1 PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC

1.1 STATEMENT/ PROPOSITION Truth table of p  q

A statement (or Proposition) is a p Q p →q
declarative sentence that is either true or T T T
T F F
false, but not both. If the statement is true
F T T
then we assign a value T to it and if it is F F T
false then we assign a value F to it. These
values T and F are called the truth values Truth table of p  q
of the statement.
P Q p∨q
PROPOSITIONAL VARIABLES T T T
T F F
F T F
In logic, it is required to draw conclusions F F F
from the given statements. Now, instead of
writing the statements repeatedly, it is 1.2.2 CONDITIONAL STATEMENT (OR
convenient to denote each of the IMPLICATION), CONVERSE AND CONTRA
statements by a unique variable, called POSITIVE
propositional variable.
If p and q are statements, then “if p then q”
1.2 LOGICAL CONNECTIVES AND
is a compound statement, denoted as p 
COMPOUND STATEMENTS
q and referred as a conditional statements,
or implication. The implication p  q is
Statements or propositional variables can
false only when p is true and q is false;
be combined by means of logical
otherwise, it is always true. In this
connectives or operators to form a single
implication, p is called the hypothesis (or
statement called compound statements (or
antecedent or premise) & q is called the
compound propositions or molecular
conclusion (or consequent).
statement).
Truth table of p  q
1.2.1 LOGICAL CONNECTIVES
p q p ∨q
Symbol Connective Name T T T
~ OR ¬ Not Negation T F T
∧ And Conjunction
∨ Or Disjunction F T T
⟶ Implies or if ….. Implication or F F F
then conditional
↔ If and only if Equivalence or If p  q is an implication, then
biconditional The converse of p →q is the implication
q→p,
Truth table of ~ p The contrapositive of p→q is the
implication ~ q→~p,
P ~p
T F And the inverse of p→q is the implication
F T ~p →~ q.

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 Truth table of q→p (converse) its truth table contains both T and F values
at least once in its last column.
p q p→q q→p
T T T T
1.4 LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE
T F F T
F T T F Two compound statements p and q are said
F F T T to be logically equivalent or simply
equivalent, if p  q is a tautology. If p is
Truth Table of ~q→~p (contrapositive) equivalent to q then we write p  q .
p q ~p ~q ~q→~p Operations for Propositions
T T F F T
T F F T F
F T T F T A) Commutative Properties
F F T T T i) p  q  q  p
ii) p  q  q  p
Truth Table of ~p→~q (inverse) B) Associative Properties
i) p  (q  r)  (p  q)  r
p q ~p ~q ~p→~q
ii) p  (q  r)  (p  q)  r
T T F F T C) Distributive Properties
T F F T T i) p  (q  r)  (p  q)  (p  r)
F T T F F ii) p  (q  r)  (p  q)  (p  r)
F F T T T D) Idempotent Properties
i) p∨q  p
Bi-conditional Statement ii) p∧q  p
E) Properties of Negation
If p and q are statements, then “p if and i) ~(~p) ≡p (Double negation law)
only if q” is a compound statement, ii) ~(p∨q) ≡ (~p)∧(~q) (De Morgan’s
denoted as p  q and referred as a bi- law)
conditional statement or an equivalence. iii) ~(p∧q)≡(~p) ∨(~q)(De Morgan’s law)
The equivalence p  q is true only when
F) Identity Laws
both p and q are true or when both p and q
i) p  T  p
are false.
ii) p  F  p,
Where T denotes any proposition that
Truth Table of p↔q
is always true and F denotes any
proposition that is always false.
p Q p ↔q
G) Domination Laws
T T T i) p  T  T
T F F
F T F
ii) p  F  F
F F T H) Absorption Laws
i) p  (p  q)  p
1.3 TAUTOLOGIES & CONTRADICTIONS ii) p  (p  q)  p

A compound statement that is always true 1.5 PREDICATES & QUANTIFIERS

for all possible truth values of its
propositional variables, is called a Consider the statement
tautology or valid. “x is a positive integer.”
A statement that is neither a tautology nor This statement cannot have a truth value
a contradiction is called a contingency. So, unless the value of the variable x is
specified. The first part, i.e., the variable x,

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 is called the subject of the statement, while The negation of a quantified statement
the second part, i.e., “is a positive integer” – changes the quantifier and also negates the
refers to a property that the subject of the given statement as mentioned below:
statement can have, is called the predicate. i) ~ (  xP(x))   x~P(x)(De Morgan’s Law)
We can express the above statement by ii) ~(  xP(x))   x ~ P(x)(De Morgan’s Law)
P(x), where P denotes the predicate “is a iii)  x(P(x)  Q(x))   xP(x)   xQ(x)
positive integer” and x is the variable. The iv)  xP(x)   xQ(x)   x(P(x)  Q(x))
statement P(x) is also called a v)  x(P(x)  Q(x))   xP(x)   xQ(x)
Propositional function because once a vi) ~(  x~P(x)   xP(x)
value has been assigned to x, it becomes a
proposition and has a truth value. 1.6 SOME BASIC TERMS RELATED TO
Propositional functions also occur in NORMAL FORM
computer programs. The logic based upon
the analysis of predicates in any statement i) Elementary Product: A product of the
is called predicate logic or first order variables and their negation is called an
logic. elementary product.

1.5.1 QUANTIFIERS ii) Elementary Sum: A sum of the

variables and their negation is called an
Quantification is an another powerful
elementary sum.
technique to create a statement from a
propositional function. There are two types
iii) Factor: A factor of the given elementary
of quantification, namely, universal
sum or product, is a part of it and is
quantification and existential quantification.
itself an elementary sum or product.
The universal quantification of a predicate
P(x) is the statement “P(x) is true for all
iv) Minterms : Let p and q be two
values of x in the universe of discourse”.
propositional variables. All possible
The universe of discourse is the domain
formulas which consist of product of p
that specifies the possible values of the
or its negation and product of q or its
variable x. The notation  xP(x) denotes
negation, but should not contain both
the universal quantification of P(x). Here
the variable and its negation in any one
the symbol  is called the universal
of the formula are called minterms of p
quantifier. The statement  xP(x) can also
and q.
be stated as “for every xP(x)” or “for all v) Maxterm:For given variables, the
xP(x)”. maxtern consists of sums (disjunctions)
The existential quantification of a predicate in which each variable or its negation,
P(x) is the statement “There exists an but not both, appears only once. Thus
element x in the universe of discourse for the maxterms are the duals of
which P(x) is true”. minterms.
The notation  xP(x) denotes the existential
quantification of P(x). Here the symbol  is
1.6.1 DISJUNCTIVE NORMAL FORM
called the existential quantifier. The (DNF)
statement  xP(x) can also be stated as
“there is an x such that P(x)”, “there is at A statement which consists of a sum of
least one x such that P(x)”, “for some elementary products of propositional
xP(x)”, or “there exists an x such that P(x)”. variables and is equivalent to the given
compound statement is called a disjunctive
1.5.2 PROPERTIES OF QUANTIFIERS normal form of the given statement. This
form is not unique for the given statement.

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 1.6.2 CONJUNCTIVE NORMAL FORM Identical minterms, if appearing in the
(CNF) disjunctions, must be deleted.

A statement which consists of a product of 1.6.4 PRINCIPAL CONJUNCTIVE NORMAL

elementary sums of propositional variables FORM (PCNF)
and is equivalent to the given statement is
called a conjunctive normal form of the For a given formula, an equivalent
given statement. This form is not unique statement consisting of conjunctions of the
for the given statement. maxterms only is known as its principal
conjunctive normal form or product-of-
1.6.3 PRINCIPAL DISJUNCTIVE NORMAL sums canonical form. The method for
FORM (PDNF) obtaining the principal conjunctive normal
form of a given statement using truth table
For a given formula, an equivalent is as follows:
statement consisting of disjunctions of the For every truth value F in the truth table of
minterms only is known as its principal the given statement, select the maxterm
disjunctive normal form or sum-of- which also has the value F for the same
products canonical form. The method for combination of the truth values of the
obtaining the principal disjunctive normal variables involved in the statement. The
form of a given statement using truth table product (conjunction) of these maxterms
is as follows: will then be equivalent to the given formula
For every truth value T in the truth table of and is also the required principal
the given statement, select the minterm conjunctive normal form for the given
which also has the value T for the same statement.
combination of the truth values of the
variables involved in the statement. The Alternative Method to Obtain PCNF
sum (disjunction) of these minterms will
then be equivalent to the given formula and The method for finding the principal
is also the required principal disjunctive conjunctive normal form of a given
normal form for the given statement. statement without using truth table, is
similar to the one described previously for
ALTERNATIVE METHOD TO OBTAIN the principal disjunctive normal form.
PDNF
1.6.5 To Obtain PCNF from PDNF and
The method for finding the principal Vice – Versa
disjunctive normal form of a given
statement without using truth table is as If the principal disjunctive (or conjunctive)
follows: normal form of a given statement S,
First replace the biconditionals and containing n variables, is known then the
conditional by their equivalent formulas principal disjunctive (or conjunctive)
containing only the connectives  ,  and ~ normal form of ~ S will consist of the
. Next, the negations are applied to the disjunction (or conjunction) of the
variables by using De Morgans’ laws remaining minterms (or maxterms) which
followed by distributive laws. Any are not present in the principal disjunctive
elementary product which is a (or conjunctive) normal form of S. Since S 
contradiction such as p  ~p, is dropped. ~ (~S), so we can obtain the principal
Minterms are obtained in the disjunction conjunctive (or disjunctive) normal form S
by introducing the missing factors. by applying De Morgan’s laws to the

