2 Fluid Mechanics

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Fluid mechanics is simply the study of forces and flow within fluids. The fluid
properties can vary enormously from industry to industry. The fluid may be toxic,
flammable, abrasive, radio-active, explosive or corrosive; it may be single-phase
(clean gas, water, or oil) or multi-phase (e.g. slurries, wet steam, unrefined petroleum,
or dust-laden gases). The pipe carrying the fluid may vary from less than 1 mm to
many metres in diameter. Fluid temperatures may vary from close to absolute zero
to several hundred degrees Celsius, and the pressure may vary from high vacuum to
hundreds or even thousands of atmospheres.

2.2 MASS VERSUS WEIGHT

One of the most basic properties of any liquid or gas is its mass. And this in turn
raises the question: mass or weight – what’s the difference? Both terms are frequently
misunderstood and, consequently, frequently misused.
Let’s start with ‘mass’. Mass is a fundamental measure of the amount of material in
an object and is directly related to the number and types of atoms present (Figure 2.1).
It would seem self-evident that in (a) there are more atoms enclosed by the volume
than there are in (b) and thus it would contain more material and would, consequently,
have a higher mass.
‘Weight’, on the other hand, is a measure of the gravitational force acting on the
mass of the object and may be given by:

w = m ⋅g (2.1)

where
w = weight
m = mass
g = acceleration due to gravity

From this we should be able to deduce that the mass of an object remains constant
wherever it is measured. Its weight on the moon would only be a sixth of that measured
on the Earth since the Moon’s gravitational force is six times weaker.
In essence, there are two systems of measurement used to describe mass and
weight:

• The SI or metric system

• The FPS system – alternatively known as the ‘US customary system’, The
‘Standard’ system, or even, erroneously (especially in the United States), the
‘Imperial’ or ‘English’ system

7
8 The Concise Industrial Flow Measurement Handbook

(a) (b)

FIGURE 2.1 There are more atoms enclosed by the volume in (a) than there are in (b) and
thus it would contain more material.

2.2.1 SI Units
In the SI system the unit of mass is kilogram (kg) and, since weight is a force, the unit
of weight is Newton (N).
► According to Newton’s Second Law the fundamental relationship between mass
and weight is defined as:

F = m ⋅a (2.2)

where
F = force (N)
m = mass (kg)
a = acceleration (m/s2)

Consequently, for a body having a mass of 1 kg:

F = (1 kg) · (9.807 m/s2) = 9.807 N

where
9.807 m/s2 = standard gravity close to Earth in the SI system. ◄

2.2.2 FPS Units

If the correct units were adhered to, the FPS system would be equally straightforward
in which the unit of mass is slug and the unit of force/weight is pound or
pound-force (lb).
The slug is derived from pound-force by defining it as the mass that will accelerate
at 1 foot per second per second when a 1 pound-force acts upon it:

1 lb = (1 slug) · (1 ft/s2)

In other words, 1 lb (pound) force acting on 1 slug mass will give the mass an
acceleration of 1 ft/s2.
Since standard gravity (g) in FPS = 32.17405 ft/s2 a mass of 1 slug weighs
32.17405 lb (pound-force).
Fluid Mechanics 9

Unfortunately, lack of standardisation has also led to the basic unit of mass being
defined as pound-mass (lbm) or just (lbm) and the unit of force as pound-force (lbf ) or (lbf).

2.3 DENSITY
The density of an object is simply its mass per unit volume and the symbol most
frequently used is the Greek symbol rho (ρ).
Mathematically, density is defined as the mass divided by volume:

m
ρ= (2.3)
V
where
ρ = density
m = mass
V = volume

Again, when comparing Figures 2.2a and b, for the given volume enclosing the two
substances there are more atoms enclosed by the same volume in (a) than in (b) and
thus the mass would be much higher and, consequently, its density.
In SI units, density is usually described in kg/m3 – with several SI-derived units
that include: g/cm3 or kg/L.
In the FPS system there are again a number of units used to describe density
including: lb/ft3, lb/inch3 and lb/gal.

2.4 SPECIFIC GRAVITY

The specific gravity (often referred to as the relative density) is a dimensionless figure
in which the density of the material is referenced to water – simply, is it heavier or
lighter than water.
Since the densities of the sample and of water vary with temperature and pressure,
both the temperatures and pressures at which the densities were determined must be
specified. Measurements are normally made at 1 nominal atmosphere (1,013.25 mbar).
However, since specific gravity is usually related to highly incompressible fluids, the
variations in density caused by pressure are usually neglected.

