Ch # 18: Chemical Industries

AMMONIA SOLVAY’S PROCESS

INTRODUCTION:
The method commonly used for the preparation of sodium bicarbonate and sodium carbonate
was designed by a Belgian engineer Solvay and is called Solvay’s process.
RAW MATERIALS:
i. Saturated solution of NaCl (Brine)
ii. Ammonia (NH3)
iii. Lime Stone
iv. Water.
STEPS OF MANUFACTURING
a. Ammoniation Of Brine:
Ammonia gas containing a little CO2 is passed through brine to saturate it.
2NH3 + CO2 + H2O (NH4)2CO3
Salts of magnesium and calcium are precipitated as carbonates, if present as impurities:
Ca+2 + (NH4)2CO3 CaCO3 + 2NH4+
Mg+2 + (NH4)2CO3 MgCO3 + 2NH4+
b. Carbonation:
The ammonia brine is passed to carbonating tower (Solvay tower) where CO 2 is pumped in at
the bottom of the tower following reactions take place.
(NH4)2CO3 + CO2 + H2O 2NH4HCO3
2NH4HCO3 + NaCl NH4Cl + NaHCO3
*CO2 required in this step is obtained by heating calcium carbonate in a special kiln called
lime kiln.
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
c. Filteration:
The solid sodium bicarbonate is filtered off, washed with a l;ittle water and dried, where as
filtrate is sent to ammonia recovery tower.
d. Calcinations:
Sodium bicarbonate obtained in the above step is heated to get anhydrous sodium carbonate
i.e. Soda ash.
2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
Carbon dioxide obtained here is recycled for carbonation. If washing soda i.e.Na2CO3.10H2O
is required then dissolved soda ash in hot water and crystallized by cooling as
Na2CO3.10H2O.
Na2CO3 + 10H2O Na2CO3.10H2O
e. Recovery Of Ammonia:
As ammonia is much more costly than sodium carbonate or sodium bicarbonate therefore it is
recovered in ammonia recovery tower by the following processes.
Ca(OH)2 + 2NH4Cl CaCl2 + 2NH3 + 2H2O
Ca(OH)2 + (NH4)2CO3 CaCO3 + 2NH3 + 2H2O

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 Ch # 18: Chemical Industries

ADVANTAGES OF SOLVAY’S PROCESS

i. It employs cheap materials.
ii. The consumption of fuel is much less, since there is no solution to evaporate.
iii. No harmful by products are produced.
iv. A pure product is obtained.
v. Raw materials NH3 and CO2 are recovered and recycled.
CHEMICAL REACTION OF SODIUM CARBONATE
a. Hydrolysis:
Hydrolysis of sodium carbonate produces strong alkali. That is why aqueous solution of
sodium carbonate is alkaline in nature.
Na2CO3 + 2H2O H2CO3 + NaOH
Weak acid Strong alkal

b. Reaction With CO2:

When CO2 is passed through a cold solution of sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate is
formed.
Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2 2NaHCO3
c. Action Of Dilute Acids:
On treating with dilute acid it produces carbon dioxide.
Na2CO3 + HCl NaCl + H2O + CO2
Na2CO3 + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + H2O + CO2
d. Precipitation Of Insoluble Metallic Carbonates:
Precipitation of metallic carbonates are occurs when aqueous solution of sodium carbonate is
mixed with the solution containing metallic cat ion.
Ba(NO3)2 + Na2CO3 2NaNO3 + BaCO3 ↓
CaCl2 + Na2CO3 2NaCl + CaCO3 ↓
USES:
1. Soda ash is used in the manufacture of glass enamels, soaps and paper.
2. It is used for water softening.
3. Sodium carbonate Na2CO3.10H2O is marketed as washing soda.
4. It is used as a common laboratory reagent.
5. It is used in the smelting of iron ores of high sulphur content.

SODIUM HYDROGEN CARBONATE

Properties of Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate
a. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
i. It is white non crystalline compound.
ii. Its taste is bitter, although commonly known as meetha soda.
iii. It is soluble in water, but its solubility is less than that of sodium carbonate.
iv. It is weakly alkaline and its solution changes red litmus to blue.

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b. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES:
i. When heated, it loses carbon dioxide and changes to sodium carbonate.
heat
2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
ii. With acids it forms salt and water, carbon dioxide is also given out.
2NaHCO3 + HCl NaCl + H2O + CO2
USES:
i. It is as baking powder (mixture of NaHCO3 + Citric acid)
ii. Used in fire extinguishers to get CO2 gas for extinguishing fire.
iii. Used as an anti acid (medicine) to cure acidity (hyper acidity).
iv. Used in preparation of effervescent drinks and fruit salts.
v. Used in the textile, tanning, paper, ceramics industries.

