BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION History of Behavior Modification

Behavior modification developed from the perspective

called behaviorism, which emerged with the work of
Behavior modification is the field of study that focuses on
John B. Watson (1913, 1930) and B. F. Skinner (1938,
using principles of learning and cognition to understand
1953). This perspective emphasizes the study of observ-
and change people’s behavior (Sarafino, 2001). Although
able and measurable behavior and proposes that nearly all
not all experts in this field would include cognitive pro-
behavior is the product of learning, particularly operant
cesses in the definition (see Lee, 1992; Sweet & Loizeaux,
and respondent conditioning. Three lines of research
1991; Wolpe, 1993), these processes have been widely
laid the foundation for behaviorism. Ivan Pavlov (1927)
adopted and applied by behavior modification profession-
demonstrated the process of respondent conditioning.
als since the early 1970s (Dobson, 1988; Kazdin, 1978;
John Watson and Rosalie Rayner (1920) showed that
Mahoney, 1993; Williams, Watts, MacLeod, & Mathews,
an infant, ‘‘Little Albert,’’ learned to fear a white rat
1988).
through respondent conditioning. And Edward Thorndike
(1898, 1931) studied how ‘‘satisfying’’ and ‘‘annoying’’
Defining Characteristics of Behavior Modification consequences—which we now call reinforcement and
punishment—affect learning. Other studies formed the
The field of behavior modification has several characteris-
basis for applying the ideas of behaviorism by showing
tics that make its approach unique (Kazdin, 1978; Wixted,
that conditioning techniques could effectively reduce
Bellack, & Hersen, 1990). First, professionals in this field
fears (Jones, 1924) and improve problem behaviors of
focus on people’s behavior, which can be overt, such as
psychiatric patients (Ayllon & Michael, 1959; Lindsley,
motor or verbal acts, or covert, such as feelings, thoughts,
1956). The field of behavior modification now includes
or physiological changes. As a result, their approach typ-
the areas of the experimental analysis of behavior, which
ically involves (1) defining people’s current status and
examines basic theoretical processes in learning, applied
progress in terms of behavior rather than traits or other
behavior analysis, which emphasizes application to socially
broad features, (2) measuring the behavior in some way,
important problems in various settings, and behavior
and (3) whenever possible, assessing covert behaviors,
therapy, which focuses on application in psychotherapy
such as fear, in terms of overt actions. Efforts to improve
settings.
behavior can be directed at a behavioral deficit—that is, the
behavior occurs with insufficient frequency, strength, or
quality—or a behavioral excess—that is, it occurs too fre-
Application and Techniques of Behavior Modification
quently or strongly. The behavior to be changed is called
the target behavior. Behavior modification techniques have been applied suc-
Second, although behavior modification professionals cessfully in a wide variety of settings and with many types
recognize that injury and heredity can limit the abilities of behaviors and populations (Sarafino, 2001). They have
of an individual, they assume that human behavior is, been used to improve general parenting skills, help parents
for the most part, learned and influenced by the environ- correct children’s problem behaviors, enhance instruc-
ment. The most basic types of learning are respondent tional methods in schools, improve classroom conduct,
(classical) conditioning—in which a stimulus gains the train developmentally disabled children in self-help skills,
ability to elicit a particular response by being paired reduce substance abuse, reduce depression and anxiety,
with an unconditioned stimulus that already elicits that promote people’s health and prevent illness, and improve
response—and operant conditioning—in which behavior worker productivity and safety.
is changed by its consequences. The methods applied The techniques used in modifying behavior are quite
in behavior modification generally involve altering the varied. Operant techniques include some that deal
antecedents and consequences of the target behavior. with the consequences of behavior. In reinforcement,
Third, behavior modification has a strong scientific consequences strengthen the target behavior. Positive
orientation. As a result, there is a major focus on care- reinforcement involves introducing a desirable event after
fully gathering empirical data, analyzing and interpreting the target behavior, and negative reinforcement involves
the data, and specifying the precise methods used to removing or reducing an aversive circumstance if the
gather and analyze the data. The field is also quite target behavior occurs. Extinction is a procedure whereby
pragmatic, emphasizing the need to find and use tech- eliminating the reinforcers of a target behavior weakens
niques that work, as indicated by carefully conducted that behavior. When punishment is used as a consequence,
research. Fourth, behavior modification techniques for it suppresses the target behavior. Operant techniques
changing behavior often have clients or subjects become also address the antecedents of the target behavior. For
active participants, such as by performing ‘‘homework’’ and instance, prompting involves using a stimulus to remind
‘‘self-management’’ activities, in the process of modifying individuals to perform a behavior they know how to do
their behavior. or help them perform a behavior they do not do well.