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 principal disjunctive (or conjunctive) only if the proposition (p1  p2  …  pn)  c
normal form of ~S. is a tautology. However, a valid argument
does not necessarily lead to a true
Example : Find PCNF of a statement S conclusion.
whose PDNF is (p  q  r)  (p  q  ~r)  An argument which is not valid is called
(~p  q  r)  (p  ~q  r). invalid or a fallacy.
Solution
First we obtain the principal disjunctive 1.7 VALIDITY OF ARGUMENTS USING
normal form of ~S, which is the sum TRUTH TABLES
(disjunction) of those minterms which are
not present in the given PDNF of S. Hence For a given set of premises and a
the PDNF of ~S is conclusion, it is possible to find whether
(~p  ~q  ~r)  (~p  ~q  r)  (p  ~q the conclusion logically follows from the
 ~r)  (~p  q  ~r) given premises by constructing truth
Thus, the PCNF of S  ~[PDNF of (~S)], i.e. tables. We assert that from a set of
 ~((~p  ~q  ~r)  premises {p1, p2… pn} a conclusion c follows
(~p  ~q  r)  (p  ~q  ~r)  (~p  q logically if
 ~r)) p1  p2  …  pn  c
 (p  q  r)  (p  q  ~r)  (~p  q  r)  First, for all possible combinations of truth
(p  ~q  r) values of the atomic variables, we enter the
truth values of p1, p2… pn and c in the table.
Example: Find PDNF of a statement S Next, we observe the rows in which all p1,
whose PCNF is (p  q  r)  (p  ~q  r)  (p p2…, pn have the value T. If, for every such
 ~q  ~r)  (~p  q  r)  (~p  q  ~r) row, c also has the value T, then (1) holds.
Solution Alternatively, we may observe the rows in
First we find the PCNF of ~S, which is the which c has the value F. If, in every such
product (conjunction) of those maxterms row, at least one of the values of p1, p2, …..,
which do not appear in the given PCNF of S. pn is F, then (1) also holds.
Hence the PCNF of ~S is (p  q  ~r)  (~p
 ~q  r)  (~p  ~q  ~r) 1.8 RULES OF INFERENCE
Thus, the PDNF of S  ~[PCNF of (~S)],
i.e.  ~((p  q  ~r)  (~p  ~q  r)  (~p  ~q  Rule of Tautological Name
~r)) Inference Form
 (~p  ~q  r)  (p  q  ~r)  (p  q  r). p p  (p  q) Addition
p  q
1.6.6 ARGUMENTS pq (p  q)  p Simplification
p
An argument is an assertion that a given set P [p  (p  q)]  q Modus
of statements (or propositions) p1, p2, …., pq ponens
pn, called premises (or hypotheses) implies q
a certain statement c, called the conclusion. ~q [~q  (p  q)]  Modus tollens
Such an argument is denoted by pq ~p
p1, p2, …., pn  c ~ q
So, we can say that c logically follows from pq [(p  q)  (q  r)] Hypothetical
p1, p2,…., pn. pq  (p  r) syllogism
An argument p1, p2, …, pn  c is said to be pr
valid if c is true whenever all the premises
p1, p2, …., pn are true. In other words, the
argument p1, p2, … , pn  c is valid if and

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 1.9 RULES OF INFERENCE FOR Fundamental Rule 4:
QUANTIFIED STATEMENTS Existential Generalization

In the previous section, we discussed rules It states, if P(c) is true for some element c
of inference for propositions. Now, we will in the universe of discourse (U), then  x
describe some additional rules of inference P(x) which is true. Symbolically, we have
for statements involving quantifiers. The P(c) for some c  U
following four rules describe when the  x P(x)
universal and existential quantifiers can be
added to or deleted from an assertion. We
continue our list to include the two rules of 1.10 PRACTICE SET
inference we have already discussed.
Q.1 Is the following sentence a
proposition? If it is a proposition,
Fundamental Rule 1.
determine whether it is true or
Universal Specification or Universal
false.
Instantiation:
a) “Can Allen come with you?”
This rule may be represented as
b)1 + 2 = 3 or 2 + 3 = 5.
xP(x)
c) “Take two aspirin.”
 P(c) for any c  U Solution
It states that if a statement of the form a) This is a question, and hence not
xP(x) is assumed to be true, then the a proposition.
universal quantifier can be dropped to b) This is a proposition, and it is
obtain P(c) which is true for an arbitrary true because 1 + 2 = 3 is true and
object c in the universe of discourse (U). 2 + 3 = 5 is true.
c) This is an imperative sentence. It
Fundamental Rule 2. is not a proposition.
Universal Generalization:
Q.2 Write the negation of the following:
It states, if a statement P(c) is true for each a) “George Washington was the
element c of the universe of discourse (U), first president of the United
then the universal quantifier may be States.”
prefixed to obtain xP(x) . Symbolically, b) “1 + 5 = 7.”
this rule is c) “It is hot today.”
P(c) for an arbitrary c U d) “6 is negative.”
xP(x) Solution
a) The negation is “It is not the case
that George Washington was the
Fundamental Rule 3.
first president of the U. S.” In
Existential Specification or Existential
more straightforward language
Instantiation
we say “George Washington
was not the first president of
It states, if  xP(x) which is assumed to be
the U. S.”
true, then there is an element c in the
b) The negation states that 1 + 5 is
universe of discourse (U) such that P(c) is
not equal to 7: “1 + 5 ≠ 7.”
true. This rule takes the form
c) The negation is “It is not that
xP(x)
case that it is hot today”, or
 P(c) for some c  U “It is not hot today.” Note that
the negation is not “It is cold
today,” because the

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 temperature could be neither c) “I go walking whenever it rains.”
hot nor cold, making both d) “To pass the course it is sufficient
statements false. But a that you get a high grade on the
statement and its negation final exam.”
must have opposite truth e) “To pass the course it is necessary
values. that you get a high grade on the
d) The negation states that “It is final exam.”
not the case that 6 is negative.” f) “I will buy the tickets only if you
This means that 6 is greater call.”
than or equal to 0; we say “6 is Solution
nonnegative.” Note that “6 is c) The word “whenever” is
positive” is not the negation of equivalent to “if”. Therefore we
the given statement. Saying have “If it rains, then I go
that a number is not negative walking.”
means that the number can d) Getting a high grade on the final
be either 0 or positive. exam is a sufficient condition for
passing the course. That is,
Q.3 The following proposition uses the getting a high grade on the final
English connective “or”. Determine exam will guarantee that you
from the context whether “or” is pass the course. Hence we have
intended to be used in the inclusive “If you get a high grade on the
or exclusive sense. final exam, then you will pass the
a) “Tonight I will stay home or go course.”
out to a movie.” e) We first rephrase the statement
b) “If you fail to make a payment as “Getting a high grade on the
on time or fail to pay the final exam is a necessary
amount due, you will incur a condition for passing the course.”
penalty.” The word “necessary” and the
c) “If I can’t schedule the airline word “sufficient” give rise to
flight or if I can’t get a hotel converse implications: “p is
room, then I can’t go on the trip.” sufficient for q” is p→ q, while
Solution “p is necessary for q” is q→p (or,
a) Because the one alternative equivalently, ≦p→≦q). If the
(staying home) precludes the given statement had the word
other (going out),“or” is used in “sufficient” instead of
the exclusive sense. “necessary”, the statement
b) You might both fail to make a would be “If you get a high grade
payment on time and your late on the final exam, then you will
payment might be for an pass the course.” The word
incorrect amount. Hence the “necessary” yields the converse
inclusive “or” is used here. of this statement; that is, “If you
c) If both events happen, you won’t will pass the course, then you get
go on the trip. Hence the a high grade on the final exam.”
inclusive “or” is used here. The equivalent contra positive
sounds better in English: “If you
Q.4 The following statement is a do not get a high grade on the
conditional proposition in one of its final exam, then you will not pass
many alternate forms. Write it in the course.”
English in the form “If . . . then . . . .” f) “p if q” and “p only if q” are