(a) (b)

FIGURE 2.2 Since there are more atoms enclosed by the same volume in (a) than in (b) the
mass would be much higher as would its density.
10 The Concise Industrial Flow Measurement Handbook

TABLE 2.1
Some Typical Values of Specific Gravity for a Variety of
Incompressible Liquids
Specific Gravity
Fluid Temperature (°C) (SG)
Alcohol, ethyl (ethanol) 25 0.787
Alcohol, methyl (methanol) 25 0.791
Ammonia 25 0.826
Benzene 25 0.876
Butane, liquid 25 0.601
Crude oil, California 15.55 0.918
Crude oil, Texas 15.55 0.876
Ethane -89 0.572
Ether 25 0.716
Ethylene glycol 25 1.100
Hexane 25 0.657
Kerosene 15.55 0.820
Methane -164 0.466
Octane 25 0.701
Pentane 25 0.755
Propane 25 0.495
Sea water 25 1.028
Toluene 25 0.865
Turpentine 25 0.871
Water, pure 4 1.000

The density of water is normally taken at its densest (3.98 ≈ 4°C). Table 2.1 shows
some typical values of specific gravity for a variety of incompressible liquids.

2.5 MEASUREMENT OF DENSITY/SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Whilst there are a wide range of instruments used to measure density/specific gravity
online, they would need to be calibrated against some form of laboratory standard –
the two most common being the pycnometer and the hydrometer.

2.5.1 Pycnometer
The standard laboratory calibration method used to measure density and/or specific
gravity is the pycnometer (from Greek puknos meaning ‘dense’). This comprises a glass
flask with a close-fitting ground glass stopper with a capillary hole through it (Figure 2.3).
The capillary hole releases any spare liquid or air after closing the stopper and
allows a given volume of the fluid to be obtained with a high accuracy. This enables
liquid density or SG to be measured accurately with reference to for example water,
using an analytical balance.
Fluid Mechanics 11

Capillary hole

Ground glass
stopper

Glass flask

100 ml
20°C

FIGURE 2.3 Pycnometer is used to measure the density and/or specific gravity and comprises
a glass flask with a close-fitting ground glass stopper with a capillary hole through it.

2.5.2 Hydrometer
Although the hydrometer is an indirect measuring system, and requires to be
calibrated, it is also the most widely used. It comprises a sealed, long-necked glass
bulb that is weighted with mercury or lead, to make it float upright, and which is then
immersed in the liquid to be measured (Figure 2.4).
The depth of flotation gives an indication of liquid density, and the neck can be
calibrated to read density, specific gravity, or some other related characteristics.

2.6 DENSITY MEASUREMENT SCALES

2.6.1 Baumé Scale
One of the earliest hydrometer scales was the Baumé scale (generally notated as °B
or °Bé) developed by the French pharmacist Antoine Baumé in 1768.
Traditionally, the Baumé scale has been used in industries where hydrometer
readings have long been used to indirectly determine the concentration of a solution.
Examples include brewing, wine-making, honey production, acid production and, in
early days, the petrochemical industry. Its use in the wine industry is still extensive
since the °Bé of settled grape juice closely correlates with the potential alcohol, when
the juice is fermented to dryness.
In reality the Baumé scale comprises two independent and mutually exclusive (non-
overlapping) hydrometer scales that cover liquids with a specific gravity greater than
1.0 and liquids having a specific gravity less than 1.0. The Baumé of distilled water is 0.
For liquids heavier than water:

0°Bé = distance the hydrometer sinks in pure water

15°Bé = distance the hydrometer sinks in a solution that is 15% sodium
chloride (salt, NaCl) by mass
12 The Concise Industrial Flow Measurement Handbook

1.35
1.30
1.25
1.20
1.15
Graduated
1.10 scale
1.05
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60

Sealed glass
tube

Lead shot

FIGURE 2.4 A hydrometer typically comprises a sealed, long-necked glass bulb that is
weighted with mercury or lead, to make it float upright, and which is then immersed in the
liquid to be measured.

