at the surface, the release of pressure causes them
to expand and peel off in layers, a process often seen in
granite formations.
Earth
Formation of the Earth
TYPES OF WEATHERING

B. Chemical weathering

Chemical weathering involves changes to the chemical composition of the rock, often leading to the
formation of new minerals. This process is mainly driven by reactions with water, oxygen, and acidic
substances. Key types of chemical weathering include:
Earth
Formation of the Earth
TYPES OF WEATHERING
B. Chemical weathering
Hydrolysis - Water reacts with minerals in the rock, transforming
them into softer minerals. For example, feldspar (a common mineral
in granite) can chemically alter to form clay minerals.
Oxidation - Oxygen reacts with minerals, especially those
containing iron, leading to the formation of oxides. This is what
causes rust-colored stains on rocks and is common in iron-rich
rocks like basalt.
Carbonation - rain water containing Carbon dioxide dissolves
minerals. Carbon dioxide (CO₂) interacts with minerals in a cave
environment, leading to chemical reactions that can form unique
cave formations.
Earth
Formation of the Earth
TYPES OF WEATHERING
B. Chemical weathering

Dissolution - Some minerals dissolve directly in water,

particularly in slightly acidic water. For example, rock salt
(halite) and gypsum dissolve easily, contributing to
erosion in areas where these rocks are present.
Biological Chemical Weathering - Organisms like
lichens and mosses produce acids as they grow on
rocks, which chemically break down minerals in the
rock’s surface.
Earth
Formation of the Earth

Important Terms to Remember:

EROSION - the process by which rock fragments and sediments are carried along by such agents as wind and
running water.

DEPOSITION - the process by which rock fragments and sediments are carried by agents of erosion dropped or deposited in other
places.
Flood plains and deltas are formed by the deposition of sediments carried by rivers.
Lagoons can be created by the deposition of sandbars or other materials that separate a body of water from the sea.

COMPACTING – the process by which rock fragments and other materials that accumulated, usually at the
bottom of a thick column of water, get cemented together and harden into rock.

METAMORPHISM - a change in constitution of a rock brought about by pressure, heat and chemical
action resulting in a more compact and highly crystalline condition of the rock.
Earth
Formation of the Earth

MINERALS AND GEMS

Minerals are solid, inorganic (not living) substances that are found in and on earth. Most are chemical compounds,
which means they are made up of two or more elements. For example, the mineral sapphire is made up of aluminum
and oxygen. A few minerals, such as gold, silver and copper, are made from a single element.

Minerals are considered the building blocks of rocks. Rocks can be a combination of as many as six minerals.
compounds, which means they are made up of two or more elements. For example, the mineral sapphire is made up of aluminum and oxygen. A few minerals, such as gold, silver and copper, are made from a single element. Minerals are considered the building blocks of rocks. Rocks can be a combination of as many as six minerals.
Earth
Atmosphere

ATMOSPHERE

The earth is surrounded by all kind of gases. This layer is called the earth's Atmosphere. Without this atmosphere, life
on earth isn't possible. It gives us air, water, heat, and protects us against harmful rays of the sun and against
meteorites.

This layer around the earth is a colorless, odorless, tasteless 'sea' of gases, water and fine dust. The atmosphere is
made up of different layers with different qualities. It consists of 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, 0.93
percent argon, 0.03 percent carbon dioxide and 0.04 percent of other gases.
compounds, which means they are made up of two or more elements. For example, the mineral sapphire is made up of aluminum and oxygen. A few minerals, such as gold, silver and copper, are made from a single element. Minerals are considered the building blocks of rocks. Rocks can be a combination of as many as six minerals.
 Earth
Atmosphere

LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE

The Troposphere is the lowest layer, extending up to about 7 miles (12
km) from the Earth’s surface. It contains most of the atmosphere’s gases,
water vapor, and dust, making it the site of all weather events. In this
layer, temperatures decrease with altitude, reaching the boundary known
as the tropopause. Airplanes typically fly within the lower to middle part
of the troposphere, at altitudes between 30,000 and 40,000 feet (9 to 12
km).

Above the troposphere lies the Stratosphere, which extends up to 31

miles (50 km). This layer contains the ozone layer, a critical shield that
absorbs harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun. Unlike the
troposphere, the stratosphere becomes warmer with altitude due to the
absorption of UV radiation, creating stable air conditions that prevent
significant weather.
 Earth
Atmosphere

LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE

The Mesosphere sits above the stratosphere, reaching up to about 50 miles (80 km). It
is the coldest atmospheric layer, with temperatures dropping to -184°F (-120°C). The
mesosphere is also thick enough to cause most meteors to burn up upon entry,
creating “shooting stars.”

