Natural and Man-Made Disaster and their Impact on Environment

Earthquakes, floods and landslides, etc. are natural environmental hazards of disastrous consequences. In
recent years these hazards took toll of thousands of lives and caused massive destruction of property.

These have adversely affected the vital sectors of our development as agriculture, communication,
irrigation, power projects and rural and urban settlements.

The time and cost overrun in some cases have been enormous but their indirect impact on our economy
has never been calculated. India is among the world’s most disaster prone areas and a large part of the
country is exposed to natural hazards, which often turn into disasters causing loss of life and property.
The unique geo-climatic conditions have exposed this country to natural catastrophes.

Disasters can be defined as a sudden, accidental event of great magnitude that causes considerable
damage to life and property. They are sudden, drastic and normally occur without any alarm or warning.
Some disasters may be short lived such as earthquakes and some other may be of long duration, such as
floods.

However, irrespective of the duration of a disaster, the damage in the form of deaths, injuries and losses
of property is immense. The magnitude of the disasters can be judged by the fact that only during the past
two decades, occurrences of floods, earthquakes, landslides, cyclones, etc. have killed several million
people.

Most of the disasters have a natural origin, however, some disasters are manmade as well. On this basis,
disasters can be broadly classified into two groups:

 Natural disasters:
When disasters occur due to natural forces they are called natural disasters, over which man has hardly
any control. Some common natural disasters are earthquakes, landslides floods, droughts, cyclones, etc.
Tsunamis, volcanic eruptions and wildfires are also included under natural disasters. These disasters
cause enormous loss to life and property.

 Man-made disasters:
When the disasters are due to carelessness of human or mishandling of dangerous equipment’s they are
called man-made disasters. Common examples of these disasters are train accidents, aero plane crashes,
collapse of buildings, bridges, mines, tunnels, etc.

1. Natural Disasters:
Some of the common natural disasters, their impact on environment, and their prevention, control and
mitigation are discussed below:
 Earthquakes:
An earthquake is the shaking of the earth’s surface caused by rapid movement of the earth’s crust or outer
layer. Ever since it came into existence 4.6 billion years ago, the earth has been a dynamic, evolving
system. The position of the different continents and oceans that we see today, has changed a number of
times in the earth’s history.

The earth is primarily composed of three layers:

1. The outer crust,

2. The middle mantle, and

3. The inner core

The Earth’s outer layer or crust is made up of a number of zig-saw pieces like structures that interlock
into one another. These pieces are called tectonic plates. These plates are in continuous motion over the
mantle, which is known as tectonic movements. These tectonic processes are also responsible for the
mountain building processes.

The plates that are moving past over one another are slowed by friction along their boundaries. Due to
this, the rocks are under strain. When the stress on the rocks exceeds certain limits, the rocks rupture and
form a fault along which the rocks are displaced during tectonic movements. This sudden rupture of the
rocks releases energy in the form of earthquake waves (Fig.).
Thus earthquake is a form of energy, which is transmitted to the surface of the earth in the form of waves
called seismic waves. The study of earthquakes and the waves they create is called seismology (from the
Greek seismos, “to shake”). Scientists who study earthquakes are called seismologists. The instrument
that records the seismic waves is called seismograph.

The exact spot under the earth surface at which an earthquake originates is called the focus or hypocenter.
The point on the earth surface above the focus is called the epicenter. The Richter scale is used to
measure the intensity of earthquakes. The intensity is measured on a scale of 0 to 8 and above (Table).

Impact of Earthquake on the Environment:

The destruction, an earthquake causes, depends on its magnitude and duration or the amount of shaking
that occurs. In the last 500 years, earthquakes around the world have killed several million people.
Earthquake is one of the most catastrophic natural disasters. Massive loss of life and property occurs due
to collapse of buildings. Besides, roads, bridges, canals, electric poles, etc. are severely damaged. Certain
regions of the earth are more prone to earthquakes.