► To convert from °Bé to specific gravity at 60°F:

145
SG = (2.4)
145 −°Bé

For liquids lighter than water:

0°Bé = distance the hydrometer sinks in a solution that is 10% sodium chloride
(salt, NaCl) by mass
10°Bé = distance the hydrometer sinks in pure water

To convert from °Bé to specific gravity at 60°F:

140
SG = (2.5)
130 − °Bé

◄
It’s important to remember to specify whether you are using the ‘heavy’ or ‘light’
scale when stating a Baumé value since the two scales cannot be overlapped: 30°Bé
(heavy) and 30°Bé (light) are not the same.
Fluid Mechanics 13

2.6.2 API Gravity Scale

As mentioned previously, the Baumé scale had been traditionally used in the
petrochemical industry for the measurement of crude oils. Indeed, in 1916 the US
National Bureau of Standards (later to become American National Standards Institute
(ANSI)) established the Baumé scale as the standard for measuring the specific
gravity of liquids less dense than water.
Unfortunately, later investigation revealed major errors in salinity and
temperature that had caused serious variations. However, hydrometers in the
United States had been manufactured and distributed widely with a modulus of
141.5 instead of the Baumé scale modulus of 140. Because, by 1921, this scale was
so firmly established, the remedy implemented by the API was to create the API
gravity scale.
In essence API gravity indicates how heavy or light a petroleum liquid is compared
with water. If its API gravity is greater than 10, it is lighter and floats on water; if less
than 10, it is heavier and sinks.
More specifically API gravity measures the density of crude oil at a specific
temperature compared with the density of water at a standard temperature of 60°F.
The relationship between specific gravity (SG) and API gravity is:

141.5
API Gravity = −131.5 (2.6)
SG at 60°F

API gravity is graduated in degrees on a hydrometer and was designed so that

most values fall between 10° and 70°API gravity. Thus, a heavy oil with a specific
gravity of 1.0 (i.e. with the same density as pure water at 60°F) would have an API
gravity of:

141.5
API Gravity = −131.5 = 10°API (2.7)
1

Crude oil is classified as:

Light crude oil: Higher than 31.1°API

Medium oil: Between 22.3°API and 31.1°API
Heavy oil: API gravity below 22.3°API
Extra heavy oil: API gravity below 10.0°API

Generally speaking, the higher the API gravity the greater the commercial value.
This general rule only holds up to 45°API gravity – beyond this value the molecular
chains become shorter and less valuable to a refinery.
Oil that will not flow at normal temperatures, or without dilution, is called bitumen.
Bitumen derived from the oil sands deposits in Alberta, Canada, has an API gravity
of around 8°API and is ‘upgraded’ to an API gravity of 31–33°API and is known as
synthetic oil.
14 The Concise Industrial Flow Measurement Handbook

2.7 PRESSURE
As distinct from solids, which have the intrinsic ability to maintain a fixed shape,
liquids, and gases, collectively called fluids, have the ability to flow and tend to
fill whatever solid containers they are held in. When a gas is in a closed container
the molecules are in constant, random motion whose average speed increases with
increasing temperature. In the course of their movements they collide elastically – not
only with each other but also with the container walls (Figure 2.5).
All the collisions that occur over a given area combine to result in a force that is
distributed over the complete internal area of the container. Now consider what a fluid
would do when subjected to an external compressional force as illustrated in Figure 2.6.
Given the freedom of a fluid’s molecules to move about, any external compressional
force will be directed everywhere against the inside surface of the cylinder. Since a
liquid is virtually incompressible the piston will remain in its resting position. The
gas, on the other hand, will compress and the piston will move down as the external
force increases.
In any event, the force applied to the fluid is evenly dispersed in all directions to
the containing surface and how much force (F) is distributed across how much area
(A) is defined as pressure (P):

F
P= (2.8)
A

FIGURE 2.5 Pressure is exerted by atoms or molecules colliding with the inner walls of the
container and is the sum of the collisional forces.
Fluid Mechanics 15

Force exerted
on piston

Piston

Force exerted
on cylinder
walls Cylinder

Fluid

FIGURE 2.6 When the fluid is subjected to an external compressional force, it will be
directed everywhere against the inside walls of the cylinder.

