Chapter Two

Data Communication Layer

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 Chapter Outline

➢ Architectures

➢ Protocol standards

➢ OSI 7-layer reference model and concepts of open standards

➢ Motivations for standards

➢ ISO reference model

➢ Open standard

➢ Internetworking with TCP/IP Structure

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 Communication Architecture
➢ Network architecture is a design of communication networks for specification of a network’s
physical components and their functional organization and configuration, its operation
principles and procedures as well as data formats use.

➢ Network architecture is predominantly expressed by its use of the internet protocol suits.
Data Communication Architecture:

Network Line Configuration: defines the attachment of communication devices to a link

➢ Or both point to point and multipoint connection are line configuration to connect two or more
devices in link.

➢ Link : a physical communication pathway that transfers data from one device to another.
➢ point-to-point:- a line configuration where two and only two devices are connected by a
dedicated link.
➢ It is unicast connection because there is Compiled
dedicated linkB. between the two devices
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Multipoint:– a line configuration in which more than two specific devices share a single
link.

❖ In multipoint connection a single link can be shared between multiple devices.

❖ Single channel shared

❖ Single transmitter but multiple receiver

❖ No dedicated line

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 Network Design Models
There are basically have 2 network design models

A. Flat model:- it is single collision domain and not hierarchical divided.

It has some advantage:

❖ Easy to design
❖ Easy to implement
❖ It good for small network
❖ East to maintain and diagnosis
It has some disadvantage:
▪ Poor security
▪ No redundancy
▪ Less speed fig.1 Flat switch network
▪ No scalability
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B, Hierarchical Model:– it is a network model that has three network layers or divisions and
each layers has their own specific functions.

The three layers are:

I. Access layer: used for service availably port security

on layer 2 switch .

II. Distribution layer: aggregate data received from

access layer and switches from sending to core layer,
redundancy and load balancing, control broadcast
domain

III. Core layer control: it is a network backbone, it is fast

speed layer it connect multiple campus network and
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data center
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❑ It has some advantage of hierarchical model:

❖ more security

❖ Better speed or performances

❖ Facilitate scalable performance of network

❖ Good for big network

❖ Easy to troubleshoot

❑ It has some disadvantage of hierarchical model:

➢ Difficult to design

➢ Difficult to implement

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 Network Protocols and Standards

❖A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communications

❖ a protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is
communicated.

❖ for instance, for one computer to send a message to another computer, the first computer
must perform the following general steps
▪ break the data into small sections called packets
▪ add addressing information to the packets identifying the destination computer
▪ deliver the data to the network card for transmission over the network

❖ The receiving computer must perform the same steps, but in reverse order
▪ accept the data from the NIC
▪ remove transmitting information that was added by the transmitting computer
▪ reassemble the packets of data in to the original message
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❖ the key elements of a protocol are:
▪ syntax: refers to the structure or format of the data

▪ semantics: refers to the meaning of each section of bits

▪ timing: refers to when data should be sent and how fast they can be sent

❑ Some important characteristics of a protocol are:

❖ Direct /indirect:
• If two systems share a point-to-point link - direct
• systems connect through a switched communication network – indirect

❖ Monolithic/structured
• Communications is a complex task for a single unit
• One big protocol vs. many structured protocols function as one.

❖ Symmetric/asymmetric: Communication
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❖ Standard /nonstandard
➢ Non-standard protocols built for specific computers and tasks

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 Functions of Protocols

❖ Each device must perform the same steps the same way so that the data will
arrive and reassemble properly; if one device uses a protocol with different steps,
the two devices will not be able to communicate with each other

❖ The following are categories of functions that form the basis of protocols
▪ encapsulation
▪ segmentation and reassembly
▪ connection control
▪ addressing
▪ multiplexing
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1. Encapsulation

❖ the inclusion or adding of control information to data is called encapsulation.

