Chapter-2
Network Models
Faculty: Asif Uddin Khan
McGraw-Hill ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Network Models
Two network models
1. OSI(Open System Interconnection) model
2. TCP/IP Model
Both models use layered task approach
2.2
2-1 LAYERED TASKS
•We use the concept of layers in our daily life
life.. As an
example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail
mail..
•The process of sending a letter to a friend would be
complex if there were no services available from the post
office..
office
2.3
Figure 2.1 Tasks involved in sending a letter
2.4
2-2 THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947 1947,, the International Standards
Organization (ISOISO)) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards
standards.. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI
OSI)) model
model.. It was first introduced in the late 1970
1970ss.
The purpose of OSI model is to show how to facilitate
communication between different systems without
requring changes to the logic of underlying hardware and
software.
2.5
Note ISO is the organization.
OSI is the model.
Open systems
In open systems, set of protocols allow
any two different systems to communicate
regardless of their underlying architecture
Layered Architecture is used:
•To reduce design complexity computer networks
are organized as stack of layers or levels.
•Each layer get service from the layer below it.
•The OSI model is divided in to seven layers.
2.6
Figure 2.2 Seven layers of the OSI model
2.7
Why layering is necessary
To reduce design complexity
To provide well-defined interfaces
between adjacent layers ie a change in
one layer that does not affect the change
in other layers.
Allows structured development of network
software.
(Note: A set of layers and protocols is called
a network architecture)
2.8
The interaction between layers in the OSI model
2.9
Peer-to-Peer Processes
The processes on each machine that
communicate at a given layer are called
peer-to- peer processes.
2.10
Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model
2.11
Encapsulation
A packet(header,data and trailer) at level
n is encapsulated in level n-1.
ie
The data portion of a packet at level n-1
carries the whole packet (data,header,and
trailer) from level n
2.12
LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL
7 layers of OSI Model
1.Physical Layer
2.Data Link Layer
3.Network Layer
4.Transport Layer
5.Session Layer
6.Presentation Layer
7.Application Layer
2.13
Figure 2.5 Physical layer
The physical layer is responsible for movements of
individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
2.14
Functions of physical layer
Define Physical characteristics of the interface between
devices and transmission medium.
Representation of bits: bits are converted in to electrical
or optical signals.
Data rate/Transmission rate: The no of bits sent each
second and how long it lasts.
Syncronization of bits:Sender and the receiver clocks
must be syncronized.
Line configuration:point to point or multipoint.
Physical topology:star,bus ring,mesh etc.
Transmission modes:full-duplex,half-duplex etc.
2.15
Figure 2.6 Data link layer
The data link layer is responsible for moving
frames from one hop (node) to the next.
2.16
Functions of data link layer
Framing:The data link layer divides the stream of bits
received from the network layer in to manageable data
units called as frames.
Physical addressing: MAC address
Flow control: Controls the flow of data between sender
and receiver
Error control: Controls the error in data during
transmission in the link.
Congestion control: Controls network traffic.
Access control: When two or more devices are
connected to the same link then data link layer protocols
determine which device has the control over the link at a
given time
2.17
Sub layers of Data link layer
1. Logical Link Control(LLC)
2. Media Access Control(MAC)
Functions
LLC:
Acts as an interface between the media access control (MAC) sublayer and
the network layer.
Link control: Managing error control and flow control
Multiplexing
MAC:
Physical addressing
Multiple access
2.18
Figure 2.7 Hop-to-hop delivery
2.19
Figure 2.8 Network layer
The network layer is responsible for the
delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
2.20
Functions of Network layer
Logical addressing: IP address
Routing: Routes the packets from source
to destination using routing algorithm.
2.21
Figure 2.9 Source-to-destination delivery
2.22
Figure 2.10 Transport layer
The transport layer is responsible for the delivery
of a message(segments) from one process to another.
2.23
Functions
Service point addressing: process to process communication is done
using port addressing
Segmentation and reassembly:message is divided in to segments
with a sequence number and reassembled after received at
destination.
Connection control:Transport layer is either connection less or
connection oriented.
Flow control:end to end flow control is performed rather than on a
single link.
Error control:Transport layer performs process to process error
control rather than on a single link.The sending transport layer
makes sure that the entire message arrives at the receiving
transport layer without error.Error correction is usulay done by
retransmission.
2.24
Figure 2.11 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
2.25
Connection oriented vs connection less
Connection oriented
Before any data transmission takes place a dedicated
path needs to be established between the source and
destination.
Connection less
No need to establish a path before any data transmission
takes place between the source and destination.
The source simply puts the data on to the network and
expects that the data to be reached to the destination
properly.
2.26
Figure 2.12 Session layer
The session layer is responsible for dialog
control and synchronization.
2.27
Functions
Dialog Control:session Layer allows two systems to enter
in to a dialog.It allows the communication between two
processes to take place either in half duplex or full
duplex mode.
Syncronization:The session layer allows processes to add
checkpoints or syncronization points to a stream of data
in order to minimize the data loss.
2.28
Figure 2.13 Presentation layer
The presentation layer is responsible for translation,
compression, and encryption.
2.29
Functions
Translation: Different computers use different encoding
systems, the presentation layer is responsible for
interoperability between these different encoding
methods. At sender side it changes the information from
its sender dependent format to in to a common format
and at the receiving side it changes the common format
in to receiver dependent format.
Encryption: Message is converted in to some secrete
code in order to achieve privacy.
Compression: Data compression reduces the no of bits
contained in the information.