These are places located in the unstable regions of the earth crust, which are subjected to tectonic
activities. Countries like Japan, parts of Southeast Asia, Turkey, Iran, Mexico, etc. are affected by severe
earthquakes. In India, the entire Himalayan region, parts of the Gangetic Plain, Kutch and Andaman and
Nicobar islands are in the earthquake hazard zone (Table 18.2).

The major impacts of earthquakes are as follows:

Shaking of the ground and surface rupture:
This is the main cause of destruction in which buildings, bridges, roads, canals and other structures are
damaged.

Liquefaction:
Earthquakes make sands and silts to transform from a solid to liquid state. This also results in building
collapse.

Landslides:
Earthquakes of high intensity often trigger many landslides in the hilly regions.

Fires:
It is a major hazard associated with earthquakes. The shakings of the ground and building damage often
break the gas pipes and electric lines that cause fires.

Changes in the land elevation:

The surface topography of a region and groundwater conditions are altered after an earthquake.

 Tsunami:
It is a Japanese term meaning ‘harbour waves’. Tsunamis are massive sea waves that are mainly caused
due to earthquakes in the ocean floor or possibly due to an undersea landslide or volcanic eruption. When
the ocean floor is tilted or offset during an earthquake a set of waves is created similar to the concentric
waves generated by an object dropped into the water.

These waves are massive in size and gain height as they approach the seashore. Tsunamis up to the height
of 30 m are recorded . Tsunamis are the most catastrophic among natural disasters as they affect a very
wide geographical area. The tsunami of 26 December, 2004 killed around three lakh people and affected
parts of Indonesia, Andaman and Nicobar Islands in India, Sri Lanka and even Somalia.
Prevention and Mitigation:
Despite the advances made by modem science, the exact time and place where an earthquake may strike
cannot be predicted. Hence, the occurrence of an earthquake cannot be prevented. However, there are
certain regions that are earthquakes prone and so the administration must work before hand to minimize
the damages due to occurrence of earthquakes in such areas. The control and mitigation measures in
earthquake prone regions include hazard reduction programmes, development of critical facilities and
proper land use planning.

Hazard reduction programmes:

These include the following:
i. Earthquake education and evacuation plans.

ii. Use of proper construction material that is not injurious even if the structures collapse.

iii. Construction of quake resistant buildings having proper structural design.

Development of critical facilities:

These include the following:
i. Establishment of earthquake regulatory agencies for fast relief.

ii. Establishment of specific health care units for treating earthquake injuries Proper land use planning.

iii. Mapping of faults and weak zones in earthquake prone areas.

iv. Buildings such as schools, hospitals, offices, etc. should be in areas away from active faults.

 Floods:
Floods refer to the ‘inundation of large parts of land which otherwise remain dry by water for some
duration of time’. Floods are one of the most common natural disasters occurring in many parts of the
world every year. Floods occur due to heavy rainfall within a short duration of time in a particular region
which causes the rivers and streams to overflow.

Since most of the precipitation occurs within span of two to three months during the rainy season, most
floods occur during that time. The floods in the mountainous regions due to cloudbursts or damming of
streams are referred to as flash-floods. In flash-floods, the water drains away quickly but only after
causing extensive damage. The plain areas of a region which are drained by a number of rivers, are the
places most affected by floods.

In India, states like Assam, Bihar and parts of Gangetic Uttar Pradesh are quite prone to floods during the
rainy season. The Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers and their tributaries are most susceptible to floods.
However, heavy rains cause occasional floods in parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil
Nadu. Flooding, in India, is a major problem and some part or the other is affected by the fury of floods
usually during the months from July to September.

Floods cause untold miseries to the affected regions in the form of huge losses of life and property. There
is great damage to agriculture and livestock. Flood affected areas face acute shortages of food and
drinking water. Besides, floods cause a number of water borne diseases such as diarrhea, gastroenteritis,
jaundice, malaria, etc.