❖ Each frame contains not only data but also control information

❖ such control information falls into three categories: address (sender/receiver),

error-detecting code and protocol control (information about protocol functions)

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2. Segmentation
➢ by the sender also called fragmentation and reassembly by the receiver a block of data

for transmission is of some bounded size

➢ at the application level, we refer to a logical unit of data transfer as a message
➢ lower level protocols may need to break the data up into blocks of some bounded
size this process is called segmentation
➢ reasons for segmentation:
▪ the communication network may only accept blocks of data up to a certain size
▪ error control may be more efficient with a smaller frame size; fewer bits need to
be retransmitted when a frame gets corrupted
▪ facilitates more equitable accessCompiled
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❖ disadvantages

▪ since a frame contains certain amount of control information, the smaller

the block size, the greater the percentage overhead

▪ frame arrivals may generate an interrupt that must be serviced; hence

smaller blocks result in more interrupts

▪ more time is spent processing smaller, more numerous frames

❖ the counterpart of segmentation is reassembly

❖ on receipt, the receiving device must reassemble the segmented data into a
message appropriate to the application
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3. Connection control : two types of protocols (services)

➢ connectionless service

❖ the packets are sent from one party to another with no need for connection
establishment or connection release

❖ the packets are not numbered, they may be delayed, lost, or arrive out of
sequence; there is no acknowledgement either.

❖ UDP (User Datagram Protocol), one of the transport layer protocols, is

connectionless

❖ good for one time transaction; e.g., email

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➢ connection-oriented service: in connection-oriented data transfer, a logical
association or connection is established between the communicating computers
(devices).
❖ long sustained session
❖ orderly and timely delivery of packets, e.g., FTP

three phases are involved

▪ connection establishment (agreement to exchange data)
▪ data transfer (data and control information exchanged)
▪ connection termination (termination request) - by any of the two parties
➢ TCP (Transport Control Protocol) is connection-oriented

➢ the key characteristics of connection-oriented data transfer is that sequencing is used

each side sequentially numbers the Compiled
framesbythat it sends to the other side.
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❖ because each side remembers that it is engaged in a logical connection, it can keep track
of both outgoing numbers, which it generates, and incoming numbers which are
generated by the other side

Sequencing supports three main functions

❖ ordered delivery: frames may not arrive in the order in which they were sent, because
they may traverse different paths

❖ flow control: a receiving station has to limit the amount or rate of data that is sent by a
transmitting station
▪ the simplest form of flow control is stop-and-wait procedure in which each frame must be
acknowledged before the next can be sent
▪ more efficient protocols involve some form of credit provided to the transmitter, which is the
amount of frames that can be transmitted without an acknowledgement; e.g. sliding
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window technique
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❖ error control: error control is implemented as two separate functions; error detection and
retransmission

▪ if an error is detected, the receiver discards the frame

▪ upon failing to receive an acknowledgement to the frame in a specified reasonable

time, the sender retransmits the frame

▪ some protocols also employ error correction which enables the receiver not only to
detect errors but, in some cases, to correct them

4. Addressing
▪ a unique address is associated with each end-system in a configuration (e.g.
workstation, server) and each intermediate system (e.g. router)

▪ an example is an IP address in TCP/IP connection

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5. multiplexing: occurs when multiple connections share a single connection
(multiple access).

6. transmission services
▪ a variety of additional services can be provided

▪ priority: messages such as control messages may need to get through to the destination
station with minimum delay

▪ security: security mechanisms, restricting access, may be invoked

❖ Protocols in a layered architecture : protocols that work together to provide a layer

or layers of the model are known as a protocol stack or suite, e.g. TCP/IP
▪ each layer handles a different part of the communications process and has its own protocol
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 The principal motivation for the development of the OSI model

➢ To provide a framework for standardization.

➢ Within the model, one or more protocol standards can be developed at each layer.

➢ Changes in standards in one layer need not affect already existing software in another
layer.

➢ The design principle of information hiding is used:

▪ Lower layers are concerned with greater levels of detail;

▪ upper layers are independent of these details.

➢ To dominate computer communications, eventually replacing proprietary protocol

implementations and rival multivendor models such as TCP/IP.

➢ This is no happened. Instead, the TCP/IP architecture has come to dominate.

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 Models
➢ For two computers, in a computer network, to communicate must talk the same
language.
▪ follow the same protocol

➢ A network protocol is a formal set of rules, conventions and data structure that
governs how computers and other network devices exchange information over a
network .