Since pressure is defined as the force per unit area, for many the older definition
of pounds per square inch (psi) seems very much more descriptive of pressure than,
the SI unit for pressure: the Pascal.
At first glance it might be thought that we could use something a little more
description in SI units: for example kilograms per square metre. But as we’ve already
seen, the kilogram is a unit of mass not force. And as we’ve already seen the SI unit
of force is the Newton. Pressure, therefore, is measured in Newton per square metre
(N/m2) and the unit is called the Pascal.
Arguably, a more practical unit of measurement is the bar, named after the
French physicist Bar, since it approximates to atmospheric pressure (1.013 bar = 1
atmosphere and 1 bar = 100 kPa). For this reason, the German Deutsches Institut für
Normung (DIN) standards use the bar almost exclusively and its application is also
spreading internationally, particularly in European standardisation.
Pressure can also be stated in terms of the height of a liquid column. If one slug of
water was poured into a glass tube having a cross-sectional area of 1 square in, the weight
of the water on that area at the bottom of the glass tube is one pound and the pressure is
therefore 1 psi. At 39°F, the height of the water column would be 27.68 inches which is
annotated as 27.68″ WC (for water column) or, more simply, 27.68″ H2O. With a liquid
that is heavier than water the pressure increases and for example only 2.036″ of mercury
is required to generate 1 psi (Figure 2.7). This is usually just annotated as 2.036″ Hg.
Where the metric system is prevalent, inches are replaced with millimetres and thus
1 psi is the equivalent of 703.07 mm H2O or 51.7149 mm Hg. 1 mm Hg (≈1/760 atm)
is also known as the Torr in honour of Evangelista Torricelli who did a lot of early
work in pressure measurement and invented the barometer. Table 2.2 provides a guide
to various pressure conversions.
16 The Concise Industrial Flow Measurement Handbook

Atmospheric
pressure

Glass tube

1 inch 2

2.036” 1 slug of Atmospheric

Mercury pressure
1 psi

FIGURE 2.7 If 1 slug of mercury is poured into a glass tube having a cross-sectional area
of 1 in2 a height of only 2.036″ is required to generate 1 psi. This is usually just annotated as
2.036″ Hg.

► We have already seen that since pressure is defined as the force per unit area, a
liquid within a container produces a pressure determined by the cross-sectional area
(A) and the weight (w) of the fluid:

w
P= (2.9)
A

We have also already seen that weight is given by mass times the acceleration
(Equation 2.1). And thus with gravitational force (g) acting on the object:

w = m ⋅g (2.10)

and therefore:

m⋅g
P= (2.11)
A

As we have seen, the density (ρ) of an object is simply its mass per unit volume,
that is its mass divided by its volume:

m
ρ= (2.12)
V

Consequently, we can also say that:

m = ρ⋅V (2.13)
 Fluid Mechanics

TABLE 2.2
Pressure Conversions between Various Standards
psi kPa Inch H2O mm H2O Inch Hg mm Hg bar mbar kg/cm2 g/cm2
psi 1 6.8948 27.7296 704.332 2.0360 51.7149 0.0689 68.9476 0.0703 70.3070
kPa 0.1450 1 4.0218 102.155 0.2953 7.5006 0.0100 10.0000 0.0102 10.1972
Inch H2O 0.0361 0.2486 1 25.4000 0.0734 1.8650 0.0025 2.4864 0.0025 2.5355
mm H2O 0.0014 0.0098 0.0394 1 0.0029 0.0734 0.0001 0.0979 0.00001 0.0998
Inch Hg 0.4912 3.3864 13.6195 345.936 1 25.400 0.0339 33.8639 0.0345 34.532
mm Hg 0.0193 0.1333 0.5362 13.6195 0.0394 1 0.0013 1.3332 0.0014 1.3595
bar 14.5030 100.00 402.184 10,215.5 29.5300 750.062 1 1,000 1.0197 1,019.72
mbar 0.0145 0.1000 0.4022 10.2155 0.0295 0.7501 0.001 1 0.0010 1.0197
kg/cm2 14.2233 98.0665 394.408 100,018 28.9590 735.559 0.9607 980.665 1 1,000
g/cm2 0.0142 0.0981 0.3944 10.0180 0.0290 0.7356 0.0010 0.9807 0.001 1
17
18 The Concise Industrial Flow Measurement Handbook

Open
containing
vessel

h
Density (ρ)
Pressure
head (P)

FIGURE 2.8 Pressure head (P) is determined by the liquid height (h), its density (ρ), and the
acceleration due to the force of gravity (g).

and that the volume (V) is equal to the height (h) of the liquid times the cross-
sectional area (A):

m = ρ⋅h⋅A (2.14)

therefore:

ρ⋅h⋅A⋅g
P= (2.15)
A

or:

P = ρ⋅h⋅g (2.16)

◄
This means that, as shown in Figure 2.8, the pressure exerted as a result of a head of
liquid, known as the pressure head (P) or hydrostatic pressure is simply determined by
the liquid height (h), its density (ρ), and the acceleration due to the force of gravity (g).
Thus for example if the fluid was water, then a depth (h) of 1 ft would be equivalent
to 0.4333 psi – based on the density of water and the force that the water at a depth
of 1 ft exerts at the bottom of the tank.

2.8 PRESSURE REFERENCES

In the measurement of pressure, there are three commonly used basic pressure
references, which, in essence, describe the zero point on the scale.
Fluid Mechanics 19

Vacuum
P1

∆h

FIGURE 2.9 Δh is determined by the difference in zero pressure (the reference) and the
applied pressure P1.