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 converses; “only” has the effect a) “It rains exactly when I plan a
of reversing the implication picnic.”
arrow. The proposition “p if q” is b) “I attend class when I have a quiz
equivalent to q→p; thus “p only if and I have a quiz when I attend
q” is equivalent to p→q. In class.”
English we have “If I buy the c) “I visit the library whenever I
tickets, then you call.” Using the have a paper to write, and
equivalent contra positive, this is conversely.”
“If you do not call, then I won’t Solution
buy the tickets.” a) The word “exactly” takes the
place of “if and only if. “The
Q.5 Write the contra positive, converse, statement says that “If it rains,
and inverse of the following then I plan a picnic” and “If I
proposition: plan a picnic, then it rains.”
= “If the number is positive, then its Putting these two together we
square is positive.” have “It rains if and only if I plan
= “I stay home whenever it is a picnic.”
stormy.” b) Using “if” in place of “when,” we
Solution have “I attend class if I have a
= The contra positive of p→ q is quiz” and “If I attend class, then I
≦q→≦p. Therefore the contra have a quiz.” Therefore we have
positive of “If the number is positive, “I attend class if and only if I
then its square is positive” is the have a quiz.”
equivalent statement “If the square c) Using v for “I visit the library”
of a number is not positive, then the and p for “I have a paper to
number is not positive.” write,” we have both p→ v and
The converse of p→q is q→p . Thus its converse v→p. Together,
the converse is “If the square of a these two statements give p↔v,
number is positive, then the number or “I visit the library if and only if
is positive.” I have a paper to write.”
The inverse of p →q is ≦p→≦q.
Therefore we have the inverse “If Q.7 Translate this system specification
the number is not positive, then the into symbols:
square is not positive.” a) “The online user is sent a
= Remember that the word notification of a link error if the
“whenever” is equivalent to “if”, so network link is down.”
the original proposition is “I stay b) “Whenever the file is locked or
home if it is stormy,” or, the system is in executive
equivalently “If it is stormy, then I clearance mode, the user cannot
stay home.” Therefore: make changes in the data.”
Contra positive: “If I do not stay Solution
home, then it is not stormy.” a) The statement is equivalent to
Converse:“If I stay home, then it is “If the network link is down,
stormy.” then the online user is sent a
Inverse: “If it is not stormy, then I do notification of a link error.”
not stay home.” Using d for “the network link is
down” and s for “the online user
Q.6 Write the following proposition in is sent a notification of a link
the form “. . .if and only if. . . .” error,” the statement becomes

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 d→s. Equivalences .
b) The statement is equivalent to Sol.
“If the file is locked or the
system is in executive clearance
mode, the user cannot make
changes in the data.” Using l for
“the file is locked,” e for “the
system is in executive clearance
mode,” and u for “the user can
make changes in the data,” the
statement is (l ∨e) →≦u.
Q.11 Write the statementp→(¬q∧r) using
Q.8 How would you do a Boolean search only the connectives¬and∧.
for the appropriate Web pages for Solution
each of these? p → (¬q ∧ r) ≡ ≦p ∨(¬q ∧ r) ≡ ≦(p
a) Hotels in New England. ∧¬(¬q ∧ r)).
b) Hotels in England.
c) Hotels in England or New Q.12 Let P(x) be the statementx2< x
England. where the universe for axis all real
Solution numbers.
a) We need to examine “hotels” and a) Determine the truth value of P
both “New” and “England”; that (0).
is, HOTELS AND (NEW AND b) Determine the truth value of P
ENGLAND). (1/3).
b) To avoid getting hotels in New c) Determine the truth value of P
England, we use ENGLAND NOT (2).
NEW. Therefore we have d) Determine the set of all real
HOTELS AND(ENGLAND NOT numbers for which P(x) is true.
NEW). Solution
c) The two key words here are a) The proposition P (0) states that
“hotels” and “England” (which 02< 0, which is false.
will include both the country and b) The proposition P (1/3) states
the part of the United States). that (1/3)2< 1/3, which is true.
Therefore we can search for c) The proposition P (2) states that
HOTELS AND ENGLAND. 4 < 2, which is false.
d) If x≥ 1, then x2≥x, so P(x) is false.
Q.9 Provethat¬[r∨(q∧(≦r→≦p))] ≡ ¬ r ∧ If x≤ 0, then x2≥ 0 and hence
(p ∨ ¬ q) by using a truth table. x2≥x, so P(x) is false. If 0 < x < 1,
then x2< x is true (because
Solution this inequality can be rewritten
as x2−x< 0, or x(x−1) <0, which
is true because the product is
negative — it is the product of a
positive and a negative number).
Therefore, P(x) is true if and
only if 0 < x < 1.
Q.13 Find all real numbers x and y
Q.10 Provethat¬[r∨(q∧(≦r→≦p))] ≡ ¬r ∧ such that R(x, y) is true, where
(p ∨ ¬ q) by using a series of logical R(x, y) is the predicate “x y = y.”

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 Solution claims that there is an x such that x
The given predicate can be walked on the moon; that is,
rewritten as xy−y = 0, or y(x− 1) = 0. ∃xW(x). The negation is ¬∃xW(x),
This is true if and only if either y which is equivalent to ∀x¬W( x).
= 0 or x− 1 = 0. That is, R(x, y) is true Therefore, the negative states that
if and only if y = 0 or x = 1. for every x that can be chosen, x did
not walk on the moon. That is, “No
Q.14 Find a universe for x such that person walked on the moon.”
∀x(x2< x) is true. Note:
Solution The negation is not “There is a
We need to select numbers such person who did not walk on the
that the square of the number is less moon.” You cannot have a statement
than the number. We could take the and its negation both true, which
universe for x to consist of any would be the case if we took this
numbers greater that 0 but less statement as the negation of the
than 1. For example, one such original statement.
universe would consist of the single
number 1/2. Another universe is Q.17 Write in symbols using predicates
{1/5, 2/3, 9/11}. The largest and quantifiers: “Everyone who
universe we could choose is the visited France stayed in Paris”.
entire interval (0, 1). Solution
Q.15 Determine whether ∃t (t2+ 12 = 7t) The solution depends on the
is true, where the universe for t universe for the variable. If we take
consists of all real numbers. as the universe all people who visited
Solution France, we can write the proposition
The equation t2 + 12 = 7t can be as ∀xP(x), where P(x) is the
rewritten as t2− 7t + 12 = 0, which predicate “x stayed in Paris.”
factors as (t− 3)(t− 4) = 0. This is However, if we take all people as the
true for the numbers 3 and 4. universe, then we need to introduce
Hence the given proposition is true. a second predicate F(x) for “x visited
France.” In this case, the proposition
Q.16 Negate “There is a person who can be written as ∀x (F(x) →P(x)).
walked on the moon.”
Solution Q.18 Express this statement in symbols,
We can always obtain the negation using predicates and any needed
of a statement by placing the phrase quantifiers: “Every freshman at the
“it is not the case that” in front of the College is taking some Computer
statement. Thus, the negation is “It Science course.”
is not the case that there is a person Solution
who walked on the moon”. That is, There are many solutions,
“No person walked on the moon. depending on the universes chosen
“(Incidentally, the original statement for people and for courses. If we
is true because12 astronauts walked take as our universe for people all
on the moon between 1969 and freshmen at the College and our
1972). universe for courses all Computer
We can also work with symbols. Let Science courses, then we can use
W(x) be the statement “x walked on the predicate T (x, y): “x is taking y”
the moon” where the universe for x and hence the statement can be
consists of all people. The statement written as ∀x∃ y T(x, y).