➢ In earlier days, many of the networks that were built used different hardware and
software implementations

▪ they were incompatible and it became difficult for networks using different
specifications to communicate with each other

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❑ To address the problem of networks being incompatible and unable to communicate
with each other, we need some way of model .

➢ A widely accepted structuring technique is layering

➢ The communications functions are partitioned into a hierarchical set of layers.

➢ Each layer performs a related subset of the functions

➢ It provides services to the next-higher layer and accepts service for the lower layer

➢ Each layer covers different network activities, equipment, or protocols

➢ This separation into smaller more manageable functions is known as layering.

➢ Layering specifies different functions and services as data moves from one computer
through the network cabling to another computer
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➢ The layers are separated from each other by boundaries called interfaces

➢ All requests are passed from one layer, through the interface, to the next layer

E.g. OSI and TCP/IP

Why layering?
➢ reduces complexity (one big problem to smaller ones)

➢ standardizes interfaces (between layers)

➢ facilitates modular engineering (different teams work on different modules)

➢ assures interoperable technology

➢ accelerates evolution of networking technology

➢ simplifies teaching and learning

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 OSI ( open system interconnection) Reference Model
➢ It was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1970 .
/OSI=open system interconnection
➢ It is a model for a computer protocol architecture and as a framework for developing protocol
standards.
➢ An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model.
➢ is now considered the primary Architectural model for inter-computer communications.
➢ is a descriptive network scheme.
➢ It ensures greater compatibility and interoperability between various types of network
technologies.
➢ Comprises of seven layers
➢ Defines how each layer communicates and works with the layers immediately above and
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Why OSI important

➢ Network communication is broken into smaller, more manageable parts.

➢ Allows different types of network hardware and software to communicate with each

other.

➢ All layers are independent and changes does not affect other layers.

➢ Easier to understand network communication.

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 The Seven OSI Reference Model Layers
➢ Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the protocol specification.
➢ Each layer communicates with the same layer’s software or hardware on other
computers.

➢ The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and physical : Layers 4, 3, 2,
and 1) are concerned with the flow of data from end to end through the
network.

➢ The upper three layers of the OSI model (application, presentation and session:
Layers 7, 6 and 5) are orientated more toward services to the applications.

➢ Data is Encapsulated with the necessary protocol information as it moves

down the layers before network transit.
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The principles applied to arrive at the seven layers

➢ Each layer should perform a well-defined function.

➢ A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.
➢ The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining
internationally standardized protocols.

➢ The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the
interfaces.

➢ The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be
thrown together in the same layer out of necessity and small enough that the
architecture does not become unwieldy.
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Layer 7: Application
➢ The application layer is the OSI layer that is closest to the user.
➢ It provides network services to the user’s applications.
➢ contains all the higher level protocols that are commonly needed by users
Layer 6: Presentation
➢ The presentation layer ensures that the information that the application layer of one
system sends out is readable by the application layer of another system.

➢ If necessary, the presentation layer translates between multiple data formats by

using a common format.

➢ Provides encryption and compression of data.

➢ Examples :- JPEG, MPEG, ASCII,Compiled
EBCDIC, HTML.
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Layer 5: Session
➢ The session layer defines how to start, control and end conversations (called sessions)
between applications.
➢ This includes the control and management of multiple bi-directional messages using
dialogue control.
▪ keeping track of whose turn it is to transmit
➢ It also synchronizes dialogue between two hosts' presentation layers and manages their
data exchange.
▪ preventing two parties from attempting the same critical operation at the same time
➢ The session layer offers provisions for efficient data transfer.
▪ Check pointing long transmissions to allow them to continue from where they were
after a crash
Examples :- SQL, ASP(AppleTalk Session Protocol).
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Layer 4: Transport
➢ It accepts data from above, splits it up into smaller units if need be, passes them to the
network layer, and ensure that the pieces all arrive correctly at the other end

➢ The transport layer segments data from the sending host's system and reassembles the data
into a data stream on the receiving host's system.

➢ End-to-end error free delivery of entire message

➢ Services include:
▪ Service port addressing
.Port number
▪ Segmentation /reassembly
▪ Connection control
.Connectionless or connection oriented
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Layer 3: Network
➢ Defines end-to-end delivery of packets.

➢ Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint can be identified.

➢ Defines how routing works and how routes are learned so that the packets can be
delivered.