The Thermosphere extends from the mesosphere to about 430 miles (700 km). Here,
temperatures rise dramatically, reaching up to 3,600°F (2,000°C), as thin gases absorb
intense solar radiation. The thermosphere includes the ionosphere, a sub-layer that
reflects radio waves and affects communication and GPS signals. GPS satellites orbit
in the thermosphere, typically at altitudes of 12,500 miles (20,000 km) above Earth’s
surface, where they provide signals for navigation.

The Exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere, extending from about 430
miles (700 km) to 6,200 miles (10,000 km). Here, the atmosphere is extremely thin, and
particles are far apart. It marks the transition to space, with satellites in higher orbits,
including geostationary ones, located within this region.
Earth
Air

AIR MOVEMENT

Warm air is less dense than cold air.

Thus, warm air rises above cold air
making the pressure below lower.

The horizontal movement of air from

high pressure area to lower
pressure area produces wind.
Earth
Air

SEA BREEZES
During the day, the land heats up faster than the
water, causing the air above the land to warm and
rise.

Cooler air from the sea then moves inland to

replace the rising warm air, creating a breeze that
blows from the sea to the land.

Sea breezes are common in coastal areas during

the day.
Earth
Air

LAND BREEZES
At night, the land cools more quickly than the sea,
causing the air above the land to cool and sink.

This creates a high-pressure area over the land,

and the cooler air from the land moves toward the
warmer, lower-pressure area over the sea,
creating a breeze that blows from the land to the
sea.

Land breezes typically occur at night.

In land breeze and sea breeze, convection is the primary
method of heat transfer responsible for creating the breeze.
Earth
Air

AIR POLLUTION

When large amount of dust, soot, bacteria, and other harmful gases get into the air,
air is being polluted. Today, the main sources of air pollution in the Philippines are :
1) industry
2) transportation
 Earth
Air

Major Air Pollutants

1. Ozone - created by the reaction of pollutants in sunlight, created when nitrogen

oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted from vehicles and
industrial sources react in the presence of sunlight.
2. Carbon Monoxide - formed through incomplete combustion of fossil fuels when
there isn’t enough oxygen for fuel to fully burn. This often happens in car
engines, industrial equipment, and gas-powered appliances.
3. Nitrogen Dioxide - produced during high-temperature combustion, where
nitrogen and oxygen in the air combine. Major sources are vehicle engines,
power plants, and other industrial processes.
4. Particulate Matter - Tiny solid or liquid particles in the air from dust,
construction, vehicles, and power plants.
 Earth
Air

Major Air Pollutants

5. Sulfux Dioxide - Produced when fossil fuels containing sulfur, especially coal
and oil, are burned.
6. Lead - A toxic metal found in car emissions, power plants, lead paint, and old
pipes.
7. Toxic Air Pollutants - Includes chemicals like arsenic, asbestos, and benzene,
mostly from chemical plants and fossil fuel combustion.
8. Stratospheric Ozone Depleters - Chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), found in aerosols, break down in the stratosphere under UV light,
releasing chlorine atoms that destroy ozone molecules.
9. Greenhouse Gases - Includes carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide,
primarily from fossil fuel burning, agriculture, and industrial processes. These
gases trap heat, causing the greenhouse effect.
Earth
Weather and Climate

WEATHER CLOUDS
- describes the condition of the atmosphere in a - little drops of water or ice hanging in the atmosphere.

particular time (cool and dry, humid, windy, A ceilometer measures the height of clouds.

rainy, or stormy)

CLIMATE
- average weather in a region over a number of years or
usually decades (tropical)
 Earth
Weather and Climate

CIRRUS CLOUD CIRROCUMULUS CLOUD

 Earth
Weather and Climate

CIRROSTRATUS CLOUD STRATUS CLOUD

 Earth
Weather and Climate

CUMULUS CLOUD CUMULONIMBUS CLOUD

 Earth
Winds

WIND SYSTEMS
The major wind systems in the Philippines are
A. Northeast Trade Winds – blow consistently from the
northeast to the southwest within tropical regions
Typically found between 0° and 30° latitude north, across
the tropical regions of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

Climate Impact: Provide a steady, warm airflow across

tropical regions, influencing the climate but generally not
bringing heavy rains like monsoons do.
 Earth
Winds

WIND SYSTEMS
B. Southwest Monsoon (habagat) – originates from Southeast
Trade winds south of the equator

Predominantly affects the Philippines and much of Southeast

Asia during the rainy season from June to October.