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 However, suppose we enlarge the take for the universe for the
universe of people to include all variable. If we take all juniors in this
students at the College, not only class as the universe, we can write
freshmen. Also, suppose we enlarge the proposition a s∀x S(x) where
the range of courses to include all S(x) is the predicate “x scored above
courses offered at the College. In 90 on the first exam”. However, if
this case we need to introduce a we take all students in this class as
predicate to restrict the students the universe, then we can write the
and a predicate to restrict the proposition a s∀x (J(x) → S(x))
courses: where J(x) is the predicate “x is a
F(x): “x is a freshman” C(y): “y is a junior.”
Computer Science course”. We can extend the universe still
We are making a conditional further. Suppose we take all students
statement: “If the student is a as the universe. Then we need to
freshman, then the student is taking introduce a third predicate C(x) to
some Computer Science course;” mean “x is in this class.” In this case,
that is the proposition becomes ∀x ((C(x) ∧
∀x (F(x) → ∃y (C(y)∧ T (x, y))), J(x)) → S(x)).
Which we can rewrite as We can also replace S(x) by S(x, y)
∀x ∃y (F(x) → C(y)∧ T (x, y)) where S(x, y) means “x received a
score of y on the first exam” and the
Q.19 Write the following statements in universe for y is the set of all
English, using the predicate S(x, y): possible exam scores. In this case
“x shops in y”, where x represents the proposition becomes ∀x∃y(C(x)
people and y represents stores: ∧ J(x) → (y > 90) ∧ S(x, y)).
a) ∀y S(Margaret, y). Note that we used a predicate, y >
b) ∃x∀y S(x, y). 90, without giving it a name.
Solution
a) The predicate states that if y is a Q.21 Write the following statement in
store, then Margaret shops there. English, using the predicates S(x, y):
That is, “Margaret shops in every “x shops in y”
store.” T (x): “x is a student”
b) The predicate states that there is Where x represents people and y
a person x with the property that represents stores:∃y∀x (T (x)→≦S(x,
x shops in every store y. That is, y))
“There is a person who shops in Solution
every store.” The statement ∃y∀x (T (x) →≦S(x,
[Note that part (a) is obtained y)) says that “there is a store y with
from part (b) by taking a a certain property, namely, if x is
particular value, Margaret, for any student whatever, then x does
the variable x. If we do this, we not shop in y.”
do not need to quantify x.] We have “There is a store in which
no student shops.”
Q.20 Write in symbols using predicates
and quantifiers: “Every Junior in Q.22 Write the following statement in
this class scored above 90 on the English, using the predicates
first exam.” S(x, y): “x shops in y”
Solution T (x): “x is a student”
The solution depends on what we Where x represents people and y

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 represents stores: following cases and false otherwise:
∀y∃x (T (x) ∧ S(x, y)). P(1, 4), P(2, 1), P(2, 2), P(3, 4), P(4,
Solution 1), P(4, 4).
The statement ∀ y∃x (T (x) ∧ S(x, y)) Determine whether each of the
asserts that for every store y that following is true or false:
can be chosen, there is a person x a) ∃y∀xP(x, y).
who is a student and who shops in y. b) ∀xP(x, x).
Therefore: “Every store has at least c) ∀x∃y (x≠y ∧ P(x, y)).
one student who shops in it.” Solution
a) False. If we take y = 1, not all
Q.23 Write the following statement in four statements P(x, 1) are true.
English, using the predicates C(x): “x (Take x = 1 for example.) If we
is a Computer Science major” take y= 2, not all four statements
M(y): “y is a Math course” T (x, y): “x P(x, 2) are true. (Take x=1 for
is taking y” example.) If we take y = 3, not all
Where x represents students and y four statements P(x, 3) are true.
represents courses: (Take x=1 for example.) If we
∀x ∃y (C(x) → M(y) ∧ T (x, y)). take y= 4, not all four statements
Solution P(x, 4) is true. (Take y = 2.)
The statement ∀x ∃y (C(x) → M(y) ∧ b) False. P (1, 1) is false.
T (x, y)) asserts that for every c) True. For every x we can find a
student x there is a course y such value y ≠ x such that P(x, y) is
that if x is a major in Computer true: P (1, 4), P (2, 1), P (3, 4),
Science then x is taking y and y is a and P (4, 1).
Math course. Therefore, “Every
Computer Science major is taking at Q.26 What are the truth values of each of
least one Math course.” these? Assume that in each case the
universe consists of all real numbers.
Q.24 Write the following statement using c) ∃x ∃y (xy = 2) d)∃x∀y(xy=2)
quantifiers and the predicates e) ∀x ∃y (xy = 2) f)∀x∀y(xy = 2)
S(x, y): “x shops in y” Solution
T (x): “x is a student” c) This statement asserts that there
Where the universe for x consists of are numbers x and y such that xy
people and the universe for y = 2. This is true because we can
consists of stores: “There is no store take x = 2 and y = 1, for example.
that has no students who shop d) This statement asserts that there
there.” is a number x such that when we
Solution multiply this particular x by
We can begin by stating that “It is every possible number y we
false that there exists a store y with obtain xy=2. There is no such
the property that no students shop number x. (If there were such a
in y.” Saying that “no students shop number x, then xy=2 for all y. If
in y” is ∀x (T(x)→¬S(x, y)). we take y = 0, the product xy
Completely written in symbols, we cannot equal 2.) Therefore the
have¬∃y ∀x (T (x) →≦S(x, y)). statement is false.
e) This statement asserts that for
Q.25 Suppose that the universe for x and every number x we choose, we
y is {1, 2, 3, 4}. Assume that P(x, y) is can find a number y such that
a predicate that is true in the the xy = 2. This is almost always

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 the case, except if we choose x = Q.28 Express the following statement
0. If we take x = 0, there is no using predicates & quantifiers: “The
number y such that xy = 2. product of two positive numbers is
Therefore the statement is false. positive.”
(Note that the statement would Solution
be true if the universe for x Using the universe consisting of all
consisted of all nonzero real real numbers for x and y, we are
numbers.) saying that “If x and y are greater
f) This statement claims that no than zero, then xy is greater than
matter what numbers x and y we zero. That is, ∀x ∀y [(x > 0 ∧ y > 0) →
choose, we obtain xy = 2. Clearly, (xy > 0)].
this is false, because we could If we use all positive real numbers
choose x = y = 1. as the universe for x and y, we can
write the statement more simply:
Q.27 Suppose P(x, y, z) is a predicate ∀x ∀y (xy > 0).
where the universe for x, y, and z is
{1, 2}. Also suppose that the Q.29 Write the following statement in
predicate is true in the following symbols using the predicates
cases P(1, 1, 1), P(1, 2, 1), P(1, 2, 2), S(x): “x is a perfect square”
P(2, 1, 1), P(2, 2, 2), and false P(x): “x is positive”
otherwise. Determine the truth Where the universe for x is the set of
value of each of the following all integers:
quantified statements: “Perfect squares are positive.”
c) ∀x ∃y ∃z P(x, y, z) Solution
d) ∀x ∀y ∃z P(x, y, z) Note that “for all” is implied. When
e) ∀y ∀z ∃x P(x, y, z) we say “Perfect squares are
f) ∀x ∃y ∀z P(x, y, z) positive” we are really saying that
Sol. “For all integers x we choose, if x is a
c) True. For every value of x (x = 1 perfect square, then x is positive.” In
and x = 2) there are y and z such symbols we have ∀x (S(x) → P(x)).
that P(x, y, z) is true. In both
cases we can choose both y = z = Q.30 Write the statement “There is a
2. largest number” using predicates
d) True. For each choice of values and quantifiers. Then give its negation
for x and y, we can find z such in symbols.
that P(x, y, z) is true. We need to Solution
consider four cases. Taking the universe for x and y to
x = y = 1: we take z = 1, consist of all real numbers, we are
x = 1 and y = 2: we can take z to stating that there is a number x such
be 1 or 2, that, no matter what number y is
x = 2, y = 1: we take z = 1, chosen, we have x ≥ y. Therefore.
x = y = 2: we take z = 2. ∃x ∀y (x ≥ y).
e) False. If we take y = 1 and z = 2, Its negation can be formed using
there is no value of x such that these steps:
P(x, 1, 2) is true. ¬ (∃x ∀ y (x ≥ y)) ≡ ∀x ∃y ≦(x ≥ y) ≡
f) False. Take x=2. There is no ∀x ∃y (x < y). (This says that there is
value of y such that ∀z P(2, y, z) no largest number.)
is true.

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 Q.31 The proposition (¬q∧(p→q))→≦pis a
tautology. It is the basis for the rule
of inference modus tollens:
¬q
p → q ∴¬p
Suppose we are given the
propositions: “If the class finishes
Chapter 1, then they have a quiz”
and “The class does not have a quiz.”
Find a conclusion that can be drawn
using modus tollens.
Dolution
Let p represent “The class finishes
Chapter 2” and q represent “The
class has a quiz.” According to
modus tollens, because we have ¬q In the fourth row the three
and p→q, we can conclude ¬p, or hypotheses (columns 5, 6, 7) are
“The class did not finish Chapter 1.” true and the conclusion is false.
Therefore, the argument is not valid.
Q.32 Suppose that “it is snowing” is true
and that “it is windy” is true. Using Q.34 Suppose we have the two
the conjunction rule, what propositions (with symbols to
conclusion can be drawn? represent them):
Solution “It is raining (r) or I work in the
Using s for “it is snowing” and w for yard (w)”
“it is windy,” we are given that s is “It is not raining (¬r) or I go to the
true and w is true. By the library (l).”
conjunction rule, we can conclude What conclusion can we draw from
s∧w, or “it is snowing and windy”. these propositions?
Solution
Q.33 Determine whether this argument is We can use the resolution rule of
valid by using a truth table:I play inference to draw a conclusion from
golf or tennis. these propositions. In symbols the
If it is not Sunday, I play golf and two given propositions are (r∨w) ∧
tennis. (¬r∨l). From resolution we have
If it is Saturday or Sunday, then I (r∨w) ∧ (¬r∨l) → ( w∨l). Therefore,
don’t play golf. Therefore, I don’t we can draw the conclusion “I work
play golf. in the yard or I go to the library.”
Solution
Using the variables: g: I Q.35 Suppose we have:
play golf t: I play tennis s: “Every student in this class is a
it is Saturday u: it is Sunday, junior.”
the argument can be written in “Every Junior in this class passed the
symbols as: g ∨ t final exam.”
≦u → (g ∧ t) “Allen is a student in this class.”
+(s∨u) →≦g∴¬g Explain why we can draw the
conclusion “Allen passed the final
Truth table: exam.”
Solution

