Sl.No.

Topic

1. Parts Of Speech
2. Rules For Spotting Errors
3. Adjective
4. Articles
5. Conjunctions
6. Preposition
7. Solving The Sentence Completion In Passage
8. Reordering Of Words
9. Reading Comprehension Section

002
 1. Parts Of Speech 2. Collective Nouns and Verb Agreement:
Collective nouns can take either singular or
plural verbs, depending on whether the group
acts as a single unit or as individuals.
1. Nouns
○ Example (singular verb): The
A noun refers to the name of a person, place,
team is winning (the group acts
thing, or idea.
as one).
○ Example (plural verb): The team
Types of Nouns:
are arguing (members act
Common Nouns: General names for people, individually).
places, or things.
2. Pronouns
● Example: city, dog, teacher
● Usage: She lives in a city. Pronouns replace nouns to avoid repetition.

Proper Nouns: Specific names of people, Types of Pronouns:

places, or organizations.
1. Personal Pronouns: I, you, he, she, it,
● Example: Delhi, Amitabh Bachchan we, they
● Usage: Delhi is the capital of India. ○ Usage: He is coming with us.
2. Possessive Pronouns: mine, yours, his,
Abstract Nouns: Names of qualities, ideas, or hers, ours, theirs
states. ○ Usage: That book is mine.
3. Reflexive Pronouns: myself, yourself,
● Example: love, courage himself, herself, itself, ourselves,
● Usage: She showed courage during the yourselves, themselves
crisis. ○ Usage: He hurt himself.
4. Relative Pronouns: who, whom, whose,
Collective Nouns: Words that represent a which, that
group of people or things. ○ Usage: The man who helped me
is here.
● Example: team, jury 5. Demonstrative Pronouns: this, that,
● Usage: The team won the match. these, those
○ Usage: This is my house.
Countable Nouns: Nouns that can be 6. Indefinite Pronouns: someone,
counted. everyone, none, anybody, anything
○ Usage: Everyone is invited.
● Example: books, chairs
● Usage: I bought two books. Exceptions:

Uncountable Nouns: Nouns that cannot be ● Reflexive pronouns are not used when
counted. the subject and object are different.
○ Incorrect: He gave myself a gift.
● Example: water, information ○ Correct: He gave me a gift.
● Usage: Water is essential for life.

Exceptions:

1. Proper Nouns and Articles: Proper

nouns typically do not take articles, but
some require the definite article "the."
○ Example: The Ganges, The
Himalayas

003
 ● Words like "each" and "every" are 3. Auxiliary (Helping) Verbs: Help form
treated as singular, even when they tenses, moods, and voices (is, have, will, do).
refer to multiple items.
○ Usage: He is writing a book.
○ Example: Each of the boys is
here.
4. Modal Verbs
3. Adjectives
Modal verbs express possibility, necessity,
ability, or permission.
Adjectives describe or modify nouns or
pronouns.
● Examples: can, must, may, might,
should, could, shall, will
Types of Adjectives:
○ Usage: You must follow the rules.
1. Descriptive Adjectives: Describe
Exceptions:
qualities (beautiful, strong).
○ Usage: She is a beautiful girl.
● Some verbs can act both transitively
2. Quantitative Adjectives: Indicate
and intransitively.
quantity (some, many, few).
○ Usage: He runs. (Intransitive)
○ Usage: I have some money.
He runs a business. (Transitive)
3. Demonstrative Adjectives: Point out
● Stative verbs (e.g., believe, know, love)
specific things (this, that, these, those).
are not usually used in continuous
○ Usage: That book is mine.
forms.
4. Possessive Adjectives: Indicate
○ Incorrect: I am believing you.
possession (my, your, his, her, our, their,
○ Correct: I believe you.
its).
○ Usage: This is my bag.
5. Interrogative Adjectives: Used in
questions (which, what, whose).
5. Adverbs
○ Usage: Which road should we
take? Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other
adverbs, providing more information about
Exceptions:
how, when, where, or to what extent an action
occurs.
● Adjectives are not pluralized.
○ Incorrect: She is beautifuls.
Types of Adverbs:
○ Correct: She is beautiful.
● Some words, like fast, act as both 1. Adverbs of Manner: Describe how an
adjectives and adverbs. action is done (quickly, slowly).
○ Usage: He is a fast runner. ○ Usage: He runs quickly.
(Adjective) 2. Adverbs of Time: Indicate when an
He runs fast. (Adverb) action occurs (yesterday, soon, now).
○ Usage: He arrived yesterday.
4. Verbs 3. Adverbs of Place: Indicate where an
action occurs (here, there,
A verb indicates an action, state, or everywhere).
occurrence. ○ Usage: She is here.
4. Adverbs of Degree: Indicate intensity or
Types of Verbs:
extent (very, quite, too).
○ Usage: She is very tall.
1. Transitive Verbs: Take a direct object
(eat, write, read).
○ Usage: He wrote a letter.
2. Intransitive Verbs: Do not take a direct
object (sleep, run, arrive).
○ Usage: He sleeps early.