The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology, edited by Irving B. Weiner and W. Edward Craighead.
Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2 BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION

Other operant methods concentrate on the behavior itself. Kazdin, A. E. (1978). History of behavior modification: Experimental
Shaping improves a target behavior by requiring better foundations of contemporary research. Baltimore: University Park
and better performance to receive reinforcement, and Press.
chaining is used to develop complex motor behaviors by Lee, C. (1992). On cognitive theories and causation in human
organizing simple responses into a sequence. behavior. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychia-
Respondent techniques are usually applied to reduce try, 23, 257–268.
conditioned emotional responses, such as fear or anger. Lindsley, O. R. (1956). Operant conditioning methods applied to
One technique is extinction, in which a conditioned response research in chronic schizophrenia. Psychiatric Research Reports,
is weakened by repeatedly presenting the conditioned 5, 118–139.
stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus. Another Mahoney, M. J. (1993). Introduction to special section: Theoreti-
method is systematic desensitization, whereby a conditioned cal developments in the cognitive psychotherapies. Journal of
emotional response is reduced by having the person expe- Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, 187–193.
rience increasingly strong conditioned stimuli while main- Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned reflexes. (G. V. Anrep, Trans.). New
taining a relaxation response. The conditioned stimuli are York: Oxford University Press.
arranged in a hierarchy from a very weak stimulus to a Sarafino, E. P. (2001). Behavior modification: Principles of behavior
very intense one. change (2nd ed.). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield.
Other behavior modification techniques include model- Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms. New York:
ing, a vicarious process in which individuals learn a behav- Appleton-Century-Crofts.
ior by watching someone else perform it; biofeedback; and Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York:
various cognitive methods, such as relaxation training, Macmillan.
thought-stopping, and covert sensitization. Biofeedback is Sweet, A. A., & Loizeaux, A. L. (1991). Behavioral and cognitive
a technique that teaches people to regulate physiological treatment methods: A critical comparative review. Journal of
functioning by presenting moment-by-moment informa- Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 22, 159–185.
tion about the status of the body system. The form of Thorndike, E. L. (1898). Animal intelligence: An experimental
relaxation that is most commonly applied in behavior study of the associative processes in animals. Psychological
modification is progressive muscle relaxation, which has the Review Monograph Supplements, 2, No. 8.
person alternately tense and relax separate muscle groups. Thorndike, E. L. (1931). Human learning. New York: Century.
Once the relaxation response is mastered, the procedure
Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it.
can be used by itself or as part of systematic desensitiza- Psychological Review, 20, 158–177.
tion. Thought stopping is a technique in which individuals
Watson, J. B. (1930). Behaviorism. New York: Norton.
interrupt distressing thoughts by saying ‘‘Stop’’ emphat-
ically, either aloud or covertly. Covert sensitization is a Watson, J. B., & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reac-
tions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3, 1–14.
method that is used to teach a person to dislike a liked
event, such as drinking alcohol, by pairing it repeatedly Williams, J. M. G., Watts, F. N., MacLeod, C., & Mathews, A.
with an aversive event in an imagined situation. (1988). Cognitive psychology and emotional disorders. New York:
John Wiley & Sons.
Applying behavior modification is a creative enterprise
that organizes techniques into programs that are tailored Wixted, J. T., Bellack, A. S., & Hersen, M. (1990). Behavior
to meet the needs of specific clients in particular circum- therapy. In A. S. Bellack & M. Hersen (Eds.), Handbook of
comparative treatments for adult disorders. New York: John Wiley
stances.
& Sons.
Wolpe, J. (1993). Commentary: The cognitivist oversell and com-
REFERENCES
ments on symposium contributions. Journal of Behavior Therapy
Ayllon, T., & Michael, J. (1959). The psychiatric nurse as a behav- and Experimental Psychiatry, 24, 141–147.
ioral engineer. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 2,
323–334. EDWARD P. SARAFINO
The College of New Jersey
Dobson, K. S. (Ed.) (1988). Handbook of cognitive-behavioral therapies.
New York: Guilford Press.
Jones, M. C. (1924). The elimination of children’s fears. Journal of
See also: Dialectical Behavior Therapy; Rational Emotive
Experimental Psychology, 7, 382–390. Behavior Therapy