Impact on the Environment:

Though the lives lost in floods may not be as high as in case of earthquakes or cyclones, the damage to
the environment is immense. The problem is further aggravated if the floods last for a longer duration of
time.

Floods not only damage property and endanger if lives of humans and animals, but have other effects as
well, such as:
1. Floods cause the spread of many epidemic diseases.

2. Rapid runoff causes soil erosion.

3. Wildlife habitat and forests are often destroyed.

4. Manmade structures like buildings, bridges, roads, sewer lines, power lines, etc. are damaged.

5. Floods cause widespread damage to the standing crops and degrade the agricultural land.

6. Flood affected areas are faced with acute shortage of food and drinking water.

Prevention, Control and Mitigation:

Though floods are a natural hazard, it is sometimes intensified due to undesirable human activities. The
measures that can be taken to control the extent of flood damage include land use planning, building of
physical barriers, preventing human encroachment and use of technology for relief.
Land use planning:
Proper land use planning in flood prone areas includes:
1. Demarcation of the flood-prone areas that are first inundated during floods.

2. Construction work and concentration of human population should be avoided in the floodplains.

3. Afforestation on the upper reaches of the river (catchment areas) to control soil erosion and excessive
runoff.

Building of physical barriers:

Flood can be prevented by building certain structures, such as:
1. Embankments along the banks of rivers in densely populated areas.

2. Building of reservoirs to collect excess water during floods.

3. The construction of channels that divert floodwater.

Preventing human encroachment:

Human encroachment should be avoided in the following areas:
1. Floodplains and catchment areas.

2. This would control deforestation and soil erosion which would prevent excessive runoff.

Use of technology for relief:

Advanced technology can be used in the following ways:
1. Advanced communication techniques for flood forecasting and warning.

2. Fast evacuation of people.

3. To provide relief in temporary shelters.

4. Immediate supply of medicines, drinking water, food and clothes.

5. Epidemic diseases must be controlled through spraying, vaccination, etc.

 Drought:
Drought is a condition of abnormally dry weather within a geographic region. Drought refers to the lack
or insufficiency of rain for an extended period of time in a specific region. During droughts, rainfall is
less than normal causing a water imbalance and resultant water shortage. It occurs when the rate of
evaporation and transpiration exceeds precipitation for a considerable period. Drought should not be
confused with dry climate, as in the Sahara or Thar Desert. It is marked by an unusual scarcity of water
and food for the humans as well as animals.

Certain regions of the world, such as parts of Central Africa, are characterized by low amount of rainfall
resulting in perennial drought-like conditions. Some part of India is often affected by drought even during
the rainy season. As India is primarily an agricultural country, droughts cause untold miseries to the
common people.

Many Indian farmers are still totally dependent on rainfall for irrigation and because of abnormally dry
spells there is extensive crop damage. The main drought prone areas of the country are parts of Rajasthan,
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and Chhattisgarh. However, sometimes drought-like
conditions also prevail in the Gangetic Plain also.

Impact on the Environment:

The severity of the drought is gauged by the degree of moisture deficiency, its duration, and the size of
the area affected. If the drought is brief, it is known as a dry spell or partial drought.

Drought causes serious environmental imbalances, which are summarized below:

1. Water-supply reservoirs become empty, wells dry up and there is acute water shortage.

2. Groundwater level is also depleted because of less recharge.

3. Soil degradation and erosion occurs. Soil cracks because of shrinkage during desiccation.

4. There is extensive crop damage.

5. People become impoverished and there are diseases due to malnutrition.

6. Widespread damage to flora and fauna air including domestic animals.

Prevention, control and mitigation:

Rains are caused by a number of natural factors like air currents, wind direction, etc. Thus, droughts are a
natural phenomenon, beyond human control and prevention. Though, global warming may have changed
the pattern of rainfall in the recent times. In modem times, by the use of satellites, we can predict the
weather pattern over a particular area. Drought-like conditions can be overcome by better water
harvesting techniques. Certain precautions can be taken in drought prone areas, which relate to
management of water resources, proper agricultural techniques and relief by different agencies.