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 We will use S(x) to mean “ x is a The universal quantifier “∀x”
student in this class”, J(x) to mean “x (where the universe for x consists of
is a Junior”, and P(x) to mean “x all integers) is understood, if we
passed the final exam”, where the read the statement as “for every x
universe for x consists of all people. we choose, x2 does not end in the
The proof is: digit 8”. That is, we have ∀x (x2 does
1. ∀x (S(x) →J(x)) premise not end in the digit 8).
2. ∀x(J(x) →P(x)) premise However, we can read the given
3. S(Allen)→J(Allen)universal statement equivalently as “there
instantiation on (1) [ to be does not exist an integer x such that
covered in next class] x2 ends in the digit 8”. If we do this,
4. J(Allen) →P(Allen) universal the existential quantifier is used:
instantiation on (2) ¬∃x (x2 ends in the digit 8).
5. S(Allen) →P(Allen) hypothetical Both statements are equivalent.
syllogism on (3) and (4)
6. S(Allen) premise
7. P(Allen) modus ponens on (5)
and (6)

Q.36 Sometimes quantifiers in statements

are understood, but do not actually
appear in the word so the statement.
Explain what quantifiers are
understood in the statement “The
product of two negative numbers is
positive.”
Solution
What is really meant is “For all pairs
of negative numbers, the product is
positive.” In symbols, ∀x ∀y [((x < 0)
∧ (y < 0)) → (xy > 0)].

Q.37 Consider the theorem “If x ends in

the digit 3, then x3 ends in the digit
7.” What quantifier is understood,
but not written?
Solution
The universal quantifier “∀x”
(where the universe for x consists of
all integers) is understood. That is,
we have ∀x ((x ends in the digit 3) →
(x3 ends in the digit 7)).

Q-38 Consider the theorem “No squares

of integers end in the digit 8.” What
quantifier is understood, but not
written?
Solution

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 GATE QUESTIONS
Q.1 What is the converse of the  : (x) Px   y  Qxy  Qyy  
following assertion?
I stay only if you go   x  Px 
a) I stay if you go I1 : Domain : the set of natural
b) If I stay then you go numbers
c) If you do not go then I do not stay Px = ‘x is a prime number’
d) If I do not stay then you go Qxy = ‘y divides x’
[GATE-2001] I2 : Same as I1 except that Px = ‘x is a
composite number.’
Q.2 Consider two well-formed formulas Which of the following statements is
in propositional logic true?
F1 : P  P a) I1 satisfies  , I2 does not
F2 : (P   P)   P  P  b) I2 satisfies  , I1 does not
c) Neither I2 nor I1 satisfies 
Which of the following statements is
d) Both I1 and I2 satisfy  .
correct?
[GATE-2003]
a) F1 is satisfiable, F2 is valid
b) F1 is unsatisfiable, F2 is satisfiable Q.6 The following resolution rule is used
c) F1 is unsatisfiable, F2 is valid in logic programming:
d) F1 and F2 are both satisfiable Derive clause (P  Q) from clauses (P
[GATE-2001]  R), (Q  R)
Which of the following statements
Q.3 If X then Y unless Z” is represented related to this rule is FALSE?
by which of the following formulas a) (P  R)  (Q  R)  (P  Q) is
in propositional logic? logically valid
(“  ”) is negation, “” is b) (P  Q)  (P  R)  (Q  R) is
conjunction, and 
“ ” is logically valid
implication) c) (P  Q) is satisfiable if and only if
a) (X Z)  Y b) (X Z)  Y (P  R)  (Q  R) is satisfiable
c) X   Y  Z d) (X  Y)  Z d) (P  Q)  FALSE if and only if
both P and Q are unsatisfiable
[GATE-2002]
[GATE-2003]
Q.4 Which of the following is a valid first
Q.7 Identify the correct translation into
order formula? (Here α and β are
logical notation of the following
first order formulae with x as their
assertion. Some boys in the class are
only free variable)
taller than all the girls
a) (x)    x     x     Note : Taller (x, y) is true if x is taller
b) (x)    x     than y.
c) x)      x    x   a)  x   boy(x)   y  girl(y)  taller(x, y)  

d) (x)       x     x   b)  x   boy(x)   y  girl(y)  taller(x, y)  

[GATE-2003] c)  x   boy(x)  y  girl(y)  taller(x, y)  

d)  x   boy(x)   y  girl(y)  taller(x, y)  
Q.5 Consider the following formula α
and its two interpretations I1 and I2. [GATE-2004]

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  tiger(x)  lion(x)   
Q.8 The following proportional c) x  
statement is  attacks(x)  (hungry(x)   Threatened(x)
(P  (Q  R))  ((P  Q)  R)
 tiger(x)  lion(x)   
a) satisfiable but not valid d) x  
b) valid  hungry(x)  threatened(x)   attacks(x)
c) a contradistinction [GATE-2006]
d) None of the above
[GATE-2004] Q.12 Consider the following proportional
statements:
Q.9 Let P, Q and R be three atomic P1: ((A  B)→C)) = ((A→C)  (B→C))
propositional assertions. Let X P2: ((A  B)→C)) = ((A→C)  (B→C))
denote (P  Q) → R and Y denote Which one of the following is true?
(P→R)  (Q→R). Which one of the a) P1 is a tautology, but not P2
following is a tautology? b) P2 is a tautology, but not P1
a) X = Y b) X → Y c) P1 and P2 are both tautologies
c) Y → X d) Y  X d) Both P1 and P2 are not
[GATE-2005] tautologies
[GATE-2006]
Q.10 What is the first order predicate
calculus statements equivalent to Q.13 A logical binary relation ʘ, is
the following? Every teacher is liked defined as follows:
by some student A B A⊙B
 teacher(x)   TRUE TRUE TRUE
a) (x)  
(y) student(y)  likes(y, x)  TRUE FALSE TRUE

 teacher(x)   FALSE TRUE FALSE

b) (x)  
(y) student(y)  likes(y, x) 
FALSE FALSE TRUE

 teacher(x)   Let ~ be the unary negation (NOT)

c) (y)(x)   operator, with higher precedence,
student(y)  likes(y, x)  then ʘ. Which one of the following
 teacher(x)  (y)  is equivalent to A  B?
d) (x)   a) (~A ʘ B) b) ~ (A ʘ ~B)
student(y)  likes(y, x)  c) ~ (~A ʘ ~B) d) ~ (A ʘ B)
[GATE-2005] [GATE-2006]

Q.11 Which one of the first order Q.14 Let Graph(x) be a predicate which
predicate calculus statements given denotes that x is a graph. Let
below correctly expresses the Connected (x) be a predicate which
following English statement? Tigers denotes that x is connected. Which
and lions attack if they are hungry of the following first order logic
or threatened. sentences DOES NOT represent the
statement; “Not every graph is
 tiger(x)  lion(x)   
a) x   connected”?
 hungry(x)  threatened(x)   attacks(x) a) x(Graph(x)  Connected(x))
b)  x(Graph(x)   Connected(x))
 tiger(x)  lion(x)   
b) x   c)  x( Graph(x)  Connected(x))
 hungry(x)  threatened(x)   attacks(x) d)  x(Graph(x)  Connected(x))
[GATE-2007]