2.30
Figure 2.14 Application layer
The application layer is responsible for
providing services to the user.
2.31
Functions
Network virtual terminal: It is a software version of a
physical terminal and it allows a user to log on to a
remote host. To do so the application creates a software
emulation of a terminal at the remote host.
File transfer ,access and management: This allows a
user to access files in a remote host, to retrieve files and
manage files at remote host.
Mail services: Provides the basis for email forwarding
and storage.
Directory services: Provides distributed database sources
and access for global information about various objects
and services
2.32
Devices used in each layer
Physical layer : Hubs, Repeaters, Cables, Fibers.
Data-link layer: Bridges, Modems, Network cards, layer-2
switches.
Network layer: Routers, Brouters, layer-3 switches.
Transport layer: Gateways, Firewalls.
Session layer: Gateways, Firewalls
Presentation layer : Gateways, Firewalls
Application layer: Gateways, Firewalls
2.33
2.34
Figure 2.15 Summary of layers
2.35
2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those
in the OSI model
model.. The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined
as having four layers
layers:: host
host--to
to--network
network,, internet
internet,, transport
transport,, and
application.. However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can
application
say that the TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers layers:: physical
physical,,
data link
link,, network transport,, and application.
network,, transport
Layers of TCP/IP Model:
1. Physical
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Application Layer
2.36
Figure 2.16 TCP/IP and OSI model
2.37
Protocols of TCP/IP layers
Physical layer protocols:
1. Telephone network modems- V.92
2. 802.11
3. Wi-Fi
Datalink layer protocols
1. Point-to-Point Protocol(PPP)
2. IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN
3. Token ring
4. Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)
Network Layer Protocols
1. Internet protocol(IP)
2. Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
3. Internet Group Multicast Protocol(IGMP )
4. Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
5. Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
2.38
Transport layer protocols
1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
2. User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
3. Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)
Application layer protocols
1. File transfer protocol (FTP)
2. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP )
3. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (http)
4. Domain Name System (DNS)
5. telnet
2.39
Some important protocols of Network Layer
Internet protocol IP
It is unreliable and connection less protocol.It transports data in packets
called datagrams, each of which is transported separately.
Address Resolution Protocol ARP
Used to find physical address from logical address.
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol RARP
Used to find logical address from physical address
Internet control Message Message Protocol ICMP
Allows the host to send notification of datagram problems back to the
sender.
Internet Group Message Protocol IGMP
Used to facilitate the simultaneous transmission of a message to a group of
recipients.
2.40
Some Important protocols of Transport layer
User Datagram Protocol UDP
It is a process to process protocol that adds only port addresses,
checksum, error control and length information to the data from
upper layer.
Transmission control protocol TCP
It is a connection oriented protocol. A connection must be
established between both ends of transmission before either can
transmit data.
At the sending end TCP divides a stream of data into smaller
units called segments with a sequence number.
At the receiving end TCP collects each datagram as it comes and
reorders the transmission based on sequence number.
2.41
2-5 ADDRESSING
Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing
the TCP/IP protocols
protocols:: physical
physical,, logical
logical,, port
port,, and specific
specific..
Topics discussed in this section:
Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses
2.42
Figure 2.17 Addresses in TCP/IP
2.43
Addresses in TCP/IP
Physical address
It is the actual address of the device, generally a number printed on the
network interface card also known as MAC address.
Logical Address
Different networks have different physical addressing format. so a
universal addressing scheme system needed in which each host can be
identified uniquely regardless of the underlying physical network.
A 32 bit IP address is the logical address.
Port address
The end objective of internet communication is a process communicating
with another process.The level assigned to a process is called a port
address.A port address in TCP/IP is 16 bit in length.
Specific address
This is the specific address of the application such as url , email-id.
Eg www.google.com, [email protected] etc
2.44
Figure 2.18 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP
2.45
Example of Physical Address scenario
In Figure 2.19 a node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a
node with physical address 87. The two nodes are connected by a
link (bus topology LAN). As the figure shows, the computer with
physical address 10 is the sender, and the computer with physical
address 87 is the receiver.
Figure 2.19 Physical addresses
2.46
Physical Address format
As we will see in Chapter 13, most local-area networks
use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address written as 12
hexadecimal digits; every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is
separated by a colon, as shown below:
07:01:02:01:2C:4B
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.
2.47
Example scenario of Physical and Logical Address
Figure shows a part of an
internet with two routers
connecting three LANs.
Each device has a pair of
addresses (logical and
physical) for each connection.
In this case, each computer
is connected to only one link
and therefore has only one
pair of addresses.
Each router, however, is
connected to three networks
(only two are shown in the
figure).
So each router has three
pairs of addresses, one for
each connection.
2.48
Port addresses
Figure 2.21 shows two computers
communicating via the Internet.
The sending computer is running
three processes at this time with
port addresses a, b, and c.
The receiving computer is
running two processes at this time
with port addresses j and k.
Process a in the sending
computer needs to communicate
with process j in the receiving
computer.
Note that although physical
addresses change from hop to hop,
logical and port addresses remain
the same from the source to
destination.
2.49 Figure 2.21
Note
The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,
but the logical addresses usually remain the same.
2.50
Example 2.5
As we will see in Chapter 23, a port address is a 16-bit
address represented by one decimal number as shown.
753
A 16-bit port address represented
as one single number.
2.51
Note
The physical addresses change from hop to hop,
but the logical and port addresses usually remain the same.
2.52