Brings heavy rains, high humidity, and thunderstorms leading

to the wet season in the Philippines and surrounding areas,
often causing flooding and tropical storms.

This season is often referred to as tag-ulan (rainy season)

 Earth
Winds

WIND SYSTEMS
C. Northeast monsoon (amihan) - from east, south east

Primarily affects the Philippines and other parts of Southeast

Asia from November to March.

Brings cool, dry air with mild temperatures and less rainfall,
resulting in cooler weather, especially compared to the
Southwest Monsoon.

This period aligns with tag-lamig (cool season).

Earth
Winds

CYCLONES THUNDERSTORMS
– low pressure areas in the tropics Thunderstorms affect small areas when compared with
hurricanes and winter storms. The typical thunderstorm is 15
Tropical depresssion- with wind speed of less miles in diameter and lasts an average of 30 minutes. Nearly
than 63 kph 1,800 thunderstorms are happening at any moment around the
Tropical storm – with wind speed of 63-118 kph world.
Typhoon – with wind speed of more than 118
kph Thunderstorms need three things:
Moisture: to form clouds and rain.
Unstable Air: relatively warm air that can rise rapidly.
Lift: fronts, sea breezes and mountains are capable of
lifting air to help form thunderstorms.
Earth
Winds

LIGHTNING
The action of rising and descending air within a
thunderstorm separates positive and negative
charges. Water and ice particles also affect the
distribution of electrical charge.

Lightning results from the buildup and discharge of

electrical energy between positively and negatively
charged areas. Most lightning occurs within the
cloud or between the cloud and ground.

Lightning trivia:
Your chances of being struck by lightning are
estimated to be 1 in 600,000
Astronomy
The Universe
Astronomy
The Universe

COLORS OF THE UNIVERSE

Blue Planets - Earth, Neptune, and Uranus are all blue because of gases in their
atmosphere.
Blue Stars - These are the hottest stars, with a surface temperature of more than
37,000°F.
Yellow Stars - These are warm stars, such as the Sun. Their temperature is about
10,000°F.
Red Stars - The coolest stars are red. Their surface temperature is less than
5,500°F.
Red Spot - A swirling cloud on the planet Jupiter is a raging storm of gases, mainly
red phosphorus
Astronomy
The Universe

SPACE GLOSSARY
Galaxies are immense systems containing billions of stars. Astronomers have estimated that the universe could contain 40 to 50 billion galaxies. Galaxies have different shapes: some
are spiral, others are elliptical, or oval- shaped, and some are irregular.
The Milky Way is our own galaxy. Just about all that you can see in the sky belongs to our galaxy—a system of roughly 200 billion stars. The Milky Way is a spiral-shaped galaxy about
100,000 light-years in diameter and about 10,000 light-years in thickness.
The solar system is made up of the Sun (solar means sun) at its center, the nine planets that orbit it, and the various satellites, asteroids, comets, and meteorites that are also
controlled by the Sun's gravitational pull.
The Sun is the closest star to Earth and the center of our solar system. Every second, it converts 49 million tons (45 million metric tons) of matter into pure energy, which reaches us in
the form of light. The Sun weighs more than 300,000 times as much as Earth and is 109 times larger.
Sunspots appear as dark spots on the Sun, and are believed to be cooler than the rest of the Sun. They appear in 11-year cycles.
Planet is the term used for a body in orbit around the Sun. The word comes from the Greek planetes, and means “wanderers.” Our solar system has nine planets: Mercury, Venus,
Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto.
Satellite (or moon) is the term for a body in orbit around a planet. As long as our own Moon was the only moon known, there was no need for a general term for the moons of planets.
But when Galileo Galilei discovered the four main moons of the planet Jupiter, Johannes Kepler wrote Galileo a letter suggesting he call them “satellites” (from the Latin satelles, which
means attendant). The word means the same thing as “moon.”
Planet
Orbit is the term for the path traveled by a body in space. It comes from the Latin orbis, which means circle. Some orbits are nearly circular, but the orbits of most planets are ellipses
—shaped like ovals.
Asteroids, also known as the minor planets, are small bodies orbiting the Sun that resemble planets. More than 5,000 asteroids have been discovered, and most are found between
Mars and Jupiter. Usually having an irregular shape, asteroids—at least those discovered thus far—can range in size from 580 miles (940 km) in diameter, which is the size of the
asteroid Ceres, to just 33 ft. (10 m) in diameter.
Astronomy
The Universe