004
Exceptions: Types of Conjunctions:

● Some words can act as both adjectives 1. Coordinating Conjunctions: and, but,
and adverbs (e.g., fast). or, so, yet, for, nor
○ Usage: She is fast. (Adjective) ○ Usage: I like tea and coffee.
She runs fast. (Adverb) 2. Subordinating Conjunctions: because,
although, if, while, since
○ Usage: She stayed home
because she was sick.
6. Prepositions 3. Correlative Conjunctions: either...or,
neither...nor, both...and, not only...but
Prepositions show the relationship between a also
noun (or pronoun) and another word in the ○ Usage: You can either stay or
sentence, often indicating direction, place, leave.
time, or cause.

Types of Prepositions:
8. Interjections
1. Prepositions of Place: in, on, under,
over Interjections express emotions, reactions, or
○ Usage: The book is on the table. sudden feelings.
2. Prepositions of Time: at, on, in, during
○ Usage: We met on Sunday. Examples:
3. Prepositions of Direction: to, towards,
into, onto ● Wow!
○ Usage: He went to the market. ● Oh!
● Ouch!
Exceptions: ○ Usage: Wow! This is amazing.

● Prepositions often don’t follow strict

logical rules, making them tricky to
learn.
○ Example: We say "interested in"
but not "interested at".

7. Conjunctions

Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or

clauses, helping to create relationships
between ideas.

005
 2. Rules for Spotting Errors Important Rules for Nouns

1. Articles are not used before material

Nouns and Their Types nouns.
○ Incorrect: The leather is used in
Definition: shoes.
○ Correct: Leather is used in
A noun is a word that refers to a person, shoes.
place, thing, event, substance, or quality. 2. Material and abstract nouns are not
used in plural forms.
● Examples: Ram, Delhi, Book, Lion. ○ Incorrect: Cares are necessary.
○ Correct: Care is necessary.
Kinds of Nouns: 3. Proper nouns can act as common
nouns.
1. Common Noun: Refers to a general
○ Example: Samudragupta is the
class or kind.
Napoleon of India.
○ Examples: boy, chair.
4. Collective nouns usually take singular
2. Proper Noun: Specific name of a
verbs.
common noun.
○ Example: The jury has given its
○ Examples: Amit, Supreme chair.
verdict.
3. Material Noun: Refers to substances.
5. When group members act
○ Examples: gold, plastic.
individually, collective nouns take
4. Collective Noun: Refers to groups.
plural verbs.
○ Examples: team, government.
○ Example: The jury are divided in
5. Abstract Noun: Refers to feelings,
their opinion.
qualities, or states.
○ Examples: love, death.

Number of Nouns Gender of Nouns

1. Singular Noun: Refers to one person or 1. Collective nouns are of neuter gender,
thing. even for living beings.
○ Examples: boy, table. ○ Example: India has a big army,
2. Plural Noun: Refers to more than one and it is divided into divisions.
person or thing. 2. Young children and animals are also
○ Examples: boys, tables. treated as neuter gender.
○ Example: The baby cried when it
Plural Forms with Internal Vowel Change:
was hungry.
● Singular → Plural:
○ Man → Men
○ Woman → Women Personification of Objects:
○ Foot → Feet
○ Mouse → Mice 1. Masculine Gender: Associated with
strength, anger, and the sun.
Plurals of Compound Nouns: ○ Example: The sun with his
brilliance emerged from clouds.
● Examples:
2. Feminine Gender: Associated with
○ Brother-in-law →
beauty and grace, like the moon and
Brothers-in-law
nature.
○ Court Martial → Courts Martial
○ Example: Nature, with her
warmth, offered comfort.
Same Forms for Both Singular and Plural:

● Examples:
○ Sheep, Deer, Fish, Salmon

006
 4. Use of Collective Nouns with Verbs and
Rules for Plural Usage Pronouns
1. Units of counting retain singular form Singular Use:
with numbers.
○ Example: Five dozen eggs. Collective nouns usually take a singular verb
2. Nouns that are always used in plural and are substituted by a singular pronoun.
form:
○ Instruments: Scissors, ● Examples:
spectacles ○ The jury has given its verdict.
○ Clothing: Jeans, trousers ○ The team has performed to its
○ Groups: Police, cattle potential.
○ Abstracts: Alms, proceeds
3. Subjects with Singular Form but Plural Plural Use:
Meaning:
○ Examples: Mathematics, Physics, When group members act individually, the
News, Series collective noun takes a plural verb and
4. Uncountable Nouns in Singular Form pronoun.
Only:
○ Examples: Advice, information, ● Examples:
hair. ○ The jury are divided in their
○ Rule: Indefinite articles (a, an) decision.
are not used with them. ○ The Ministry are divided in their
■ Correct: He gave me opinions.
good advice.
■ Incorrect: He gave me an Neuter Gender for Collective Nouns:
advice.
Collective nouns, even when referring to living
Rules of Noun beings, are considered of neuter gender.

1. Material Nouns: ● Example:

○ Articles are not used before ○ India has a big army, and it is
material nouns. divided into three divisions.
■ Incorrect: The leather is
used in making shoes.
■ Correct: Leather is used in
making shoes. 5. Neuter Gender for Children and Animals
2. Plurality Rules for Material and
Young children and animals are referred to
Abstract Nouns:
using neuter gender.
○ Material and abstract nouns are
not used in plural form.
● Examples:
■ Incorrect: Cares of the old
○ The baby started crying when it
is necessary.
was hungry.
■ Correct: Care of the old is
○ The lizard lost its tail when it was
necessary.
frightened.
○
3. Proper Nouns Used as Common Nouns

Proper nouns can sometimes be used as

common nouns.

● Examples:
○ Samudragupta is the Napoleon
of India.
○ Kalidas is the Shakespeare of
India.

007
6. Personification of Objects Without Life 9. Nouns Used Only in Plural Form

Masculine Gender: Instruments: Items with two parts forming a

pair.
Used for objects representing strength,
violence, anger, and vengeance. ● Examples:
○ Scissors, spectacles, tongs.
● Common Examples: Sun, Death, ○ Scissors are used to cut.
Summer, Winter. ○ My pair of spectacles is
● Examples: expensive.
○ Nature has taken his vengeance
by claiming lives. Articles of Dress:
○ The sun, with his brilliance, came
out of the clouds. ● Examples: Trousers, shorts, jeans.
○ Jeans are in vogue.
Feminine Gender:
Collective Nouns:
Used for objects representing beauty,
gentleness, and gracefulness. ● Examples: Police, cattle, gentry,
peasantry, clergy, people, poultry.
● Common Examples: Earth, Moon, ○ Police have reached the crime
Spring, Nature, Sun. scene.
● Examples: ○ Cattle are grazing in the field.
○ Nature offers her lap to those
who seek it. Other Plural-Only Nouns:
○ The sun, with her warmth,
provided relief from the cold. ● Examples: Thanks, assets, premises,
alms, contents, refreshments, repairs.
○ Court should make it mandatory
to declare assets.
7. Singular Forms with Units of Counting ○ Alms were distributed among
the beggars.
Units such as pair, dozen, score, hundred,
thousand, etc., remain singular after numbers. 10. Singular Use of Plural-Formed Nouns

● Examples: Some nouns, though plural in form, are used

○ Ten pair, Five dozen, Two score, in a singular sense.
Six hundred.
○ My friend bought two dozen ● Examples: Mathematics, Economics,
eggs from the market. News, Innings, Series, Measles.
○ My friend bought dozens of ○ Mathematics is an interesting
eggs. subject.
○ The news was shocking.
8. Plural Forms in Compound Nouns
11. Use of Uncountable Nouns in Singular
In compound nouns, when a noun acts as an Form
adjective, the plural form is not used.
Uncountable nouns are always singular and
● Examples: do not use indefinite articles (a, an). Instead
○ He is pursuing a two-year of many, use much for plurality.
diploma course.
○ He is a fifteen-year-old boy.
○ I have a hundred-rupee note.
○ He ran a five-mile race.
○ They went on a fifteen-day tour.