2.8.1 Absolute Pressure
Absolute pressure is referenced to absolute zero, that is a vacuum and all absolute
pressure measurements are therefore positive. Formerly absolute pressure
measurements were abbreviated with an ‘a’ for example 10 psia or 10 bara. In the
SI system the abbreviation should not be used and would thus be expressed as for
example 10 kPa (absolute).
The U-tube manometer is used to illustrate this principle in Figure 2.9 where Δh
is the difference in height due to the difference in zero pressure (the reference) and
the applied pressure P1.

2.8.2 Gauge Pressure

Gauge pressure references the measured pressure to the ambient atmospheric
pressure – thus ignoring the effects of changing weather, altitude, or depth. Again,
gauge pressure measurements were formerly abbreviated with a ‘g’ for example 10 psig
or 10 barg. In the SI system it should be expressed as for example 10 kPa (gauge).
Gauge-referenced transducers are usually constructed by opening a hole in the
pressure sensor so that the ambient atmospheric pressure can enter the unit and
oppose the pressure being measured. This reference or ‘breather’ hole is usually
specified as ‘dry’ and only a clean, dry gas should be allowed to enter it.
In Figure 2.10 Δh is the difference in height due to the difference in atmospheric
pressure (the reference) and the applied pressure P1.
20 The Concise Industrial Flow Measurement Handbook

Atmospheric
P1 pressure

∆h

FIGURE 2.10 Δh is determined by the difference in atmospheric pressure (the reference)

and the applied pressure P1.

2.8.3 Differential Pressure
Differential pressure measurement is the difference between two unknown pressures
and thus, the output is zero when the two pressures are the same – regardless of
magnitude.
Differential pressure is usually abbreviated in a number of ways: DP, dP, or
ΔP. Again, the SI system prefers to spell it out in the form for example 10 kPa
(differential).
A comparison of the three commonly used pressure references is shown in Figure 2.11.

Pressure to be measured

Gauge pressure Differential pressure

1 atmos. ≈ 1 bar ≈ 14.7 psi

Absolute pressure

Vacuum = 0 bara = 0 psia

FIGURE 2.11 Comparison of the three commonly used pressure references.

Fluid Mechanics 21

2.9 PRESSURE IN GASES

We saw earlier that the tendency of a gas to fill the entire volume of space available
(referred to as gas expansion) is due to what is termed molecular mobility. It also means
that a pressure exerted on a point of the container is equally distributed to all sides.
When a gas is heated, its average molecular velocity increases and the gas pressure
rises.
► This relationship between volume (V) and pressure (P) is described in Boyle’s
Law, which states that at a constant temperature, the volume of a gas is inversely
proportional to its pressure:

1
V∝ (2.17)
P

Charles’ Law states that if the pressure is not too high and is kept constant, the
volume of a gas varies linearly with temperature:

V∝T (2.18)

And Gay Lussac’s Law states:

P∝T (2.19)

When combined these give rise to the ideal gas law:

PV = nRT (2.20)

where
n = number of moles (abbreviation ‘mol’)
R = universal gas constant (8.315 J/mol K)

Note: 1 mol = amount of substance that contains as many atoms or molecules as

there are in 12 g of carbon-12.
◄

2.10 PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS

For most applications, liquids can be assumed to be incompressible (i.e. volume does
not change with pressure) and when pressurised in a closed container, the pressure is
distributed equally to all sides – as with gases.
However, in what is normally regarded as a non-compressible fluid such as oil, we
would expect that the speed of response would be virtually instantaneous. In reality, all
fluids have some degree of compressibility that can lead to a delayed response resulting
for example in an actuator failing to move until the upstream fluid has been compressed.
This characteristic of a liquid to be compressed is best described by the reciprocal
of compressibility (if you like its incompressibility) by what is termed the bulk
22 The Concise Industrial Flow Measurement Handbook

P1
Fluid pressure Secant

∆P
Tangent

P0 Constant
temperature line

V ∆V Volume
V0 V1

FIGURE 2.12 When fluids are under compression, the volume change is not linear.

modulus – the ratio of the very small decrease in volume resulting from a uniformly
applied external pressure.
It is important to realise that fluids under compression do not follow Hooke’s Law
and that the relationship between pressure and that for a given temperature, volume
change is not linear. Figure 2.12 illustrates the relationship between the fluid pressure
and the corresponding volume at a constant temperature.
As the pressure increases, the bulk modulus of all fluids initially increases rapidly
because of the decrease in the intermolecular gaps. However, as the pressure increases
even further, molecules come in contact with each other and the rate of increase in
the bulk modulus value is reduced.
Consequently, at a given pressure P1, the bulk modulus may be defined as the slope
of the tangent to the curve at P1 called tangent bulk modulus (KT ):

