Nuclear physics in general

Nuclear physics is the study of the properties of the nucleus and its behavior as
determined by the strong nuclear force.
Nuclear physics studies the structure of atomic nuclei, which contain almost all
the mass of matter and where reactions take place that make stars shine or produce
energy. The protons and neutrons that form the nucleus of the atom are bound together
by the short-range nuclear interaction. The balance between the repulsion between
protons and the nuclear attraction of protons and neutrons gives rise to all known nuclei.
To know how the different elements appear we have to know how all the nuclei
were created from the primordial hydrogen. At the origin of the Universe only hydrogen
and some light nuclei such as helium were created. Larger nuclei were created in the
interior of stars or in violent phenomena such as supernova explosions. The creation of
nuclei heavier than iron is more complex, since these nuclei cannot be created by the
mere fusion of the nuclear fuel of stars.
Particle and nuclear physicists study the properties of atomic and subatomic
particles, such as quarks, electrons and nuclei, and the forces that cause their
interactions, nuclear Physics not only allows us to answer questions about how matter is
formed or how the Universe has evolved. It has also enabled the development of
applications ranging from medical therapies and diagnosis through techniques such as
positron emission tomography (PET) or hydrotherapy, to energy generation or the
analysis of works of art.
Parts of an atomic nucleus

The atom is the smallest unit that makes up a chemical element, which is made
up of a nucleus and a finite number of electrons that surround it.
They are composed of electrons that revolve and move around its nucleus, in turn the
nucleus is made up of neutrons and protons, which are formed by the smallest
Nuclear chemistry deals with natural and artificial changes in atoms, specifically in their
nuclei, as well as the chemical reactions of radioactive substances. Natural radioactivity
is the best known model of nuclear chemistry. Within it, the effects of alpha, beta and
gamma radioactive emissions on substances are studied.
Nuclear energy
The United States has 103 nuclear reactors, which supply 20% of electricity. Fifty-
one percent of electricity is generated by coal-fired plants, 17% by natural gas, and the
remainder by hydroelectric, wind and solar power plants. ... The U.S. produces 30%
more energy than it consumes.

 The USA is the world's largest producer of nuclear power, accounting for more
than 30% of worldwide nuclear generation of electricity.
 The country's nuclear reactors produced 843 billion kWh in 2019, about 19% of
total electrical output.
 Following a 30-year period in which few new reactors were built, it is expected
that two more new units will come online soon after 2020, these resulting from
16 licence applications made since mid-2007 to build 24 new nuclear reactors.
 Some states have liberalized wholesale electricity markets, which makes the
financing of capital-intensive power projects difficult, and coupled with lower
gas prices since 2009, have put the economic viability of some existing reactors
and proposed projects in doubt.
 The first zero-emissions credit programmes have commenced, in New York,
Illinois and New Jersey, with corresponding provision in Connecticut

According to the 2021 State of the World Nuclear Industry Report , global nuclear
power generation fell by 3.9% in 2020 despite a 4.4% increase in China, where two new
reactors were added. In 2021, 415 reactors were operational worldwide, 22 fewer than
in 2011 . Another 26 are currently in long-term storage and 53 are under construction,
about half in China and India.

The rapid expansion of renewable energies and the negative public sentiment
towards nuclear power created by disasters such as Chernobyl or Fukushima have made
nuclear power a global power generation alternative.

Argentina

Argentina was the first country in Latin America to adopt nuclear energy, but
despite having advanced industry, it has always imported nuclear power reactor
technologies. There are currently three nuclear power plants in operation.

After an interruption in the 1990s, the sector was reactivated in 2006 with a national
nuclear plan, which led to the completion of Atucha II and the development of the
Embalse life extension project. Although it is a more expensive energy source than
others, it also serves to develop the scientific-technological system.

Contamination

The production of nuclear energy leaves very polluting and long-lasting traces in the
environment, as well as causing accidents with fatal consequences. The management of
radioactive waste for periods of time, sometimes incalculable, entails great costs.

While nuclear power does not emit greenhouse gases at the same level as fossil fuel
energy, it actually emits more CO2 than any renewable energy per kWh produced, since
a nuclear reactor needs a fuel to generate electricity, and obtaining this fuel is the only
way to generate electricity.

Nuclear power also has major disadvantages. Its waste is very dangerous. Both for
health and for the environment in general. Radioactive waste is highly polluting, deadly
and takes thousands of years to degrade, which makes its management very delicate.

The radiation
Radiation is energy that comes from a source and travels through space and may be able
to penetrate various materials. Light, radio, and microwaves are types of radiation that
are called nonionizing. The kind of radiation discussed in this document is
called ionizing radiation because it can produce charged particles (ions) in matter.
Radiation can be described as energy or particles from a source moving through space
or by other means. Light, heat, and the microwaves and radio waves used for wireless
communications are forms of radiation.
Radiation includes particles and electromagnetic waves that are emitted by some
materials and carry energy. The type of radiation discussed below is called ionizing
radiation because it can produce charged particles (or ions) in matter. X-rays, gamma
rays, alpha particles, beta particles and neutrons are examples of ionizing radiation.
Atoms with unstable nuclei are said to be radioactive. In order to reach stability, these
atoms give off, or emit, the excess energy or mass. These emissions are called radiation.
The kinds of radiation are electromagnetic (like light) and particulate (i.e., mass given
off with the energy of motion). Gamma radiation and x rays are examples of
electromagnetic radiation. Gamma radiation originates in the nucleus while x rays come
from the electronic part of the atom. Beta and alpha radiation are examples of
particulate radiation.
Radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in a straight line (like a "ray" in
geometry). This line travels through space or through some material, extending from the
source in all directions; "radiating" outward. Radiation can also refer to the emitted
energy itself. There are many different types of radiation which can include
electromagnetic, thermal, acoustic, particle radiation (such as alpha or beta radiation
from a radioactive source) and ionizing radiation.

Chernobyl
The Chernobyl nuclear accident took place on April 26, 1986 at the Vladimir Illich
Lenin nuclear power plant in northern Ukraine, which at that time was part of the
USSR. It is considered the worst nuclear accident in history, as well as one of the
greatest environmental disasters.