➢ The network layer also defines how to fragment a packet into smaller packets to
accommodate different media.

➢ Examples :- IP, IPX, AppleTalk.

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Layer 2: Data Link

➢ The data link layer provides access to the networking media and physical transmission
across the media and this enables the data to locate its intended destination on a network.

➢ The data link layer provides reliable transit of data across a physical link by using the
Media Access Control (MAC) addresses.

➢ The data link layer uses the MAC address to define a hardware or data link address in
order for multiple stations to share the same medium and still uniquely identify each other.

➢ Concerned with network topology, network access, error notification, ordered delivery
of frames, and flow control.

➢ Examples :- Ethernet, Frame Relay, FDDI.

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Layer 1: Physical
➢ The layer that actually interacts with the transmission media
➢ the physical part of the network that connects network components together
➢ involved in physically carrying information from one node in the network to the next
➢ The physical layer deals with the physical characteristics of the transmission medium.
➢ It defines
▪ mechanical: the size and shape of the network connector, how many pins does the
network connector has and what each pin is used for
▪ electrical: how many volts represent a 1 and how many a 0
▪ timing: how many nanoseconds a bit lasts
▪ Whether communication is one way or in both directions simultaneously
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❖ Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes, physical data rates, m
aximum transmission distances, physical connectors, and other similar attributes are d
efined by physical layer specifications.
Examples :- EIA/TIA-232, RJ45, BNC

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Shortcomings of OSI
➢ Bad Technology
➢ Session and presentation almost empty
➢ addressing, flow control, and error control, reappear again and again in each layer
➢ Bad implementation
➢ Bad timing
➢ Bad politics

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Summary of OSI model

➢ There was no standard for networks in the early days and as a result it was difficult for networ
ks to communicate with each other.
➢ The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) recognized this. and researched vario
us network schemes, and in 1970 introduced the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference
model.
➢ The OSI reference model has standards which ensure vendors (sellers) greater compatibility and i
nteroperability between various types of network technologies.
➢ The OSI reference model organizes network functions into seven numbered layers.
➢ Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the protocol specification and communicate
s with the same layer’s software or hardware on other computers.
➢ Layers 1-4 are concerned with the flow of data from end -to- end through the network and Lay
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ers 5-7 are concerned with services to the applications.
 TCP/IP Reference Model

➢ used in the grandparent of all wide area

computer networks, the ARPANET
➢ Developed by Department of Defense (D
oD) to ensure and preserve data integrity
as well as maintain communication in th
e even of catastrophic war
➢ Condensed version of OSI model – conta
ins four layers instead of seven

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 Functions of layer

Goals
➢ The Process/Application : protocols for node-to-node application communication and also co
ntrols user-interface specifications.
➢ The Host-to-Host
▪ parallels the functions of the OSI’s Transport layer, defining protocols for setting up the le
vel of transmission service for applications.
➢ The Internet layer
▪ corresponds to the OSI’s Network layer, designating the protocols relating to the logical tr
ansmission of packets over the entire network.
➢ Network Access layer
▪ The equivalent of the Data Link and Physical layers of the OSI model
▪ Oversees hardware addressing andCompiled
definesbyprotocols
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Shortcomings of TCP/IP

➢ the model does not clearly distinguish the concepts of service, interface, and p

rotocol

➢ the TCP/IP model is not at all general and is poorly suited to describing any

protocol stack other than TCP/IP

➢ the host-to-network layer is not really a layer at all

➢ does not distinguish (or even mention) the physical and data link layers

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OSI vs. TCP/IP

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OSI: Service, Interfaces and protocols

➢ Layers Interface: How layer above it access it, what parameter and results to expect
➢ Peer protocols: Used in a layer are the layer’s business
➢ Layer is equivalent to an Object
▪ Set of methods
TCP/ IP–no distinction between protocol and service
IP :- Send IP packet and Receive IP packet
Host - to - network (TCP/IP)
➢ Not really a layer. Interface between network and data link layer
➢ No distinction between physical and data link layer
➢ Adhoc application layer protocols
▪ ELNET: Virtual terminal designed for a character terminal
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Application/Process layer
➢ Telnet - allows a user on a remote client machine, called the Telnet client, to access the
resources of another machine, the Telnet server.