∆P
KT = V ⋅ (2.21)
∆V

where
V = oil volume after compression (m3)
ΔV = oil volume change (m3)
ΔP = pressure change (Pa)

Because the tangent bulk modulus is only specified at a fixed pressure, a more useful
value that is easier to determine and which is suitable for large pressure changes is to
take an average value over a given range.
This is called the secant bulk modulus (KS ) and is given by the slope of a line
cutting the curve at two points P1 and V1:

∆P1
K S = −V0 ⋅ (2.22)
∆V1
Fluid Mechanics 23

where
V0 = initial oil volume (m3)

The minus sign indicates that for most normal fluids a negative change in volume
results in an increase in the pressure.
Nonetheless, for mineral oil over a pressure range of up to about 830 bar
(12,000 psi) the bulk modulus can be expressed as a linear function of pressure.
Consequently, at a given pressure P, the bulk modulus may be defined as either the
slope of a line connecting P to the origin, which can be regarded as an average value
of bulk modulus over the range from P0 to P (called secant bulk modulus) or on the
slope of the tangent to the curve at P (called tangent or instantaneous bulk modulus).
Although the tangent bulk modulus is more correct, since it is derived from the
approximate equation of state for a fluid (liquid), the most frequently used value is
the secant bulk modulus since it is easier to determine.

2.10.1 Effect of Pressure on Bulk Modulus

When a fluid is compressed it will normally undergo an increase in temperature which,
in most fluids, will decrease the bulk modulus value. Consequently, it is normal to refer
to the isothermal bulk modulus in which changes occur slowly enough to allow the
system to continually adjust in such a manner that the temperature remains constant.
In reality, most hydraulic applications are concerned with rapidly moving systems
in which the compression speed produces a rise in temperature. Consequently, the
bulk modulus is termed adiabatic or isentropic. From the foregoing it seems obvious
that unless the bulk modulus is given at some specific pressure and at a specific
temperature it’s an almost meaningless value. Unfortunately, this is exactly what
happens in too many cases.

2.11 VISCOSITY
One of the most important primary properties of a fluid (liquid or gas) is its
viscosity – its resistance to flow or to objects passing through it. Conceptually,
viscosity might be thought of as the ‘thickness’ of a fluid. In essence, it is an
internal frictional force between the different layers of the fluid as they move past
one another. In a liquid, this is due to the cohesive forces between the molecules
whilst in a gas it arises from collisions between the molecules. Thus, water is ‘thin’,
having a low viscosity, while vegetable oil is ‘thick’ having a high viscosity.
If the fluid is regarded as a collection of moving plates, one on top of the other, then
when a force is applied to the fluid, shearing occurs and the viscosity is a measure of
the resistance offered by a layer between adjacent plates.
Figure 2.13 shows a thin layer of fluid sandwiched between two flat metal plates of
area A – the lower plate being stationary and the upper plate moving with velocity v.
The fluid directly in contact with each plate is held to the surface by the adhesive force
between the molecules of the fluid and those of the plate. Thus the upper surface of
the fluid moves at the same speed v as the upper plate whilst the fluid in contact with
the stationary plate remains stationary. Since the stationary layer of the fluid retards
24 The Concise Industrial Flow Measurement Handbook

Shear stress

Moving plate Velocity

Moving (v)plate

Staonary plate

FIGURE 2.13 When a thin layer of fluid is sandwiched between two flat metal plates,
shearing occurs and the upper surface of the fluid moves at the same speed as the upper plate
whilst the fluid in contact with the stationary plate remains stationary.

the flow of the layer just above it and this layer, in turn, retards the flow of the next
layer, the velocity varies from zero to v, as shown.
The relative force acting on the layers is called the shear stress (the force per
unit area). In Figure 2.13, the fluid flows under the action of the shear stress due to
the motion of the upper plate. It is also clear that the lower plate exerts an equal and
opposite shear stress to satisfy a ‘no-slip’ condition at the lower stationary surface.
It follows, therefore, that at any point in the flow, the velocity at which the layers
move relative to each other, referred to as the shear rate, is directly proportional to
the shear stress (Figure 2.14).
Since:

Shear stress ∝ Shear rate (2.23)

Shear stress

Shear rate

FIGURE 2.14 Shear rate is directly proportional to the shear stress.

