3.2 Line Integral of Vector Fields
‘We want to generalize line integrals to vector fields
A vector field is a function defined on a region D in the plane or space that assigns a vector to each
point in D. If D is a region in space, a vector field on D may be written as
F(x,y,2) = MQwy,dt+ MG, F+ PDE
Vectors in a gravitational field point toward the center of mass that gives the source of the field.
‘The velocity vectors on a projectile’s motion make a vector field along the trajectory.
Let F(x, y, z) be a continuous vector ficld defined over a curve C given by
FO =xHi+ yO J+) k for astsb
‘The line integral of F along C, also called the work done by moving a particle on C under the
force field F is
f PO) ?P'dt= f
Je Ic
is the unit tangent vector at a point on C.
where T(r
Example 3.7. Evaluate the line integral of the vector field F(x, y, 2)
quarter unit circle in the first quadrant.
— xy falong the first
‘The curve C is given by 7°(1) = cost?+ sintj, 0 <1 < x/2. Then
F(?()) = cos*ti-cosrsintj, FP’ = —sinr? + cost].
= an -2
fF aP f FOP) Plat
lo
8
‘The work done is Let the vector filed be F (x, y, 2) = M(x.y,2)7+ N(x 2) 7+ PO yh
Let C be the curve given by 7(1) = x(t)? + y(t) f+ z(t) k for a
(inner).
Assume that these boundary curves are oriented so that the region D is always on the left as the
curve C is traversed,
‘Thus the positive direction is counterclockwise for the outer curve C but clockwise for the inner
curve C2. Divide D into two regions D’ and D” as shown in the figure, Green's theorem on D’ and
D" gives
ff (Ny = Md + Sf, (Ny = My)dA
Ly ,
[fie —My)dA
ID
(Mdx + Ndy) + (Mdx + Ndy) = fotax + Ndy)
jab" jab" Ic
‘This is the general version of Green's Theorem.
Example 3.21. Show that if C is any positively oriented simple closed path that encloses the origin,
then
dx + =~—dy = 2a,
No idea how to show it for every such curve, So, take a positively oriented circle C’, of radius 4,
around origin that lies entirely in the region bounded by C. Let D be the annular region bounded
by Cand C’. Take F(x, y) = (-y? + x )/(2 + y?),
Then the positively oriented boundary of D is 6D = CU (-C’). Here, F = Mi + Nj gives
Ny = My = (y? — x°)/(x2 + y?)?. Green's theorem on D gives
g§ ‘Mdx + Ndy) + f (Mdx + Ndy) ff (Ny — My)dA = 0.
as I>
88 ‘Then
tar + Ndy § (Mdx + Ndy).
fe fo
But C’ is parameterized by x(1) = acost, y(t) = asins, 0 <1 < 2m. So,
on
fi (atax+ vay) = f (Mdx + Ndy) [ F(acosti+asint f)-(acosti+asint jy'dt = 2x.
Je Jo
Generalize this example by taking the constraint Ny = M, on the vector field,
3.5 Curl and Divergence of a vector field
If F = Mi+ Nj + Pé is a vector field in R°, where the partial derivatives of the component
functions exist, then curl F is a vector field given by
(A-
ax
Writi Mc lati “all that a-vai2 +9 +
i operator nolaton, esl hat grad = V= F547
‘Then curl F = Vx F =|
=
zahS
Aa >
zxi+xyzj—y?h, then curl F = -y(Q+x)i+xftyzk
For example, if F
‘Theorem 3.8. Let F be a vector field defined over a simply connected region D whose component
functions have continuous second order partial derivatives. Then Fis conservative iff curl F = 0.
Proof of =>: If F is conservative, then F = Vf for some f, where f is some scalar function defined
on D. Now,
Fey) + Pex
hye) =
‘P+ fy
j
oul vf=vx@p=|&
lh fy
‘The converse follows from Stokes’ theorem, which we will discuss later. a
Remember: The cutl of gradient of any scalar function is zero:
curl grad f = 0.