▪ Telnet makes client machine appear as though it were a terminal directly attached
to the server.

➢ File Transfer Protocol (FTP) - is the protocol that actually lets us transfer files, and it
can accomplish this between any two machines using it.

▪ Usually users are subjected to authentication

➢ Network File System (NFS) - a protocol specializing in file sharing allowing two
different types of file systems to interoperate.
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➢ Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) - uses a spooled, or queued, method of mail
delivery.
▪ POP3 is used to receive mail.
➢ Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) - collects and manipulates valuable
network information.
▪ This protocol stands as a watchdog over the network, quickly notifying managers
of any sudden turn of events.
➢ Domain Name Service (DNS) – resolves hostnames—specifically, Internet names, such
as www.amu.edu.et to the IP address 10.6.10.3
➢ Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) - gives IP addresses to hosts.
▪ It allows easier administration and works well in small-to-even-very large network
environments.
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 Host-to-Host layer
➢ Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) - takes large blocks of information from an
application and breaks them into segments.

▪ It numbers and sequences each segment so that the destination’s TCP protocol can put
the segments back into the order the application intended.

▪ Uses three way handshaking

➢ User Datagram Protocol (UDP) - does not sequence the segments and does not care in
which order the segments arrive at the destination. But after that, UDP sends the
segments off and forgets about them. It doesn’t follow through, check up on them, or
even allow for an acknowledgment of safe arrival — complete abandonment.

▪ TCP for reliability and UDP for faster transfers.

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➢ TCP and UDP must use port numbers to communicate with the upper layers, because they’re
what keeps track of different conversations crossing the network simultaneously.

➢ These port numbers identify the source and destination application or process in the TCP
segment.

➢ There are 2^16 = 65536 ports available.

▪ Well-known ports - The port numbers range from 0 to 1023.
▪ Registered ports - The port numbers range from 1024 to 49151.
▪ Registered ports are used by applications or services that need to have consistent port
assignments.
▪ Dynamic or private ports - The port numbers range from 49152 to 65535. These ports are
not assigned to any protocol or service in particular and can be used for any service or
application.

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➢ If a port is closed/blocked, you cannot communicate with the computer by the protocol
using that port.

Eg. If port 25 is blocked you cannot send mail.

Firewalls by default block all ports.

You should know the port numbers of different protocols!!

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 Internet Layer
➢ Internet Protocol (IP) essentially is the Internet layer.
➢ The other protocols found here merely exist to support it.
➢ It can do this because all the machines on the network have a software, or logical,
address called an IP address.
➢ Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) works at the Network layer and is used by
IP for many different services.
❖ ICMP is a management protocol and messaging service provider for IP.

❖ The following are some common events and messages that ICMP relates to:
▪ Destination Unreachable If a router can’t send an IP datagram any further, it uses
ICMP to send a message back to the sender, advising it of the situation.

▪ Buffer Full If a router’s memory buffer for receiving incoming datagrams is full, it
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will use ICMP to send out this message until the congestion abates.
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• Hops Each IP datagram is allotted a certain number of routers, called hops, to pass through. If
it reaches its limit of hops before arriving at its destination, the last router to receive that
datagram deletes it.
• The executioner router then uses ICMP to send a message, informing the sending machine of the
end of its datagram.
• Ping (Packet Internet Groper) uses ICMP echo messages to check the physical and logical
connectivity of machines on a network.
• Trace route Using ICMP timeouts, Traceroute is used to discover the path a packet takes as it
traverses an internetwork.
➢ Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) finds the hardware address of a host from a known IP
address.
• ARP interrogates the local network by sending out a broadcast asking the machine with
the specified IP address to reply with its hardware
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Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
➢ discovers the identity of the IP address for diskless machines by sending out a packet
that includes its MAC address and a request for the IP address assigned to that MAC
address.
➢ A designated machine, called a RARP server, responds with the answer, and the
identity crisis is over.

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 Network Access

➢ Wi-Fi(wireless fidelity)

➢ ATM

➢ PPP

➢ Ethernet

➢ Fast Ethernet

➢ FDDI

➢ Token ring

❑ Network Access technology detail explanation is reading assignment

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End of chapter Two

Any question??

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