Management of water resources:

These include the following:
1. Conservation of water through rainwater harvesting, building check dams, bunds, etc.

2. Construction of reservoirs to hold emergency water supplies.

Proper agricultural techniques:

These include the following:
1. Increased use of drought resistant crops.

2. Proper irrigation techniques, such as drip and trickle irrigation that minimize the use of water.

3. Over-cropping and overgrazing should be avoided.

Relief measures:
Immediate relief to the drought-affected people should be provided in the form of:
1. Employment generation programmes, like ‘food for work’ in the drought affected areas.

2. To provide fodder for domestic animals.

 Cyclones:
Cyclone is an area of low atmospheric pressure surrounded by a wind system blowing in anti-clockwise
direction, formed in the northern hemisphere. In common terms, cyclone can be described as a giant
circular storm system. In a cyclone, the wind speed must be more than 119 km/hr. Cyclones generate in
the seas and oceans and move with a very high speed towards the land.

Cyclones form when moisture evaporates from the warm oceans during the hot season. The air rises,
condenses and gathers momentum as it moves over the ocean. Due to the extreme low pressure in the
centre, more and more air rushes inwards and it grows to a considerable size and intensity.

It strikes the land with a devastating force and gradually withers off on land when they are cut from their
source of ocean moisture. Cyclones are named variously depending on their source of origin. They are
called hurricanes in the Atlantic, typhoons in the Pacific, cyclones in the Indian Ocean and willy-willies
aroimd Australia.
Impact on the Environment:
Cyclones are quite common in the Bay of Bengal and often cause much damage in Bangladesh and
coastal areas of West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Bangladesh has been devastated
by cyclones a number of times. In November 1970, a severe cyclone caused a 6 m rise in sea-level and
the consequent flooding killed approximately three lakh people.

Another cyclone in 1971 killed more than one lakh people. The cyclone that hit Orissa in 1999, is the
worst recorded natural disaster in India. Even an advanced country like America recorded more than
10,000 deaths and huge financial losses when New Orleans was hit by a hurricane named Katrina, during
August 2005. Cyclones cause devastation when they hit the landmass in the form of very strong winds,
heavy rains and storm tides.

The impact on the environment is severe, some of which are:

1. The coastal low lying areas are most affected.

2. The affected areas are inundated both with rainfall and the surge of seawater.

3. Devastation is also increased due to the accompanying high velocity winds.

4. Widespread damage in the form of uprooted trees, blown-off roof tops, standing crops, injuries and
death to humans and animals.

5. Many shipwrecks occur during cyclonic storms.

6. The affected areas are impoverished and are followed by spread of epidemic and diseases.

Prevention, Control and Mitigation:

The occurrence of cyclones is a natural phenomenon, over which humans have no control, hence it cannot
be prevented. However, some scientists have speculated that rise in global warming may cause an
increased occurrences of cyclones. The devastating effects of cyclones can only be controlled and
mitigated through some effective policies such as use of advanced technology, hazard reduction
initiatives and relief measures.

Use of Advanced Technology:

1. Satellites can easily forecast the origin of cyclones in advance.

2. Satellite images can track the movement and intensity of cyclones.

3. Installation of early warning systems in the coastal areas.

Hazard reduction initiatives:

1. Increasing public awareness regarding cyclones.

2. Increasing the public response to cyclone warnings through training.

3. Development of underground shelter belts in the cyclone prone areas.

Relief measures:
1. Rushing relief to the affected areas in the form of medicines, food, clothes, etc.

2. Checking the spread of epidemic water borne diseases as cyclones are generally accompanied by
flooding.

 Landslides:
Landslides refer to a rapid down-slope movement of rocks or soil mass under the force of gravity. It is
also known as slope failure and mass wasting. Landslides may be typed as mudflow where there is down-
slope movement of soil and debris flow, which is the down-slope movement of coarse material and rocks.
Landslides may occur when water from rain and melting snow, seeps through the earth on a sloppy
surface and encounters a layer of loose, unstable material such as clay.