Fluid Mechanics 25

Viscosity

Temperature

FIGURE 2.15 Viscosity of fluids is strongly dependent on the temperature.

we can also state:

Shear stress = µ ⋅ Shear rate (2.24)

where
µ = dynamic viscosity – the ratio between the shear stress and shear rate

The SI unit of dynamic (absolute) viscosity is the pascal second (Pa s) defined
as: the shear stress (pressure) required to move the plate a distance, equal to the
thickness of the layer between the plates, in one second.
As shown in Figure 2.15, the viscosity of a fluid depends strongly on temperature
and generally decreases when the temperature increases. Gases, however, show the
opposite behaviour and the viscosity increases with increasing temperature.
Subsequently, Table 2.3 lists the viscosity of various fluids at specified
temperatures – with the viscosity of liquids such as motor oil for example decreasing
rapidly as temperature increases.
The viscosity of a fluid also depends on the pressure but, surprisingly, pressure has
less effect on the viscosity of gases than on liquids.
A pressure increase from 0 to 70 bar (in air) results in only an approximate 5%
increase in viscosity. However, with methanol for example a 0–15 bar increase results
in a 10-fold increase in viscosity. Some liquids are more sensitive to changes in
pressure than others.
In practice, the most commonly used unit for dynamic viscosity is the poise.
Based on metric centimetre–gram–second (cgs) units the poise is defined as: force
in dynes required to move a surface 1 cm2 in area past a parallel surface at a speed
of 1 cm/s with the surfaces separated by a fluid film of 1 cm thickness.
And in turn, the dyne (Figure 2.16) is defined as: the force required to accelerate
a mass of one gram at a rate of one centimetre per second per second:

1 dyne is equal to 10 µN (micro-newton)

26 The Concise Industrial Flow Measurement Handbook

TABLE 2.3
Comparison of the Viscosities of Various Fluids
Fluid Temperature (°C) Viscosity µ (Pa s)
Molasses 20 100
Glycerine 20 1.5
Engine oil (SAE 10) 50 0.02
Milk 20 5 × 10−3
Blood 37 4 × 10−3
Water 0 1.8 × 10−3
Ethyl alcohol 20 1.2 × 10−3
Water 20 1 × 10−3
Water 100 0.3 × 10−3
Air 20 0.018 × 10−3
Water vapour 100 0.013 × 10−3
Hydrogen 0 0.009 × 10−3

1 dyne
1cm2 1cm 1cm/s

FIGURE 2.16 Dyne is defined as the force required to accelerate a mass of 1 gram at a rate
of 1 cm/s/s.

In practice the poise is too large and we make use of centipoise (cP). Table 2.4
compares the dynamic viscosity expressed in centipoise with pascal second:

1 Pa s = 1,000 cP = 1 N s/m2 = 1 kg/(m s)

In the oil industry, we tend not to use either of these measurements. The reason lies
with a widely used practical method of measurement – the falling sphere viscometer.
As illustrated in Figure 2.17 a liquid, at a controlled temperature, is held stationary
in a vertical glass tube and a sphere, of known size and density, is allowed to descend
through the liquid. The time it takes to pass two marks on the tube is measured and
Stokes’ Law is then used to calculate the viscosity of the fluid.
Because this measurement is also dependent on the density of the fluid, this unit
of measurement is called the kinematic viscosity.
The unit of kinematic viscosity is the stokes, expressed in square centimetres per
second (cm2/s) and is usually given the Greek letter nu (ν). The more customary unit
is the centistoke (cSt).
Fluid Mechanics 27

TABLE 2.4
Comparison of Dynamic Viscosity Expressed in Centipoise
with Pascal Seconds
Fluid Dynamic Viscosity (cP) Dynamic Viscosity (Pa s)
Water (5°C) 1.519 1.519 × 10−3
Water (20.2°C) 1.0 1.0 × 10−3
Water (30°C) 0.798 0.798 × 10−3
Blood (37°C) 4.0 4.0 × 10−3
Light crude 0.5 0.5 × 10−3
Heavy crude >2,000 >2

Fb

Fd
Timing
marks

Fg

FIGURE 2.17 In the falling sphere viscometer, a sphere is allowed to descend through the
liquid. The time it takes to pass two marks on the tube is measured and Stokes’ Law is then
used to calculate the viscosity of the fluid.

