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Chapter 2: Viscosity of
Fluids
Ajaz Rashid
Viscosity
Viscosity is a property of a fluid that measures the
resistance to movement of a very thin layer of fluid over
an adjacent one. This resistance occurs only when a
tangential or shear force is applied to the fluid
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Shear stress/Tangential stress
an applied force per unit area needed to produce
deformation in a fluid
the force acting parallel to the surface per unit area of
the surface.
denoted by the Greek letter (tau), 𝜏, can be defined as
the force required to slide a unit area layer of a substance
over another
Shear stress/Tangential stress
fluid
A shearing force is applied to the top of the rectangle
while the bottom is held in place. The resulting shear
stress, deforms the rectangle into a parallelogram.
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Viscosity
In everyday terms viscosity is “thickness”. Thus, water is
“thin” having a lower viscosity, while honey is “thick”
having a higher viscosity.
Viscosity describes a fluid's internal resistance to flow and
may be thought of as a measure of fluid friction.
All real fluids have some resistance to shear stress, but a
fluid which has no resistance to shear stress is known as
an ideal fluid.
Viscosity is also known as Absolute Viscosity or Dynamic
Viscosity.
Effect of Viscosity
Think: resistance to flow.
𝑉 : fluid velocity
𝑦 : distance from solid surface
Rate of strain, 𝑑𝑉/𝑑𝑦 or 𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑦
𝜇 : dynamic viscosity [N.s/m2]
𝜏: shear stress
Velocity distribution next
to a boundary
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Newton’s Law of Viscosity
stress ∝ rate of strain
𝑑𝑢
𝜏∝
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
Units of Dynamic Viscosity
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Kinematic Viscosity
Many calculations in fluid mechanics are based on the
ratio between the viscosity and the density of a fluid
The kinematic viscosity 𝜈 is defined as “the ratio of
absolute viscosity to density.”
𝜇
𝜈=
𝜌
Units of Kinematic Viscosity
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Newtonian fluids
A Newtonian fluid is where stress is directly proportional to rate
of strain, and (named for Isaac Newton) is a fluid that flows
like water, its stress versus rate of strain curve is linear and
passes through the origin. The constant of proportionality is
known as the viscosity.
A simple equation to describe Newtonian fluid behavior is
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
Examples: water, oil, gasoline, alcohol, kerosene, benzene,
glycerin etc.
Viscosity is a function of condition of fluid (e.g., 𝑇). The
𝑑𝑢
magnitude of has no effect on the magnitude of viscosity.
𝑑𝑦
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Non-Newtonian fluids
A Non-Newtonian fluid does not behave in accordance with
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
Viscosity is dependent on both the velocity gradient and
condition of the fluid.
Two types:
Time-independent fluids (viscosity at any given shear stress
does not vary with time)
Pseudoplastic or shear thinning or thixotropic
Dilatant or shear thickening
Bingham
Time-dependent fluid (viscosity changes with time)
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Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids
𝑛
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
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Time-independent fluids
Pseudoplastic or shear thinning or thixotropic:
The curve begins steeply, indicating a high apparent viscosity.
Then the slope decreases with velocity gradient. (blood plasma,
latexes, syrups, molasses, inks, etc.)
Dilatant or shear thickening:
viscosity increases with shear rate (corn starch in ethyl glycol,
starch in water, titanium dioxide, glass particles in water,
gypsum-water mixtures).
Bingham fluids:
Need a significant level of shear stress before flow will begin.
Once flow starts, linear slop of the curve is observed.
(toothpaste, paint, asphalt, greases, sewage sludge, chocolate)
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Time-dependent fluids
Time-dependent fluids are very difficult to analyze
because apparent viscosity varies with time as well as
with velocity gradient and temperature.
Examples: printer ink, liquid nylon, some jellies, flour
dough, several polymer solutions, some crude oils at low
temperature etc.
rheopectic
Viscosity
thixotropic
Time
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Example 1
Find the kinematic viscosity of liquid in stokes whose
specific gravity is 0.85 and dynamic viscosity is 0.015
poise.
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Example 1
Solution:
𝜇 = 0.015 poise
𝜇 = 0.015 × 0.1Pa. s = 1.5 × 10−3 Pa. s
We know that:
𝜌
𝑠𝑔 =
𝜌𝑤
𝜌 = 0.85 × 1000 = 850 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
We can find the Kinematic Viscosity as:
𝜇 1.5 × 10−3
𝜈= = = 1.76 × 10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠
𝜌 850
Converting to Stokes
1.76 × 10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠 1 St
𝜈= อ = 1.76 × 10−2 St
1 × 10−4 𝑚2 /𝑠
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Example 2
Two measurements of shear stress on a surface and the
rate of change in shear strain at the surface for a fluid
have been determined by experiment to be:
𝜏1 = 0.14 𝑁/𝑚2 , 𝑑𝑢Τ𝑑𝑦 1 = 13.63𝑠 −1 and
𝜏2 = 0.48 𝑁/𝑚2 , 𝑑𝑢Τ𝑑𝑦 2 = 153𝑠 −1 .
Classify the fluid as Newtonian or non-Newtonian.
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Example 2
Solution:
Applying Newton’s Law of viscosity.
𝑑𝑢
𝜏1 = 𝜇1 ⇒ 𝜇1 = 0.01027 Pa. s
𝑑𝑦 1
𝑑𝑢
𝜏2 = 𝜇 2 ⇒ 𝜇2 = 0.003137 Pa. s
𝑑𝑦 2
Since 𝜇1 ≠ 𝜇2 then the viscosity is not constant. Hence,
the fluid is non-Newtonian.