SODIUM HYDROXIDE
Properties Of Sodium Hydroxide
a. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
i. It is white crystalline solid.
ii. It melts at 318°C to a clear liquid, and at 322°C, it decomposes.
iii. Its density is 2.13 g/cm3.
iv. It is highly soluble in water and liberate large amount of heat.

b. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES:
The chemical reactions of NaOH are following.
i. Reaction With Acids:
It reacts with acids to form salt and water.
For Example:
1. NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O
2. 2NaOH + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + H2O
3. NaOH + HNO3 NaNO3 + H2O
ii. Reaction With Ammonium Salts:
When NaOH reacts with ammonium salt it liberates ammonia gas on warming.
∆
1. NaOH + NH4Cl NaCl + NH3 + H2O
∆
2. 2NaOH + NH4NO3 Na2SO4 + NH3 +H2O
iii. Reaction With Carbon Dioxide:
It absorbs carbon dioxide to produce sodium carbonate and water.
2NaOH + CO2 Na2CO3 + H2O
iv. Reaction With Chlorine Gas:
The reaction of sodium hydroxide with chlorine gas results in the formation of sodium salt of
oxy acids such as,
2NaOH + Cl2 NaOCl + NaCl + H2O
6NaOH + 3Cl2 NaClO3 + NaCl + H2O

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v. Reaction With Metals:

Sodium hydroxide dissolves certain metals like zinc, tin, aluminum etc to liberate H2 gas.
2 NaOH + Zn Na2ZnO2 + H2
Sodium Zincate
2 NaOH + Sn Na2SnO2 + H2
Sodium Stannite
2 NaOH + Al + 2H2O Na2AlO2 + 3H2
Sodium Aluminate
USES OF SODIUM HYDROXIDE:
1. It is used in the manufacture of soap and petroleum industry.
2. It is used in textile and paper industries.
3. It is used in bleaching and dying process as well as for mercerizing the cotton cloths.
4. It is used in purification of bauxite.
5. It is used in manufacture of artificial silk.

FOOD PRESERVATION
INTRODUCTION:
Food whether grown on trees e.g. fruits, in the ground as plants e.g. vegetables, cereals etc. or as
animals e.g. mutton, beef etc, above the ground do not last forever. Fruits, vegetables and
cereals grains begin to deteriorate once they are harvested. Similarly meat begins to deteriorate
in quality soon after slaughter of the animal.
In this modern world, the food needs to be stored or supplied to distant areas, it is therefore
necessary to prevent the food from being destroyed or spoiled.
CAUSES OF FOOD SPOILAGE:
The food may subject to several decay mechanisms.
For example:
Moisture
Biological attack by pests
Disease or decay micro organisms
Chemical reaction
Physical changes
The producer and processor therefore want to prevent or minimize chances of spoilage of the
foods.
i. Moisture:
The agriculture products of low moisture contents such as corn and soya bean when exposed
to higher humidity take up enough moisture contents to permit the growth of moulds and
bacteria.
ii. Microbial Activities:
There are several kinds of food which tend to spoil by microbial attack. Fish, poultry and
dairy products are specifically spoiled by microbial growths.

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iii. Chemical Changes:

The chemical changes brought by enzymes are responsible for food spoilage. These enzymes
may have their origin in the food material or may be produced by yeast, moulds and bacteria
which contaminate the product. The chemical and biochemical changes renders the fats and
oil rancid and are also responsible for browning of fruits and vegetables.
FOOD PRESERVATION METHODS:
There are numerous methods of preservation of foods. Some of the most widely used ones are
described here.
i. Removal Of Moisture:
This method of preservation of food relates with removal of water or drying process. The
products that need to be dried are the various pastes, milk, coffee and tea, some vegetables,
fruits, meat and eggs.
ii. Addition Of Salt And Sugar:
As a means of chemical preservation, sugar and salt are added to many sausages to increase
their shelf life. The sugar and salt bind the water, which helps the microorganisms to grow.
The inhibition in growth of microbes by this way retards the process of food spoilage. The
water binding agents are known as humectants.
iii. Temperature Control:
One of the controlling factors for preservation of food is temperature. Environmental
conditions related to temperature though not destroy organisms however it prevents their
growth. Refrigeration and freezing of foods in this respect lowers the environmental
temperature to levels which do not allow the growth of many destructive organisms.
iv. Preservation By Storage:
Many types of fresh foods such as fruits, vegetables, meats, fish etc. when required to be
stored for long term are preserved by heat treatment employing various methods. Among
these methods canning and irradiation are noteworthy.
a. Canning:
The preservation of food by sealing into air tight containers is called canning. The method is
widely used for food preservation. The containers may be metal which is often plastic lined
aluminum or special strength glass. The raw food is packed into the container sealed and then
whole package is then treated with heat in a steam pressure used to cook the food and
sterilized both the container and the contents.
b. Irradiation:
The process of passing radiation through any substance is called irradiation. The radiation is
comprised of alpha (α), beta (β) and gamma (γ) rays.
Radiation can be used to preserve food such as meat, potatoes and onions etc. without
causing undesirable protein denaturation or appreciably altering the taste. The process leaves
no residual radioactivity in the food. There is a little loss of vitamins in all foods by the
recommended doses then that seen with canning, freezing or drying.