SPACE GLOSSARY
Comets are made up of frozen dust and gases, and have been described as large, dirty snowballs with icy centers. They often travel on extremely elongated orbits around the Sun.
Some comets have orbits that take just 10 years to circumnavigate while other comets have orbits that take hundreds of thousands of years to circulate. The tail of a comet, called a
coma, forms when the comet comes within 100 million miles of the Sun. It is then affected by the solar wind (hydrogen and helium that travel away from the Sun at high speeds), which
causes a tail of dust and gases to form behind the comet.
Meteors are fragments of comets, planets, moons, or asteroids that have broken off. It is estimated that a billion meteors enter our atmosphere every day. Contact with our
atmosphere causes most to disintegrate before reaching Earth. Those that do not disintegrate completely but fall to Earth are called meteorites.
Stars are composed of intensely hot gasses, deriving their energy from nuclear reactions going on in their interiors. Our Sun is the nearest star. Stars are very large — some are even
bigger than planets. Our Sun has a diameter of 865,400 miles—making it a comparatively small star.
White dwarfs occur when a star runs out of energy and shuts down. The force of gravity at its center pulls the mass of the star in on itself, forcing it to collapse. It resembles the
glowing cinders of a fire that has died down. It is called a white dwarf because it emits a white glow.
Brown Dwarfs are also called failed stars. They lack enough energy to be true stars but are also too massive and hot to be planets.
A supernova is an extremely large exploding star. Just before the star dies, it releases huge amounts of energy, briefly becoming millions of times brighter than it was. Then it
immediately shrinks.
Neutron stars are formed after a supernova explodes and shrinks. The shrunken form of the star becomes incredibly dense and compact as gravity pulls all of its matter inward. It
becomes so compressed that a million tons of its matter would hardly fill a thimble. This density crushes together the electrons and protons that make up its atoms, turning them into
neutrons.
Pulsars are believed to be rapidly spinning neutron stars that give off bursts of radio waves at regular intervals. Pulsar is a shortened version of Puls[ating st]ar.
Quasars (quas[istell]ar objects) are believed to be the most remote objects in the universe. Despite their small size they produce tremendous amounts of light and microwave
radiation: not much bigger than Earth's solar system, they pour out 100 to 1,000 times as much light as an entire galaxy containing a hundred billion stars.
Astronomy
The Universe

SPACE GLOSSARY
A black hole is created by the total gravitational collapse of a massive star or group of stars. It is the final phase of some stars, in which gravity sucks the star in on itself—it implodes
rather than explodes. This makes it so dense that not even light can escape its gravitational field.
A nebula is a giant glowing cloud thought to be made up of dust and gas. Nebulae were thought to have been galaxies that appeared as a blur because they were so far away, but as
more powerful telescopes were created, they showed that nebulae were not clumps of stars but in fact a hazy cloud of gasses. A nebula is illuminated by bright stars nearby. More
than 300 nebulae have been named.
Astronomy
The Universe

SOLAR SYSTEM
Astronomy
The Universe

SOLAR SYSTEM
Astronomy
The Universe

SOLAR SYSTEM
Astronomy
The Universe

SOLAR SYSTEM
Astronomy
The Universe

SOLAR SYSTEM
Astronomy
The Universe

THE MOONS
Astronomy
The Universe

THE MOONS
The gravitational pull of the Moon on the Earth affects
the ocean tides on Earth. The closer the Moon is to
Earth, the greater the effect.

“Full Moon and No Moon describe two phases of the

Moon as it orbits Earth. When the Moon is between the
Sun and the Earth, its sunlit side is turned away from the
Earth and we say there is no Moon. When the Earth is
between the Sun and Moon, we can see the entire sunlit
side of the Moon and call it a full Moon.
Astronomy
The Universe

THE MOONS
As Earth rotates, different areas are exposed to the Moon’s
gravitational pull, causing a cycle of two high tides and two low
tides each day in most places.

When the Moon and Earth are in line (either on the same side of
Earth or on opposite sides), the highest tides occur, known as
spring tides. This happens because the gravitational forces of
the Moon and the Sun align to pull on Earth's oceans more
strongly, creating a larger tidal effect.

When the Earth, Moon, and Sun form a right angle (during the
Moon's first and third quarters), the lowest tides occur, a
phenomenon known as neap tides.
Astronomy
The Universe

THE MOONS
THANK YOU