Landslides mostly occur on unstable hillsides by the action of rain or snow that seep through the soils and
rocks. This results in the sliding of earth and rock masses down the hill slopes. These are further triggered
due to deforestation and human encroachment on unstable slopes. All the hilly regions of our country are
prone to landslides.

The important factors responsible for landslide occurrence are as follows:

1. Stability of slopes

2. The type of earth and rock material

3. The type of vegetation

4. The role of ground water conditions and precipitation

5. Presence of streams, etc.

  Avalanche:
It is a type of landslide involving a large mass of snow, ice and rock debris that slides and fall rapidly
down a mountainside. Avalanches are initiated when a mass of snow and ice begins to rapidly move
downhill because of the overload caused due to a large volume of new snowfall. This result in internal
changes of the snow pack, producing zones of weakness along which fissure occurs.

Impact on the Environment:

Landslides, though local in nature, occur quite often in many parts of the world. Landslides occur in the
hilly regions; the Himalayan region in India is particularly prone to landslides. Every year landslides
occur, especially during the monsoon season and cause much damage to life and property. For example,
Malpa landslide in 1999 in the Kumaon hills, took the lives of many pilgrims who were going to
Mansarovar in Tibet.

The impact on the environment is manifested in the form of:

1. Uprooted trees and degraded soil

2. Buried building and settlements

3. Damage to crops and plantation

4. Frequent roadblocks in the hilly areas

5. Injuries and death to humans and animals

Prevention, Control and Mitigation:

Though landslides are a natural phenomenon and may occur without human interference, in certain cases
human activities like deforestation, mining, etc. can also induce landslides. Landslides can be controlled,
to some extent, by adopting initiatives, such as providing slope support and minimizing human
encroachment.
Providing slope support:
i. By building retaining walls made of concrete, gabions (stone filled wire blocks) and wooden and steel
beams, etc.

ii. By providing drainage control measures so that water may not infiltrate into the slope

Minimizing human encroachment:

i. Mining activities should be monitored in the hilly, unstable regions.
ii. Plantation of trees should be undertaken on the unstable hilly slopes.

iii. By preventing human encroachment in the form of buildings, roads, agriculture, grazing, etc. on
unstable slopes.

2. Man-Made Disasters:
Man-made disasters are the result of carelessness or human errors during technological and industrial use.
The disasters are in the form of accidents, which occur all of a sudden and take a huge toll on life and
property. Mostly such disasters cause injuries, diseases and casualties where they occur.

Industrial and technological disasters:

These are much larger in scale and are the result of technology failures or industrial accidents. Such
disasters affect both local population and may even cover a much larger area. Industrial disasters result
due to accidental leakage of water or air pollutants. Many of the chemicals are extremely toxic and
carcinogenic which affect the human population in an adverse way. Some people die instantly while
others are crippled for whole life in the form of blindness, paralysis and many other chronic diseases.

Impact on the environment:

Leakage of toxic chemicals from the industries and accidents in the nuclear reactors has short-term and
long-term effects on the environment and human health. Short-term effects on human health relate to
casualties and diseases like blindness, cancer, paralysis, heart trouble, gastric and respiratory
abnormalities. Long-term effects include genetic imbalances in humans and its impact on the future
generations. Soil and water sources also remain polluted for long durations of time.

Prevention, control and mitigation:

Man-made disasters can be minimized to a large extent by adopting the following measures:
1. Proper training of personnel working in the hazardous industries.