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v. Preservation By Chemical Addition:

Certain chemical substances are added in small proportions to preserve food. In this regard
commonly used food additions are salts of calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium.
a. The use of sodium sulphide and potassium meta - bi - sulphite is to prevent the growth of
micro organisms.
b. Sodium dihydrogen phosphate is incorporated to improve the texture and magnesium
hydroxide reduces the acidity in foods.
c. Addition of common salt preserves meat and fish items.
d. Propanoic acid, benzoic acid and their salts prevents the bread and cheese from moulds and
yeasts.
e. Dry fruits, jam and jellies are preserved by addition of sulphur dioxide or salts of sulphurous
acid.
SOAPS
DEFINITION:
The sodium and potassium salts of fatty acids for cleaning purpose are called soaps.
Example:
1. Potassium Palmitate (C15H31COOK)
2. Sodium Stearate (C17H35COONa)
3. Sodium Palmitate (C15H31COONa)
4. Potassium Oleate (C17H33COOK)
RAW MATERIALS:
i. Tallow:
It is the main fatty materials used in soap making vegetable oil like linseed oil or palm oil
and animal fat can also be used in place of tallow.
ii. Caustic Soda or Caustic Potash:
NaOH KOH
MANUFACTURE OF SOAP: (SAPONIFICATION)
Large units known as kettles are used for preparation of soap nowadays. Animal fat or vegetable
oil is placed in large tank and alkali (NaOH/ KOH) is added.
The mixture is mixed with steam and boiled during reaction using a steam coil. The chemical
process for the preparation of soap is called saponification. The reaction is represented by the
following equation.

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SEPARATION OF GLYCERIN (SALTING OUT):

Salt is added to the soap and glycerin mixture. Salt solution with glycerin settles down as it is
heavier than soap. This process is called salting out.
The salt water glycerin solution is drained from the tank and glycerin as a byproduct is separated.
TYPES OF SOAP:
i. Laundry Soap:
Soap precipitated is mixed with resin, some more caustic soda solution is added and mixture
is boiled.
To increase its weight sodium silicate is added which also makes it less soluble. Washing
soda and sodium phosphate are called to improve washing quality. It is now molded into
soap, cake or blocks.
ii. Toilet Soap:
Good quality fat and edible oils used for toilet soap. Soap is passed through hot heavy rollers
to remove the moisture color and perfumes are added to it and casted into soap cakes.
iii. Kitchen Soap:
The soaps containing finely divided sand, washing soda are called kitchen soaps. It is used in
kitchen for washing utensils.
iv. Shaving Cream:
Good quality animal fat or edible oil is saponified using caustic potash (KOH). Some extra
amount of steric acid is added to prevent it from quick drying.
PLASTICS
DEFINITION:
Plastics are high molecular compounds formed as a result of polymerization or poly
condensation of simple molecules.
CLASSIFICATION:
Plastics are divided into two basic types,
1. Thermoplastics
2. Thermosetting plastics
Thermoplastic:
On heating these plastics become soft. On cooling they regain their rigidity, they can be heated
and cooled repeatedly without any change in composition such plastics are easily molded into
shapes.
Example:
Cellulose nitrate, cellulose acetate and vinyl polymers are examples of this class.
Thermosetting Plastics:
Thermosetting plastics become soft on heating on further heating, they become permanently
hard. They can cot be softened again. They are practically insoluble in all organic solvents and
water.
Example:
Bakelite, epoxy resins (araldite and adhesives)

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SOME COMMON PLASTICS & THEIR USES:

a. Polythene (Poly Ethylene):
It is the polymer of ethene.
n(CH2 ═ CH2) 100atm ; 200°C
(—CH2—CH2—)n
0.01% oxygen
Polythene
It is most commonly used in the preparation of polythene bags and plastic bottles.
b. Poly Vinyl Chloride:
It is the polymer of vinyl chloride.

c. Bakelite:
It is the polymer of phenol and form aldehyde.

It is used to manufacture components of electric board sheets, camera, radio, telephone etc.

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