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 Q.15 Which of the following is TRUE Q.18 Which one of the following is the
about formulae in Conjunctive most appropriate logical formula to
Normal Form? represent the statement:
a) For any formula, there is a truth “Gold and silver ornaments are
assignment for which at least previous”
half the clauses evaluate to true. The following notations are used:
b) For any formula, there is a truth G(x) : x is a gold ornament
assignment for a which all the S(x) : x is a silver ornament
clauses evaluate to true. P(x): x is precious
c) There is a formula such that for a) x  P(x)   G(x)  S(x)  
b) x  G(x)  S(x)  P(x)  
each truth assignment at most
one-fourth of the clauses
evaluate to true. c) x  G(x)  S(x)  P(x)  
d) None of the above d) x  G(x)  S(x)  P(x)  
[GATE-2007]
[GATE-2009]
Q.16 Let fsa and pda be two predicates
such that fsa(x) means x is a finite Q.19 The binary operation is defined as
state automaton, and pda(y) means, follows:
that y is a pushdown automaton. Let P Q PQ
equivalent be another predicate T T T
T F T
such that equivalent (a, b) means a
F T F
and b are equivalent. Which of the F F T
following first order logic statement Which one of the following is
represents the following : equivalent to P  Q ?
Each finite state automaton has an
a) QP b) PQ
equivalent pushdown automaton.
a) (∀xfsa(x))⇒(∃ypda(y)∧equivalent c) PQ d) PQ
(x, y)) [GATE-2009]
b) ~∀y(∃xfsa(x)⇒pda(y)∧equivalent
Q.20 Consider the following well –
(x, y))
formed formulae:
c) ∀x∃y(fsa(x) ∧ pda(y) ∧ equivalent
I. x(P(x))
(x, y))
d) ∀x∃y(fsa(y) ∧ pda(x)∧ equivalent II. x  P  x  
(x, y)) III. x  P  x  
[GATE-2008]
IV. x  P  x  
Q.17 P and Q are two propositions. Which Which of the above are equivalent?
of the following logical expression a) I and II b) I and IV
are equivalent? c) II and III d) II and IV
1. P ~ Q [GATE-2009]
2. ~ (~ P Q)
Q.21 Suppose the predicate F(x, y, t) is
3.  P  Q    P ~ Q    ~ P ~ Q  used to represent the statement that
4.  P  Q    P ~ Q    ~ P  Q  person x can fool person y at time t.
a) Only 1 and 2 Which one of the statements below
b) Only 1, 2 and 3 expresses best the meaning of the
c) Only 1,2 and 4 formula xyt  F  x, y, t   ?
d) All of 1,2,3 and 4 a) Everyone can fool some person
[GATE-2008] at some time

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 b) No one can fool everyone all the “Some real numbers are rational”
time a) x  real(x)  rational(x) 
c) Everyone cannot fool some
person all the time b) x  real(x)  rational(x) 
d) No one can fool some person at c) x  real(x)  rational(x) 
the time
d) x  rational(x)  real(x) 
[GATE-2010]
[GATE-2012]
Q.22 Which one of the following options Q.25 What is the logical translation of the
is CORRECT given below three following statements?
positive integers x, y and z, and a “None of my friends are perfect”.
predicate
a) x  F(x)  P(x) 
P  X     X  1 
b) x  F(x)  P(x) 
y  z  x  y  z    y  x    y  1 
c) x  F(x)  P(x) 
a) P(x) being true means that x is a
prime number d) x  F(x)  P(x) 
b) P(x) being true means that x is a [GATE-2013]
number other than 1
c) P(x) is always true irrespective of Q.26 Which one of the following is NOT
the value of x logically equivalent to
d) P(x) being true means that x has x  y()  z()  .
exactly two factors other than a) x  z    y    
1& x
[GATE-2011] b) x  z   y    

Q.23 Consider the following logical c) x  y     z    

interferences. d) x  y     z    
I1 : If it rains then the cricket match
[GATE-2013]
will not be played.
Interference: There was no rain. Q.27 Consider the statement
I2 : If it rains then the cricket match “Not all that glitters is gold”
will not be played. Predicate glitter(x) is true if x
It did not rain. glitters and predicate gold(x) is true
Interference: The cricket match was if x is gold.
played. Which one of the following logical
Which of the following is TRUE? formulae represents the above
a) Both I1 and I2 are correct statement?
interferences a) x : glitters(x)  gold(x)
b) I1 is correct but I2 is not a correct b) x : gold(x)  glitters(x)
interference c) x : gold(x)  glitters(x)
c) I1 is not correct but I2 is a correct
d) x : glitters(x)  gold(x)
interference
d) Both I1 and I2 are not correct [GATE-2014]
interferences Q.28 Which one of the following
[GATE-2012] propositional logic formulas is TRUE
Q.24 What is the correct translation of when exactly two of p, q and r are
the following statements into TRUE?
mathematical logic? a)   p  q   r    p  q ~ r 

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 b)  ~  p  q   r    p  q ~ r  p q p≠ q
0 0 0
c)   p  q   r    p  q ~ r  0 1 1
d)  ~  p  q   r    p  q ~ r 
1 0 1
1 1 0
[GATE-2014] Which one of the following is true
about the binary operator ≠?
Q.29 Which one of the following Boolean
a) Both commutative and associative
expressions is NOT a tautology?
b) Commutative but not associative
a)   a  b    b  c     a  c  c) Not commutative but associative
b)  a  c    ~ b   a  c   d)Neither commutative nor
associative
c)  a  b  c    c  a  [GATE-2015 (1)]
d) a   b  a 
[GATE-2014] Q.34 Consider the following two
statements.
Q.30 Consider the following statements: S1: If candidate is known to be
P : Good mobile phones are not corrupt, then he will not be elected.
cheap S2: If a candidate is kind, he will be
Q:Cheap mobile phones are not good elected.
L : P implies Q Which one of the following
M : Q implies P statements follows from S1 and S2
N : P is equivalent to Q as per sound inference rules of
Which one of the following about. L, logic?
M, and N is correct? a) If a person is known to be
a) Only L is TRUE. corrupt, he is kind
b) Only M is TRUE. b) If a person is not known to be
c) Only N is TRUE. corrupt, he is not kind
d) L, M and N are TRUE. c) If a person is kind, he is not
[GATE-2014] known to be corrupt
Q.31 The CORRECT formula for the d) If a person is not kind, he is not
sentence, “not all rainy days are known to be corrupt
cold” is [GATE-2015 (2)]
a) d(Rainy(d)  Cold(d))
Q.35 Which one of the following well
b) d(Rainy(d)  Cold(d))
formed formulae is a tautology?
c) d( Rainy(d)  Cold(d)) a) x y R(x, y)y x R(x, y)
d) d(Rainy(d)  Cold(d)) b) (x[y R(x, y) S(x, y)]) x y S(x, y)
[GATE-2014] [x y (P(x, y) R(x, y))]
c)
Q. 32 Which one of the following is nor [x y (P(x, y)R(x, y))]
equivalent to p ↔ q ? d) x y(x, y) x yP(y, x)
a) (p  q)  (p  q) [GATE-2015 (2)]
b) (p  q)  (p  q)
Q.36 In a room there are only two types
c) (p  q)  (p  q)
of people, namely Type 1 and Type
d) (p  q)  (p  q) 2. Type 1 people always tell the
[GATE-2014] truth and Type 2 people always lie.
Q.33 The binary operator ≠ is defined by You give a fair coin to a person in
the following truth table. that room, without knowing which

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 type he is from and tell him o toss it pleasant”, and it is pleasant, and it is
and hide the result from you ask for not pleasant only if it
it. Upon asking, the person replies is cold” is represented by
the following a)  p  r    r   p  q  
“The result of the toss is head if an
only if I am telling the truth.” b)  p  r     p  q   r 
Which of the following options is c)  p  r     p  q   r 
correct?
a) The result is head d)  p  r    r   p  q  
b) The result is tail [GATE-2017]
c) If the person is of Type 2, then
the result is tail Q.41 Consider the first-order logic
d) If the person is of Type 1 then sentence F : x  yR  x, y   .
the result is tail Assuming non-empty logical domains,
[GATE-2015] which of the sentences below are
implied by F?
I. y  xR  x, y  
Q.37 Let p,q,r,s represent the following
proposition
P:x {8,9,10,11,12} II. y  xR  x, y  
q:x is a composite number III. y  xR  x, y  
r:x is perfect square
s: x is a prime number IV. x  yR  x, y  
The integer x 2 which satisfies a) IV only b) I and IV only
(p q)(r s)) is ___. c) II only d) II and III only
[GATE-2016] [GATE-2017]

Q.38 Consider the following expressions: Q.42 The statement  p    q  is

(i) false (ii) Q
logically equivalent to which of the
(iii) true (iv) P Q
statements below?
(v) –Q P
I. p  q
The number of expressions given
above that are logically implied by P II. q  p
(P Q) is ______. III.  q  v p
[GATE-2016]
IV.  p  v q
Q.39 Which one of the following well – a) I only b) I and IV only
formed formulae in predicate c) II only d) II and III only
calculus is NOT valid? [GATE-2017]
a) (xp(x)xq(x))(xp(x)xq(x)) Q.43 Let p, q and r be propositions and
b) (xp(x)xq(x))x(p(x)q(x)) the expression  p  q   r be a
c) x(p(x)q(x))(xp(x)xq(x))
contradiction. Then, the expression
d) x(p(x)q(x))(xp(x)xq(xx))
 r  p   q is
[GATE-2016]
a) a tautology
Q.40 Let p, q, r denote the statements “It b) a contradiction
is raining”, “It is cold” , and “It is c) always TRUE when p is FALSE
pleasant”, respectively. Then the d) always TRUE when q is TRUE
statement “It is not raining and it is [GATE-2017]