Example 3.22. Is the vector field F = zx?+ xyz jy? conservative?
Here, curl F = -y(2 + x)i+xj-+yzk #0. So, F is not conservative.
Example 3.23. Is the vector field y?2dit 2xyz? f+ 3xy2z? k conservative?
89 Here, F is defined on R? and
7 j k
oF =| £ & |=
y?z? 2xyz?_ 3xy?z?|
Hence F is conservative. In fact, F = grad f, where f(x, y, 2) = xy2z?.
The name game: curl F’ measures how quickly a tiny peddle (at a point) in some fluid in a vector
field moves around itself. If curl ¥ = 0, then there is no rotation of such a tiny peddle.
If F = Mi+.Nj+ Pk is a vector field defined on a region, where its component functions have
first order partial derivatives, then
div Fay. Fa OM, aN , oP
ax * ay | az
‘The divergence is also called flux or flux density.
For example, if F = zx?+ xyz j—y? &, then div F = 2+ xz.
‘The divergence of the vector field F = (x? - y)? + (xy — y?) jis
02 -y) , (xy
2G"), BOY=¥") 3, ay
ox ay aoe
Intuitively, div ¥ measures the tendency of the fluid to diverge from the point (a, b). When the gas
(Guid) is expanding, divergence is positive; and when it is compressing, the divergence is negative
The fluid is said to be incompressible iff div F = 0.
Theorem 3.9. Let F = Mi+ Nj+ Pk be a vector field defined on a simply connected region
DRS, where M,N, P have continuous second order partial derivatives. Then div cutl F = 0.
= * oP aN
Proof. div curl F = V-(V x = —(—-=—
of: div cur Ox P= AS - F
This is equal to zero, due to Clairaut’s Theorem. a
Example 3.24. Does there exist a vector field G such that F = zx? + xyzj—y?k = curl G?
div F = 2 + xz #0. Hence there is no such G
Divergence of grad / is the Laplacian of a scalar function f since
2p ap at
div gd f=V-(VF)= 24 2L OL yay
ax? * ay?
ae tae
The operator V2 = + & is called the Laplacian.
Green’s Theorem - Tangent form
Let D be a simply connected region whose boundary is the simple closed curve C.
Let F = Mi+N jbe a vector field defined on D
90 Let C be parameterized by 7°(t) = x()7+ y() 7.
Let F°(1) be the unit tangent vector to C at the point (x(t), y(¢)). Then
F- Pinds = Fd? = Mdx + Nay.
‘The line integral of F over C is
far N dy).
p.
Consider F as a vector field on R? with P = 0. Then
cul F = (Ny - My) k= cul Fk = Np - My.
a= {f (cut F- Baa.
Shs ®
‘Thus Green's theorem takes the form
¢ Fids = g
Green’s Theorem - Normal form
Let C be given by 7°(t) = x(r)i+ y(t) j. Then
yo
xo) i
Ol
Then F A= (My) -NxOUIF "Ol
2 be
Now, §,F > fds =f) F- al? ()|dt = $(Mdy - Ndx)
Also, ff, div F dA = [f(y + Ny dA.
Hence Green's theorem takes the form
fF fds [[owFa.
c D
‘The tangent form of Green's theorem is also called the circulation-curl form and the normal form
is called flux-divergence form, Both the tangent form and the normal form of Green's theorem are
together referred to as vector forms of Green's theorem.
3.6 Surface Area of solids of Revolution
Suppose a smooth curve is given by y = f(x), where f(x) 2 0. Its arc when a < x < bis revolved
about the x-axis to generate a solid. How do we compute the area of the surface of this solid?