2. Proper maintenance and care of safety measures.

3. Removing human encroachments around hazardous industries.

4. Making the people aware about the first-aid methods in case of accidents.

5. Applying wet cloth over the mouth and nose in case of gas leakages minimizes the health hazards.

6. Remaining indoors in case of radioactive accidents.

7. Providing the people with proper medical care, in some cases throughout their life.

8. Providing adequate compensation to the affected people by way of money and employment.

 Bhopal Gas Tragedy (BGT):

The most serious industrial disaster occurred on December 3, 1984 at Bhopal, India, which is known as
the Bhopal Gas Tragedy (BGT). The Bhopal gas tragedy occurred due to leakage of methyl isocyanide
(MIC) gas from the factory of Union Carbide of India Ltd. MIC gas is used as an ingredient in pesticides.

It leaked from the factory and formed the deadly cloud over Bhopal. People living in slums in the vicinity
of the factory were the most affected and more than 5000 people were killed, half of them due to direct
exposure and other half due to after affects. MIC is a colourless gas which causes severe irritation, violent
coughing, swelling of the lungs, bleeding and death due to direct inhalation. It also caused loss of eye-
sight in more than 1000 people. More than 50,000 people were affected with respiratory, eye, gastric,
neurological and gynaecological problems.

 Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster:

This nuclear disaster occurred at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, which was one of the largest power
plants in the Ukrainian Republic of erstwhile USSR, on April 26, 1986. It is the worst nuclear disaster
recorded in a nuclear power plant. This nuclear power plant had four reactors of 1000 megawatt each for
electricity generation. A sudden power surge resulted in two explosions, which destroyed the reactor core
and blasted a large hole in the roof of the reactor building.

The Radioactive debris moved up through that hole to heights of 1 km. Approximately 100 to 150 million
curies of radiation (radioactive isotopes of iodine and caesium) escaped into the atmosphere. To reduce
emissions, the rescue team bombarded the reactor with 5,000 metric tonnes of shielding material
consisting of lead, boron, sand and clay. Soviet officials placed the toll of human lives to 31.

However, according to western estimates, 2000 people were killed. Large areas of the Ukrainian,
Byelorussia Republics of the USSR and even parts of Poland, Denmark and Sweden were contaminated.
Around 200,000 people had to be evacuated and resettled. The after affects lasted for many years and a
rise in the incidence of thyroid and blood cancer has been observed in a wide group of people. Other
affects on the human health included skin diseases, hair loss, nausea, anemia, respiratory and reproductive
diseases.

Hazards in Arid and Semi-Arid Areas

a. Desertification
Desertification, or resource degradation in arid lands that creates desert conditions, results from
interrelated and interdependent sets of actions, usually brought on by drought combined with human and
animal population pressure. Droughts are prolonged dry periods in natural climatic cycles. The cycles of
dry and wet periods pose serious problems for pastoralists and farmers who gamble on these cycles.
During wet periods, the sizes of herds are increased and cultivation is extended into drier areas. Later,
drought destroys human activities which have been extended beyond the limits of a region's carrying
capacity.

Overgrazing is a frequent practice in dry lands and is the single activity that most contributes to
desertification. Dry-land farming refers to rain-fed agriculture in semiarid regions where water is the
principal factor limiting crop production. Grains and cereals are the most frequently grown crops. The
nature of dry-land farming makes it a hazardous practice which can only succeed if special conservation
measures such as stubble mulching, summer fallow, strip cropping, and clean tillage are followed.
Desertified dry lands in Latin America can usually be attributed to some combination of exploitative land
management and natural climate fluctuations.

b. Erosion and Sedimentation

Soil erosion and the resulting sedimentation constitute major natural hazards that produce social and
economic losses of great consequence. Erosion occurs in all climatic conditions, but is discussed as an
arid zone hazard because together with salinization, it is a major proximate cause of desertification.
Erosion by water or wind occurs on any sloping land regardless of its use. Land uses which increase the
risk of soil erosion include overgrazing, burning and/or exploitation of forests, certain agricultural
practices, roads and trails, and urban development. Soil erosion has three major effects: loss of support
and nutrients necessary for plant growth; downstream damage from sediments generated by erosion; and
depletion of water storage capacity, because of soil loss and sedimentation of streams and reservoirs,
which results in reduced natural stream flow regulation.