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 ANSWER KEY:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
(a) (a) (a) (d) (d) (b) (d) (a) (b) (b) (d) (d) (d) (d)
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
(d) (a) (b) (d) (b) (b) (b) (a) (b) (c) (d) (a,d) (d) (b)
29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42
(b) (d) (d) (c ) (a) (c ) (c ) (a) 11 4 (d) (a) (b) (d)
43
(d)

EXPLANATIONS
Q.1 (a) a valid first order formula.
Let p : I say
q : you go Q.5 (d)
I stay only if you go Q yy  “y divides y” is always true
pq
 Qxx  Qyy is same as Qxx 
Converse of p  q is q  p
False Now α becomes
i.e., I stay if you go
 x  P  x    y   Qxy  false   x 
Q.2 (a)  ¬ P  x  
F1 : P ~ P
Now consider I1 : P(x) = “x is a prime
~ P ~ P number”.
~ P α becomes (∀ x x is a prime number
So, F1 is contingency. Hence, F1 is if and only if ∀ y (y does not divide x))
satisfiable but not valid.  ∀ x (x is not prime) Since, ∀ y
F2 :  P ~ P  ~ P  P  (y does not divide x) is always false
 ~ P ~ P    ~ (P)  P  (since x divides x always). α now
becomes
 ~ P   P  P ∀ x (x is a prime number  false)
~ PP  ∀ x (x is not a prime).
T Which is true.
So, F2 is tautology and therefore Now consider I2:P(x)= “x is a
valid. composite number”.
Now α becomes
Q.3 (a) (∀ x x is a composite number if and
If X then Y unless Z is represented only if ∀ y (y does not divide x)) 
by  X  Z  Y ∀ x (x is not a composite number)
By same reasoning used above, 
Q.4 (d) now becomes
(∀ x x is a composite number 
 x      x      x   false)  ∀ x (x is not composite) is
is a logical equivalence & therefore, also true.

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 Since if no number divides x, x =  P ' Q' + R    P ' + Q' + R 
cannot be a composite number, is
=  P'Q' + R  +P' + Q' +R
'
true.
 Both I1 & I2 satisfy α.
=  P'Q'  .R ' + P' + Q' + R
'

Q.6 (b)
  P + Q  .R ' + P' + Q' + R
Derive clause P  Q from clauses
P  R , Q  R means that =PR ' + QR ' + P' + Q' + R
=  PR ' + R  +  QR ' + Q'  + P'
 P  R    Q  R 
 PQ =  P + R  (R ' + R) +  Q' + Q  ×  R ' + Q'  + P'
 (a) is true.
=  P+R  +  R ' +Q'  +P'
Since, x  y does not imply that
yx = P + P ' + R + R ' + Q'
 P  Q   P  R    Q  ¬R  =1+1+ Q'
 may or may not be true. Hence (b) 1
is not true. X  Y is a tautology.

Q.7 (d) Q.10 (b)

The statement is “some boys in the “Every teacher is liked by some
class are taller than all the girls”. student : then the logical expression
So the notation for the given statements is
is (X)[teacher(x)  (y)[student(y)  likes(y,x]]

 x  boy  x    y   girl  y   taller  x,y    Where likes (y, x) means y likes x,
such that y represent the student
Q.8 (a) and x represents the teacher.
 P   Q  R    P  Q  R  Q.11 (d)
The given statement should be read
=  P  Q+R    PQ  R  as “If an animal is a tiger or a lion,
= P' +Q + R    PQ'  +R  then (if the animal is hungry or
threatened, then it will attack).
= P' +Q+R   P' +Q' +R  Therefore the correct translation is
=  P' + Q +R  +P' + Q' +R
'
 tiger  x   lion  x    
x  
= P Q'R ' +P' + Q' +R {hungry  x   threatened  x   attacks  x  }
= Q' + Q'PR ' +P' +R Which is choice (d).
= Q' + P' + R (by absorption law)
Q.12 (d)
P1:  A  B  C  =   A  C    B  C  
Which is a contingency

Q.9 (b) LHS:

X: P  Q   R  A  B  C
Y: P  R    Q  R   AB  C
=  AB + C
'
X : P + Q  R=  P + Q  +R = P'Q' +R
'

=A' + B' + C
Y: P' +R  +  Q' +R  = P' + Q' + R
RHS:
Clearly X  Y  A  B   B  C 
Consider X  Y

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 =  A' + C  B' + c  some graph which is not connected”
which is same as
=A'B' + C x{graph(x)  connected(x)}
= A' + B' + C Which is choice (b).
Clearly, LHS ≠ RHS Alternate solution
P1 is not a tautology We can translate the given
P2 :  A  B  C)  =   A  C    B  C   statement “NOT (every graph is
LHS   A+B  C  connected)” as
as (x graph (x) → connected (x))
=  A+B +C
'

=A'B' + C  x  graph(x)  connected(x) 

RHS =  A  C   B  C 
 x  graph(x)  connected(x) 
  A + C +  B + C
' '
 x  graph(x)  connected(x) 
' '
=A + B + C  x  graph(x)  connected(x) 
Clearly, LHS  RHS  P2 is also not
From the above option (a) = (b) =
a tautology
(c) (d) is
Therefore, both P1 and P2 are not
tautologies. Correct choice is (d).
x  graph(x)  connected(x) 
Q.13 (d) Which means all graphs are not
By using min terms we can define connected.
A⨀B = AB + AB’ + A’B’
= A + A’B’ Q.15 (d)
= (A + A’) . (A + B’) In conjunction normal form, for any
= A + B’ particular assignment of truth
a) ~ A ⊙ B = A’⊙ B = A’ + B’ values, all expect one clause, will
always evaluate to true. so (d) is
b) ~ (A⊙~B) = (A⊙B’)’ = (A + correct answer.
(B’)’)’ = (A + B)’ = A’B’
Q.16 (a)
c) ~ (~A⊙~B) = (A’⊙B’)’ = (A’ + “for x which is an fsa, there exists a
(B’)’)’ = (A’ + B)’ = A’B’ y which is a pda and which is
equivalent to x”.
d) ~ (A⊙~B) = (A⊙B’)’ = (A + xfsa  x    ypda  y  
(B’)’)’ = (A + B)’ = A’B’ equivalent (x,y)) is the logical
representation.
e) ~ (~A⊙B) = (A’⊙B)’ = (A’ + B’)’ =
A.B= A  B Q.17 (b)
 only, choice (d) = A  B
P~ Q = p + q'
Note: This problem can also be done
~  ~P  Q  =  p'q  = p + q '
'
by constructing truth table for each
i)
Choice and comparing with truth
table A  B. ii)
 P  Q   P~ Q   ~P~ Q
 pq  pq'  p'q'
 p  q  q '   p'q '
Q.14 (d)
The statement “Not every graph is
connected” is same as “There exists  p  p'q '

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   p  p'   p  q   Q' P '  P  Q  Q ' 
 p  q'  Q' P '  P

iii)  P  Q    P ~ Q    ~ P  Q    Q'  P  .  P '  P 

 pq  pq '  p'q = Q' + P
 p  q  q '   p'q Choice (b) P  Q  P  Q'
 PQ'  P  Q'   P'  Q' 
' '
 p  p'q
  p  p'   p  q   PQ'  PQ  P'Q
 pq  P  Q'  Q   P ' Q
Clearly (i), (ii) and (iii) are
 P  P'Q
equivalent.
Correct choice is (b).   P  P'  .  P  Q 
 PQ
Q.18 (d) Choice (c) P  Q  P'  Q
The correct translation of “Gold and
 P ' Q  P ' Q'   P '  Q'
'
silver ornaments are previous” is
choice (d)  P'Q  P'Q'  PQ'

x  G  x   S  x    P  x    P'  Q  Q'   PQ'
Which is read as “if an ornaments is  P'  PQ'
  P '  P  .  P '  Q'   P '  Q'
gold or silver, then it is previous”.
Now since a given ornament cannot
be both gold and silver at the same Choice (d)
time. P  Q  P'  Q'
 P'Q'  P'  Q'    P'   Q' 
Choice(b) ' ' '


x  G  x   S  x    P  x  is   P'Q'  P'Q  PQ
incorrect.  P'  PQ

Q.19 (b)   P'  P  P'  Q 

The given table can be converted  P'  Q
into boolean function by adding As we can clearly see only choice (b)
minterms corresponding to true P  Q is equivalent to P + Q.
rows. Note: This problem can also be
P Q PQ solved by constructing the truth
T T T tables for each Choice & checking
T F T which one matches the truth table of
F T F P + Q.
F F T
 Translate P  Q  PQ  PQ'  P'Q' Q.20 (b)
using this we can check the choices I xP(x)  xP(x)
one by one to see which is And IV xP(x)
equivalent to P + Q. Clearly, choices I and IV are
Choice (a) Q  P  Q'  P' equivalent.
 Q' P'  Q'  P'    Q'  P'  II xP(x)  xP(x)
'

and
 Q' P'  Q' P  QP
III x P(x)  xP(x)