We follow a strategy similar to computing the volume of revolution. Partition [a, b] into n subin-
tervals [xi-1, xx]. When each Ax, is small, the surface area corresponding to this subinterval is
approximately same as the area on the frustum of a right circular cone.
a1 If a right circular cone has base radius R and slant height ¢, then its surface area is given by RC
Now, for the frustum, we subtract the smaller cone surface area from the larger. Look at the figure.
¢ area of the frustum is
A= mrr(l, +0) — ares = allrz — ne + 26)
G&_ote
Using similarity of triangles, we have — = ~
non
This gives ro€) =e, +16 = (2 — rier = 16. Therefore,
ntn
2
use this this formula on the frustum obtained on the subinterval [x11, x,], we notice that the slant
height ¢ is approximated by (xy)? + (Ayn), where Arg = xy—xy-1 and Ayg = f(xy)— f(re-1).
Next, the average radius r = 14 jg f1U}/) Thus the area of the frustum is,
As n(r€+ ne) =2nré, where r=
y= agli + FO)
(Axx)? + (Aye)?
Due to MVT, we have cx € [xx-1, +x] such that
Aye = fOr) — fOr) = fen Ore = 4-1) = fen Are.
So, ¥(Oxe + Ayn? = VI+ Gen) Axe. The surface of revolution is approximated by
Sia a2 LED UOD I Gea
at
2
Its limit as n + oo is the Riemann sum of an integral, which is the required area:
[2m re9, 1+ ("Coy dx = [2 1+) ar.
‘We summarize.
1. If the arc of the curve y = f(x) for a < x < b is revolved about the x-axis, then write
ds = J1+ (f'@))dx. The area of the surface of the solid of revolution is given by
b
s= f ayas= f ay Jl + (fC)? dx
92 2. If the arc of the curve x = g(y) for ¢ < y < d is revolved about the y-axis, then write
ds = y1¥ (@O)) dy. The area of the surface of the solid of revolution is given by
4
[omcas f 2nx Jl + (9'(y))? dy,
Ve
For parameterized curves, suppose the smooth curve is given by x = x(t), y = y(t) fora <1
L. Revolution about the x-axis (y > 0): sf 2m yO) YO")? + OO)? at
a ——-
2. Revolution about the y-axis (x > 0): $= f 2m x(t) fr OY? + O'())? at.
Example 3.25. Find the surface area of the solid obtained by revolving about x-axis, the arc of the
curve y = 2y%,1
Example 3.35. Find the flux of F = yz +2? f outward through the surface S which is cut from
the cylinder y? + 2 = 1, 2 O by the planes x = Oand x= 1
Sis given by g(x,y, 2) := y? +c? — 1 = 0, defined over the rectangle R = Ry, as in the figure.
‘The outward unit normal is A
ae I;
Here, f= fk. $0, do = M8 ga
IVg- kl
F fon Sisy2z+ 23 = 2? +22) =z. Therefore, outward flux through S is
[[ Fae [fese Se Area of R = 2.
Example 3.36. Find the fiux of the vector field F = 27+ y j-+.x k across the unit sphere.
If no direction of the normal vector is given and the surface is a closed surface, we take fi in the
positive direction, which is directed outward.
104 Using the spherical coordinates, the unit sphere S is parametrized by
F(d, 0) = sing cos 67+ sind sind f+ cos pk,
where 0 < $ < mand < 6 < 2n give the region D. Then
F(7(G,0)) = cos 6+ sin 6 sin 0 7 + sin @ cos 0k.
74X Po = sin’ $cos 07 + sin” sind j + sin gcos 0k.