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Variation of Viscosity with Temperature
For liquids, viscosity decreases with Temperature
For gases, viscosity increases with Temperature
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Viscosity Index
A measure of how greatly the viscosity of a fluid changes with
temperature
This is especially important for lubricating oils and hydraulic
fluids used in equipment that must operate at wide extremes of
temperature.
A fluid with a high viscosity index exhibits a small change in
viscosity with temperature. A fluid with a low viscosity index
exhibits a large change in viscosity with temperature.
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Viscosity Index
The general form of the equation is:
𝐿−𝑈
𝑉𝐼 = × 100
𝐿−𝐻
Where
𝑈 = kinematic viscosity at 40 oC of the test oil
𝐿 = kinematic viscosity at 40 oC of a standard oil of 0 VI having the
same viscosity at 100 oC as the test oil
𝐻 = kinematic viscosity at 40 oC of a standard oil of 100 VI having
the same viscosity at 100 oC as the test oil
The values of 𝐿 and 𝐻 can be found from references.
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Viscosity Index
Special case where each oil has
the same value of kinematic
viscosity of 400 mm2/s at 20 oC
FIGURE 2.5 Typical viscosity index curves.
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Viscosity Index
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Viscosity Index
Lubricants and hydraulic fluids with a high 𝑉𝐼 should be
used in engines, machinery and construction equipment
used outdoors where temperatures vary over wide rages.
The higher values of 𝑉𝐼 are obtained by blending oils with
high paraffin content or by adding special polymers that
increase 𝑉𝐼 while maintaining good lubricating properties
and good performance in engines, pumps, valves and
actuators.
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Viscosity Measurement
Many different instruments for measuring viscosity
Most common are:
Rotating Drum Viscometer
Capillary Tube Viscometer
U-tube Viscometer
Falling Ball Viscometer
Saybolt Universal Viscometer
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Rotating Drum Viscometer
The outer cup is held stationary
The motor rotates the inner drum
A known velocity is set up in the fluid
The shear stress required for strain rate
is measured
Viscosity is calculated from the known
shear stress and strain rate
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Capillary Tube Viscometer
Two reservoirs are connected by a long, thin capillary tube
As the fluid flows, there is some pressure drop in the tube
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Capillary Tube Viscometer
The viscosity is calculated as a function of the pressure
drop in the tube
The pressure drop is measured using a manometer
Viscosity is given as:
∆𝑝. 𝐷2
𝜇=
32𝑢𝐿
where ∆𝑝 is the pressure drop, 𝐷 is the tube diameter,
𝑢 is the fluid velocity and 𝐿 is the length of the tube
between the points where pressure drop is measured
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U-tube Viscometer
The test fluid is sucked into the u-tube
viscometer
Then it is allowed to fall under gravity
The time required for the level of the fluid to
pass between the two etched lines is measured
Kinematic viscosity is measured using equation
like:
𝜈 =𝐾×𝑡
where 𝐾 is a constant provided by manufacturer
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Falling Ball Viscometer
If a body falls in a fluid under the influence
of gravity, it accelerates until downward
force (weight) is equal to the upward force
(buoyancy and drag force)
At this point, its velocity becomes constant
and is called the terminal velocity
The falling ball viscometer is based on this
principle
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Falling Ball Viscometer
𝐹𝐺 = 𝛾𝑠 𝑉 = 𝛾𝑠 . 𝜋𝐷3 /6
𝐹𝐵 = 𝛾𝑓 𝑉 = 𝛾𝑓 . 𝜋𝐷3 /6
For viscous fluids and small velocities FB= Buoyancy
𝐹𝐷 = 3𝜋𝜇𝑢𝐷 FD =Drag
The force balance gives us:
𝐹𝐺 = 𝐹𝐵 + 𝐹𝐷
FG = Weight
Or
𝛾𝑠 − 𝛾𝑓 𝐷2
𝜇=
18𝑢
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Falling Ball Viscometer
Velocity is measured by noting the time
required for the ball to travel a fixed
distance
Liquid must be transparent for ball to be
visible
Several types and sizes of balls are
available to use with different fluids
Balls are usually made of stainless steel,
nickel-iron alloy and glass
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Saybolt Universal Viscometer
Fluid flows through a small orifice.
After steady flow from orifice is established,
The time required to collect 60 mL of fluid is
measured.
The resulting time is reported as the
kinematic viscosity of the fluid in Saybolt
Universal seconds (SUS).
The results are relative because standard
units for viscosity are not used.
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Saybolt Universal Viscometer
Above 75 mm2/s, the
equation is:
𝑆𝑈𝑆 = 4.632 𝜈
For a fluid at 210 oF, the
equation is:
𝑆𝑈𝑆 = 4.664 𝜈
The equations are for the
straight line portion of the
graph
Kinematic viscosity 𝜈 in SUS versus 𝜈
in mm2/s at 100 oF.
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Saybolt Universal Viscometer
SUS value for any other temperature in oF can be found
by multiplying the SUS value for 37.8 oC (100 oF) by the
factor 𝐴.
The factor is given by:
𝐴 = 6.061 × 10−5 . 𝑇 + 0.994
And the SUS at any temperature 𝑇 can be found by:
𝑆𝑈𝑆ቚ = 𝐴 × 𝑆𝑈𝑆ቚ
𝑇 100℉
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