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 Clearly II & III are not equivalent to Q.24 (c)
each other or to I& IV. Some real no’s are rational
 x  real(x)  rational(x)
Q.21 (b)
xytF  x, y, t  Q.25 (d)
None of my friends are perfect.
 xytF  x, y, t 
i.e. All of my friends are not perfect.
= it is not true that (someone can
fool all people at all time)

x  F  x   P  x   
= no one can fool everyone all the x  F  x   P  x  
time x  F  x   P  x  
Q.22 (a) Alternatively
If P(x) is true, then x  F  x   P  x   gives there exist
X ≠ 1 and also some of my friends who are perfect.
x is broken into two factors, only if, x  F  x   P  x  
one of the factors is x itself and the
There does not exists any friend
other
who is perfect
factor is 1, which is exactly the
i.e. none of my friends are perfect.
definition of a prime number.
So (d) is correct option.
So P(x) is true means x is a prime
number.
Q.26 (a, d)
Q.23 (b) Let y()  P, y()  Q
Let p : It rains Then y     P
q : cricket match will not be played.
and y     Q
I1 : p  q
~q Given x  y()  y() 

~p  x  P  Q 
Clearly I1 is correct since it is in the  x  PvQ 
form of Modus Tollens (rule of  x  P  Q 
contra positive)
a)
I2 : p  q
~p x  z    y      x  Q  P 
 b)
~q
x  z   y      x  Q  P 
Which corresponds
 x(P  Q)
 p  q ~ q ~ q c)
  p  q  p   q
' ' '
x  y     z      x  P  Q 
  p'  qp'   q' d)
x  y     z     x  P  Q 
 p'  q '
 (a) and (d) are not logically
  p'   q '
'

equivalent to x  P  Q 
 pq '

Which is not a tautology. Q.27 (d)

So I2 is incorrect interference. x glitters(x)   gold(x)
All glitters are not gold.

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 a) x gold(x)  glitters(x)  (d(Rainy(d)  Cold(d)))
All golds are glitters  (d( Rainy(d)  Cold(d)))
b) x gold(x)  glitters(x)  d(Rainy(d)  Cold(d))
Not all that golds are glitters i.e., Alternative Method
there exist gold which is not glitter Not all rainy days are cold is same as
c) x glitters(x)  gold(x) some rainy days are not cold which
Not all that glitters is gold i.e., there is same as
exist glitter which is not gold. d(Rainy(d)  Cold(d))

Q.28 (b) Q.32 (c)

 ~  p  q   r    p  q ~ r  Here option (a) and (b) can be
reduced to (p →q) ∧ (q→ p) and
   
 ~  ~ p  q    pv ~ q   r   p  q ~ r 
hence ≡ p ↔ q
 Option (d) is p’ q’+ pq ≡ p ↔ q
   p ~ q    ~ p  q   r    p  q  ~ r   Option (c ) is p’ q+ pq’= p ⊕ q which
is not equivalent to p ↔ q.

 p ~ q  r    ~ p  q  r    p  q  ~ r  Q.33 (a)
If exactly two of p, q and r are true. The given truth table corresponds to
p’q’+ pq’ = p ⊕ q
 p ~ q  r    ~ p  q  r    p  q ~ r   TRUE ⊕ is known to be both commutative
and associative.
  
Q.34 (c )
If p = r = TIf q = r = T If p = q = T
C: person is corrupt
K: Person is kind
Q.29 (b)
E: Person is elected
 a  b   ~ b  a  c
S1 : C  E
  a  c c  a    b  ac  S2 : K  E
 ac  ca  b  ac S2  E  K
 a  ca  b So from S1 and S2 :
 a cb
 a  c  b is not a tautology (C  E)  (E  K)  (C  K)
We can conclude C  K which is
same as K  C , which is same as
Q.30 (d) option (c).
g : mobile is good
c : mobile is cheap Q.35 (c )
P : Good mobile phones are not Since P  R  P  R , and the
cheap g  c   gvc  quantifiers on both the sides are
Q : Cheap mobile phones are not same (xy) .
good Option ( c ) is clearly a tautology.
c  g   cvg 
 Both P and Q are equivalent. Q.36 (a)
Type 1 always tells truth
Q.31 (d) Type 2 always tells lies.
Not (all rainy days are cold):

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 The statement is “toss is head if and Now the only value of x which
only if I am telling the truth”. satisfies this is x=11. So correct
Case- 1: let the person be type 1. answer is x=11.
Case- 2: Let he person be type 2.
In each case we shall prove that Q.38
result is head. p  (p  q)p(p' q)  pq
Case-1: Let the person be type. 1 Take (i) false
Type 1 always tells truth. pq  false  pq  0
So the statement “toss is head if and  (pq) ' 0
only if I am telling the truth “is true.
 p' q ' 0
So toss head ⇔ telling truth . Since
type 1 is telling truth so toss head is  not valid
also true. So in case 1 result is that Take (ii)
toss is head. pq  q  (pq)' q
Case-2: Let the person be type 2.  (pq) ' q
Type 2 always tells lies. So the  p' 1  1  valid
statement “ toss is head if and only Take (iii)
if I am telling the truth “ is false. pq  true  pq  1
So toss head ⇔ telling truth is false.  (pq)' 1  1  valid
So toss head ⊕telling truth. So toss
Take (iv)
head and telling truth have opposite pq  p  q  (pq)' p  q
truth values Now, since type 2
telling truth is false, so toss head has  p' q ' p  q
to have opposite truth value which  1  1  1  valid
is true. So toss head is true. So in Take (v)
case 2 also, result is head. pq  q ' p  (pq)  q ' p
So in both cases we have proved  p' q ' q ' p
that the result is head.  1  valid
So option (a)is correct. So the number of expressions that
are logically implies by p  (p  q)
Q.37 is 4.
We wish to make
(p  q)  (r  s))  1 Q.39 (d)
 (p  q)  (r  s)  0 ∀x is only one way distribution over
 (p  q)  0 ….(1) “∨” so let us check (d)
Or r  s  0 …(2) x(p(x)  q(x))  (x(p(x)  x(q(x))
Now (1) is satisfies only when P = 1
and q = 0 Equation (2) r  s  0 Let LHS be true, so we have
,iff r  s  1 p1  q1 (true)
i.e. r =1 and s = 1 p2  q 2 (true)
i.e. x is perfect square and x is a
p3  q3 (true)
prime number. Which is not
possible so condition (2) cannot be ⋮
satisfied by any x. Now take p1 is true, q1 is false and
So condition (1) must be satisfies p 2 is false q 2 is true
which is p = 1 and q = 0 i.e. x Now LHS is true, but RHS, xp(x) is
ϵ{8,9,10,11,12} and x is not a
false (since is false) and xq(x) is
composite.
also false (since is false)

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 So LHS ⇏RHS
Q.43 (d)
Q.40 (a)
p: “It is raining” p  q  r  0
q : “It is cold” , and i.e.  p '  q  '  r  0
r : “It is pleasant”, i.e., pq ' r  0
so the correct representation of “ It
This is possible only if pq’=0 and r=0
is not raining and it is pleasant, and
Now, pq’ = 0 iff p = 0 or q’ = 0
it is not pleasant only if it is raining
So, final solution is r = 0
and it is cold” is
p  r  r only if p  q = and  p  0 or q '  0 

 p  r    r   p  q  Now let us see

 r  p  q
Q.41 (b)   r ' p  ' q
I. xyR  x, y   y  x R  x, y    rp ' q
is true, since y  x R  x, y   but we have previously shown that
r=0
 x  y R  x, y   So, rp '  0
II. xy R  x, y   y  x R  x, y   So  r  p   q  rp' q  0  q  q So,
is false truth value of  r  p   q is same
Since y when it is outside is
as that of q.
stronger then when it is inside.
So, it is true whenever q is true.
III. xy R  x, y   yx R  x, y  is So option (d) is correct.
False Note: Since we have shown that
IV.  p  0  or  q '  0 is true,
xy R  x, y     xyR  x, y   Option (c) is false because when p is
is true false i.e. when p = 0, q is free to be 0
Since or 1
  xyR  x, y    xy R  x, y 
So, IV will reduce to
xy R  x, y   xy R  x, y  which
is trivially true.
So correct answer is I and IV only
which is option (b).

Q.42 (d)
Statement p'  q '  p  q '
I. p  q  p' q
II. q  p  q ' p
III.  q  p  =q'+ p
IV.  p  q   p ' q
So, clearly the given statement is
same as II and III only.
So option (d) is correct.

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