Consequently,
{fF Wdo = Sf? (Fox Fo) deao
s PB
Sen
fo [es
lo Jo
Example 3.37. Find the surface integral of the vector field
4
cos $ cos 0 + sin? sin? 0) dé dd = =.
over the portion of the parabolic cylinder given by
yer, 0. Since S is a closed surface, we
consider its outward unit normal A, Projections of both 1 and S$; on xy-plane are D, the unit disk
By the simplified formula for the flux, we have
ff Fe ide [fom —Nfy + P)dxdy
IS, D
Sf [-y(-2x) = x(-2y) +1 =
D
an pl
f f (1+ 4r? cos @ sin @ — 7?) r dr do
lo Jo
any ©
f (j + e0s@sino) ao = 5
‘The disk Sy has positive direction, when # = — &, Thus
Sh? nar [{ CF bar= [f comay =o
since on D = $3, z = 0. Then
WF aac= {| Feados {fF fide =
Is JJs, Ss 2
3.10 Stokes’ Theorem
y]dxdy
Consider an oriented surface with a unit normal vector #, Call the boundary curve of § as C. The
orientation of § induces an orientation on C.
‘We say that C is positively oriented iff whenever you walk in the positive direction of C keeping
your head pointing towards A, S will be to your left
Recall that Green’s theorem relates a double integral in the plane to a line integral over its boundary.
‘We will have a generalization of this to 3 dimensions. Write the boundary curve of a given smooth
surface as S. The boundary is assumed to be a closed curve, positively oriented unless specified
otherwise.
106 Theorem 3.10. (Stokes’ Theorem) Let S be an oriented piecewise-smooth surface that is bounded
by a simple, closed, piecewise-smooth boundary curve 8S with positive orientation.
Let F = Mi+Nj+ Pk be a vector field with M, N, P having continuous partial derivatives on an
‘open region in space that contains S. Then
GF are [feu F Ade.
In particular, if $ is a bounded region D in the xy-plane, 4S = C, the smooth boundary of D, then
f= kand do = dA. We obtain
far [fen kaA= [[s- a acay
fc Jo JJo
as Green's theorem states. In fact, we can use Green's theorem to prove Stokes’ theorem in case
is the graph of a smooth function
f(%,y) with a smooth boundary, and the vector field F is
smooth,
Proof. Let Mi+Nj+P&. We see that
§ F. §. M dx +Ndy +Pdz
fas
And
{fon Fado = [femurs fide
+ f[[onorn far [feu ip fide.
We show that the M-, N- and P- components in both are equal.
Suppose S is given by z = f(x,y) for (x,y) € D. Orient AD positively, ic., counter-clock-wise.
Choose a parameterization for this. Suppose 4D is given by
FO =xi+yQF for acess.
‘Then AS has the parameterization as
FO =XOMMVOF+ ICO YO)F for ase sb.
107 Thus
° dx
fae yodx f [email protected]. 100.905 a
os ai
Or that
M(x, y, 2) d
fas lav
Next, we apply Green’s theorem on the integral on the right to obtain:
M(x, y, 2) dx.
) M(x, y,z) dx = -{f Myx y, FO y)) dA.
Jp
Jas
[Apply Chain rule on the right side integrand to obtain
G Momnadr=— ff [ator sams Melos Serf]
s >
We now compute ff, curl (M i)dor. For this, notice that $ has the parameterization:
FI) =x + VO F+ [UWE
xhetm fy 5+ k
So, fi , where ¢ =|- fy? - fy 7+ kl. Then
curl (Mi). A= (07+ M,j+M,B)-A = [-M.f, — My]/e
ff curl (Mi) «ido = - ff, [My y. FO, dy + MLC y, £06 y)]/e (ed),
Is ID
since ¢ = |V(z ~ f(x, y)I/IV(z — f(y) - K]. Therefore,
f[fomuen ft Gf Mesy 2) ae
Similarly, other components become respectively equal.
Example 3.39. Consider S as the hemisphere x? + y? + 27 =9, z > 0. Let F(7’) =y?-xj.
‘The bounding curve for S in the xy-plane is JS given by x? + y? = 9, 2 =0.
Parameterization of 3S is (8) = 3c0s@7+3sin@j for 0 <6 < 2m. Then
Fea?