Kinematic viscosity can be related to dynamic viscosity by:

Dynamic viscosity µ
ν= = (2.25)
Density ρ

Kinematic viscosity is generally measured in centistokes (cSt) where:

1m 2 /s = 106 cSt (2.26)

To obtain centistokes (cSt) from centipoise (cP) it is therefore necessary to divide by

the density. Since most hydrocarbons have a density of about 0.85–0.9 the centistoke
value will be about 10–15% higher than the centipoise value.
28 The Concise Industrial Flow Measurement Handbook

Water at
100ºF
Oil under
test

Precision
orifice

60 ml

FIGURE 2.18 SUS is based on the time required, in seconds, for 60 millilitres of the tested
fluid at 100°F to pass through a standard orifice.

2.11.1 Saybolt Universal Seconds (SUS)

Another frequently used viscosity measurement is Saybolt Universal Seconds (SUS)
or Saybolt Seconds Universal (SSU). As shown in Figure 2.18 this is based on the
time required, in seconds, for 60 millilitres of the test fluid at 100°F to pass through
a standard orifice.
For SSU values greater than 100:

 135 
cSt = 0.22 ⋅ SSU − 
 SSU  (2.27)

Table 2.5 compares some SSU values with centipoise.

2.12 NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS

Most fluids used in engineering systems exhibit what is termed a Newtonian behaviour
in that, for a given value of pressure and temperature, the shear stress is directly
proportional to the shear rate. Thus, if the shear stress is plotted against the shear rate
the result is a straight line passing through the origin (Figure 2.19).
Many fluids, however, do not exhibit this behaviour. Examples include: tar,
grease, printers’ ink, colloidal suspensions, hydrocarbon compounds with long-chain
molecules, and polymer solutions. In addition, some fluids, called viscoelastic fluids,
do not immediately return to a condition of zero shear rate when stress is removed.
Fluid Mechanics 29

TABLE 2.5
Comparison of some SSU
Values with Centipoise
cP = mPa s SSU
10 60
50 233
100 463
160 741
200 927
260 1,204
300 1,390
360 1,668
400 1,853
460 2,131
500 2,316
Shear stress

an
ni
to
ew
N

Shear rate

FIGURE 2.19 In a Newtonian fluid the shear stress, plotted against shear rate, results in a
straight line passing through the origin.

2.12.1 Ideal Plastic

The so-called ideal plastics or Bingham fluids exhibit a linear relationship between
the shear stress and shear rate. However, such substances only flow after a definite
yield point has been exceeded (Figure 2.20).
When at rest, these materials possess sufficient rigidity to resist shear stresses
smaller than the yield stress. Once exceeded, however, this rigidity is overcome
and the material flows in much the same manner as a Newtonian fluid. A common
30 The Concise Industrial Flow Measurement Handbook

Shear stress

Yield
point

Shear rate

FIGURE 2.20 Bingham fluids again exhibit a linear relationship between the shear stress
and shear rate – but only flow after a definite yield point has been exceeded.

example is toothpaste which will not exude until pressure is applied and then pushed
out as a solid plug. Other examples of materials exhibiting this type of behaviour
include: tar, chewing gum, grease, slurries, sewage slugs, and drilling muds.

2.12.2 Pseudoplastic
A pseudoplastic substance, such as printer’s ink, is characterised by polymers and
hydrocarbons that possess long-chain molecules and suspensions of asymmetric
particles. Although exhibiting a zero yield stress, the relationship between the shear
stress and shear rate is non-linear and the viscosity decreases as the shear stress
increases (Figure 2.21). The shear force thus causes it to go from thick like honey to
Shear stress

Yield
point

Shear rate

FIGURE 2.21 Although a pseudoplastic exhibits zero yield stress, the relationship between the
shear stress and shear rate is non-linear and the viscosity decreases as the shear stress increases.
Fluid Mechanics 31

Shear stress

Yield
point

Shear rate

FIGURE 2.22 Dilatant materials also exhibit a non-linear relationship between the shear
stress and shear rate and a zero yield stress – with the viscosity increasing as the shear stress
increases.

flowing like water. One example is paint. When modern paints are applied the shear
created by the brush or roller will allow them to thin and wet out the surface evenly.

2.12.3 Dilatant
Dilatant materials also exhibit a non-linear relationship between the shear stress and
shear rate and a zero yield stress. However, in this case, the viscosity increases as the
shear stress increases (Figure 2.22).
This type of behaviour is found in highly concentrated suspensions of solid
particles. At low rates of shear, the liquid lubricates the relative motion of adjacent
particles, thereby maintaining relatively low stress levels. As the shear rate increases,
the effectiveness of this lubrication is reduced and the shear stresses are increased.