Stream and reservoir sedimentation is often the root of many water management problems. Sediment
movement and subsequent deposition in reservoirs and river beds reduces the useful lives of water storage
reservoirs, aggravates flood water damage, impedes navigation, degrades water quality, damages crops
and infrastructure, and results in excessive wear of turbines and pumps.

c. Salinization

Saline water is common in dry regions, and soils derived from chemically weathered marine deposits
(such as shale) are often saline. Usually, however, saline soils have received salts transported by water
from other locations. Salinization most often occurs on irrigated land as the result of poor water control,
and the primary source of salts impacting soils is surface and/or ground water. Salts accumulate because
of flooding of low-tying lands, evaporation from depressions having no outlets, and the rise of ground
water close to soil surfaces. Salinization results in a decline in soil fertility or even a total loss of land for
agricultural purposes. In certain instances, farm land abandoned because of salinity problems may be
subjected to water and wind erosion and become desertified.

Inexpensive water usually results in over-watering. In dry regions, salt-bearing ground water is frequently
the major water resource. The failure to properly price water from irrigation projects can create a great
demand for Such projects and result in misuse of available water, causing waterlogging and salinization.
Unit 2

Factors affecting vulnerabilities:

Underdevelopment predisposes a population to the adverse consequences of natural and other hazards. At
the same time, however, the development process, itself, may increase vulnerability to disasters. This
section reviews the variety of forces which shape this relationship between vulnerability and the character
of development activity.

There is a clearly established linkage between poverty, marginalization, over-population and

vulnerability. To a large extent, vulnerability derives from poverty. Poor people are more likely to live in
vulnerable areas, for example, on slopes vulnerable to landslides; in flood-prone areas; on marginal
agricultural land. Poorer countries, generally, are more likely to have a dangerous building stock, often as
a result of inadequate resources to enforce appropriate building codes in addition to a lack of public
awareness and education.

Lack of access to education and information often has wider implications for vulnerability-people may be
simply unaware of the options open to them for vulnerability reduction. Poor people have far fewer assets
to invest in resources which may reduce their vulnerability and may be unwilling to make any significant
investment without clear and obvious benefits. Poor people are less likely to be in a position to organize
collectively to reduce risks, partially because poorer groups usually have a higher proportion of women,
young children, elderly people, the sick and disabled. Furthermore, after a disaster, the effects of
malnutrition and chronic illness put people at additional risk.

Although in aggregate terms development will usually contribute to a reduction in vulnerability to natural
disasters, development activity within an area may substantially increase certain types of vulnerability.
For example: „

Urban development often leads to an influx of relatively low-income groups, with large-scale settlement
on marginal land or in high density, poor quality housing. Buildings may be sited on earthquake faults, in
flash-flood zones, or on slopes prone to landslides. „

Marine and coastal zone development leads to population concentrations, exposed to possible storm-
surge, high winds, flashflood, and landslide risks. Tourist development can increase potential
vulnerability substantially when low lying beach areas are targets for infrastructure and capital
investments. Tsunamis and tropical storms can quickly destroy these improvements as well as placing
tourists and workers at substantial risk to death and injury. The development process, itself, may increase
vulnerability to disasters. Development can heighten vulnerability

„ Transport construction and poorly managed forestry programs will often lead to deforestation and
increased risks of landslides. „

Walter resource management projects, including dams and irrigation schemes, also potentially increase
risks to large populations, either by displacement to more hazardous areas, by increased risks of severe
flooding or by risks from dam failure. „
 Investment in poorly controlled hazardous industries may lead to concentrations of population around the
plant, increases in air and water pollution, and exposure to hazards from both chronic and catastrophic
release of toxic materials. „

Livestock development projects can lead to severe loss of vegetation cover and conditions of near-
desertification around points such as wells. „

Agricultural projects promoting cash crops may reduce production of staple foods.