Jas
an
[ [sin 8)? - G cos 6) f]- [(-3 sin)? + (3 cos) j]de
Jo
f [-9 sin? 6 - 9 cos” @] dé = -181.
a
is is the line integral in Stokes’ theorem. For the surface integral, we have
curl F = (Py — N)? + (Mz - Px) f+ (Nx — My) = -28.
Since on the surface g := x? + y? +z? — 9, we have
ae St ley .
IWgl 3 as [Vel 2x3 3
=k do = 8 ga = aa = aa,
, "We Fl 2 Ae
where dA is the differential in the projected area D : x? + y? < 9. Then
ff a, fi 22 fi 223 ff
oul Fado = do = x? +
Hence on the given surface,
‘Therefore,
WF Ader = [fader = ax area ot S = Ana?
s s
112 Now, for the triple integral,
div P= M+, +P. = 4% 4% 23
Y ax ay”
‘Therefore, with D as the ball bounded by S,
[ffpawFav= [ff sav =3xvotume oD = Ana’.
b Ib
Example 3.44. Find the outward flux of the vector field xy?+ yz j+ zx & through the surface cut
from the first octant by the planes x = 1, y= land z
The solid D is a cube having six faces. Call the surface of the cube as S. Instead of computing the
surface integral, we use Divergence theorem.
With F = xyi+yzj+ zx k, we have
Therefore the required flux is
Sh? ade {[[avFav= [f° Porernduirae=}
Example 3.45. Evaluate {fF -fido, where F = xyi+y? + e* j+sin(xy) & and Sis the surface
of the solid D bounded by the parabolic cylinder z = 1 — x*, and the planes y = 0, z = 0, and
yea?
Shas four sides, Instead of computing the surface integrals, we use Divergence theorem. We have
div F = (xy)x + (y? +e )y + (sin(xy)), = 3y.
And Dis given by -1 0. The gradient
computed from f= x? + y? + 22 — a? gives the outward unit normal to $ as
Qxi+2yf+2zk xityj+zk
Vat ray? 442 a
2 4 29912,
‘Therefore, on the sphere § with F = (x?+yj+zh/(2 +
‘Then
4 3.12 Review Problems
Problem 1: Compute the line integral of the vector function x°?+ 3zy" j—.x?y & along the straight
line segment L from the point (3,2, 1) to (0, 0,0)
The parametric equation of the line segment joining these points is,
x=-3t, y=-24 2=-tfor -1<1<0.
‘The derivatives of these with respect to f are
yan yard
Then the required line integral is
3 2. ao? 2 2, 87
det Reytdy—wyde =f [(-3)°(-3)4+M-N-20-2)— C32 dt =
Jt Ja
Problem 2: Let C be the portion of the curve y = x° from (1, 1) to (2,8). Compute
[srraes 10xy? dy).
Cis parametrized as x
» y=, L0.
‘Therefore, the required area is
CI ee
Problem 12: A torus is generated by rotating a circle C about a straight line L in space so that
C does not intersect or touch L. If L is the z-axis and C has radius b and its centre has distance
a (> b) from L, then compute the surface atea of the torus,
dz] dx=8a | dx = 8a"
lo
‘The surface S of the torus is represented by
F (uv) = (a+ bcos v) cosui + (a + bcos) sinu j+bsinv k.
u7 Here, v is the angle in describing the circle and w is the angle of rotation. Thus 0 < u,v < 2r.
Projection onto the uv-plane shows that
Fw
FW) = -bsinvcosui—bsinvsinu 7+ beosv k
Pu) x PW)
-(a + boos) sinui + (a+ beosv) cosu j
bla + beos v)(cosu cos vi + sinucosv j+sinv k)
Hence |"(u) x 7°(v)| = b(a + boos v) and the area is
ff IF x FO) duds
le
Problem 13: Let S be the closed surface consisting of the cylinder x? + y? = a?, 0 < z < band
the circular disks x? + y < a? one with z = 0 and the other with z = b. By transforming to a triple
integral evaluate J = [[,(x° dy dz + x°y dz dx + x72 dx dy)
F = Mi+Nj+P&, where M = x3, N = xy, P = x22, Then div F
bounded by S. In cylindrical coordinates, using Gauss’ divergence theorem,
b pa pan 54
I [f[fjsew sf Lf cos? Or dr d0 dz = Sna‘b.
ID lo Jo Jo 4
Problem 14: Compute the flux of the vector field F = (2? + xy”)? + cos(x + 2) 7+ (e% —zy*)k
through the boundary of the surface given in the following figure:
f f b(a + boos y) du dv = 4n*ab.
0
x, Let D be the solid
a
0s(x +2) + FE -zy)
Let D be the region enclosed by S. By the Divergence theorem,
Flux through 5 = f (f div F dv =0.
Ib
Problem 15: Let a closed smooth surface § be such that any straight line parallel to the z-axis cuts
it in no more than two points, Let ns denote the z-component of the unit outward normal fi to the
surface $. Then what is ff, 2n3 dor?
In this case, $ has an upper part and a lower part. Suppose they are given, respectively, by the
equations
= fay) 2 = fol y)
118 Let D be the projection of S on the xy-plane. Then
[hen do = [fn y)dA— SS, Soy) dA.
‘This is equal to the volume of the solid B bounded by S.
Alternatively, take F = zk. Then div F = 1. By the Divergence theorem,
[emac= [fF ade ~ [ff av Fav = vorume of 2
s s Jo
Problem 16: Prove that the integral of the Laplacian over a planar region is the same as the
integral, over the boundary curve, of the directional derivative in the direction of the unit normal
to the boundary curve.
‘We rephrase: Let f(x, y) be a function defined over a simply connected region D in the xy-plane.
Let C be the boundary curve of D. Denote by D,.f(x, y) the directional derivative of f in the
direction of the unit outer normal fi to C. Show that {f,(fer + fuy)dA = [Daf ds
Let 6 be the angle between fi and 7, the x-axis. Then f
08 07+ sind j. Ifa is the angle between
the tangent line to C and the x-axis, then cos a = ~ sin and sina = cos 9. Then
dx = cosa ds = ~sin@ ds and dy = sina ds = cos@ ds.
Consequently, the directional derivative D, f is given by
DrfQiy) = (fit + fy DA = fr cos + fy sind
For the vector function F = f,7 + f, j, by Green’s theorem, we obtain
f (fe + fy) [fear te fu cos@ + fy sin 8)ds
ID le Je
Problem 17: Let f and g be functions with continuous partial derivatives up to second order on
a region D in space, which has a smooth boundary 8D. Denote by Af and Ag their Laplacians.
Prove the Green's formula:
[[fesr-sanar ff, (e212) ae
Let F = Mi+.Nj+P&. Gauss’ divergence theorem says that
Show Fav= t Fide.
Suppose the unit normal # has the components a, b,c in the x, y, z-directions, respectively. Then
[fom +N, +P)dV= {neem +bN + cP) do.
Substitute M = gfe — feo. N= 8fy- 8 P= gfe - Sgs. Then
+ Ny + Pz = (fox + fy + fez) — F(Bxx + Byy + Bez) = BAS - FAR-
aM + bN + cP = glafy + bfy + ef:) — Flage + bay + 82) = eff
‘Now Green’s formula follows from Gauss’ divergence theorem.
119 Bibliography
U1] Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10th Ed., E. Kreyszig, John Willey & Sons, 2010.
[2] Basic Multivariable Calculus, JE. Marsden, AJ. Tromba, A. Weinstein, Springer Verlag,
193.
[3] Differential and Integral Calculus, Vol. I and IT, N. Piskunov, Mir Publishers, 1974.
[4] Calculus, G, Strang, Wellesley-Cambridge Press, 2010.
[5] Thomas Calculus, G.B. Thomas, Jr, M.D. Weir, J.R. Hass, Pearson, 2009.
120