008
 How the Possessive Case is Formed:
● Examples:
○ Advice, information, luggage, i. By adding 's to a singular noun.
furniture, business, scenery,
trouble. ● Examples: Amit’s, Donald’s
○ Incorrect: He gave me an ii. By adding 's to plural nouns not
information. ending in s.
○ Correct: He gave me ● Examples: Children’s school, Men’s
information. club
○ Correct: He committed much iii. By adding only an apostrophe to
mischie plural nouns ending in s.
● Examples: Boys’, victims’, pilgrims’
Cases of Nouns iv. By adding only an apostrophe to
singular nouns with hissing sounds.
Nouns can exist in three cases, as follows: ● Examples: Jesus’ blessings, for peace’
sake

Rules of Possessive Case:

1. Nominative Case
i. For compound nouns, the possessive sign is
A noun or pronoun is in the nominative case if attached to the last word.
it is used as the subject of a verb.
● Example: My brother-in-law’s
● Example: marriage
○ Sachin Tendulkar scored a ii. For joint possession, the apostrophe
century. is added to the latter noun only.
● Clue: To identify the nominative case, ● Example: Dharmendra is Sunny and
use Who in an active sentence and Bobby’s father.
What in a passive sentence before the iii. Possessive pronouns (his, hers, its,
verb. theirs, yours, ours) are not written with
the possessive sign.
● Example: Neither did his efforts
succeed nor yours.
2. Objective Case
iv. After else with indefinite pronouns,
A noun or pronoun is in the objective case if it the possessive is written as somebody
is used as the object of a verb. else’s.
● Example: I thought it was somebody
● Examples: else’s.
○ Sachin Tendulkar scored a v. Words like church, house, school, or
century (Active). shop are often omitted after
○ A century was scored by Sachin possessive forms.
Tendulkar (Passive). ● Example: Yesterday, I met my friend at
● Clue: Use What in an active sentence St John’s.
and Whom in a passive sentence after vi. The possessive case is generally
the subject and verb to identify the used with names of living things but
objective case. can also denote time, space, or weight.
● Examples: A stone’s throw away, A
3. Possessive Case day’s journey

A noun is in the possessive case if it denotes

possession, authorship, origin, or kind.

● Example:
○ Amit’s house is at the back side.

009
 7. People vs. Peoples
Confusing Words
● People: Refers to the masses.
1. Advice vs. Advices ○ Example: The people of India.
● Peoples: Refers to different ethnic
● Advice (Singular): An opinion or
groups.
suggestion.
○ Example: Peoples of Europe.
○ Example: The teacher gave
many pieces of advice. 8. Practice vs. Practices
● Advices (Plural): Information.
○ Example: The invigilator gave ● Practice: The exercise of a profession.
advices to the students. ○ Example: Doctors must practice
in villages.
2. Cloth vs. Clothes ● Practices: Habits or customs.
● Cloth (Singular): Unfinished fabric. 9. Custom vs. Customs
○ Example: We give cloth to the
tailor. ● Custom: Tradition.
● Clothes (Plural): Garments. ○ Example: One should respect
one’s customs.
3. Colour vs. Colours ● Customs: A government department
managing imports and exports.
● Colour: Refers to shades like red, green,
○ Example: The customs
etc.
department seized illegal goods.
○ Example: Yellow is my favourite
colour.
Groups of People
● Colours: Refers to a person’s true
nature.
By Occupation or Role
○ Example: A realist sees the true
colours of people. ● An army of soldiers
● A band of musicians
4. Force vs. Forces
● A bench of judges
● A crew of sailors
● Force: Strength or power.
○ Example: Apply force to open
By Social or Political Structures
the lid.
● Forces: Military units. ● A congress of representatives
○ Example: Forces landed at the ● A federation of states
disputed spot. ● A confederacy of nations
5. Content vs. Contents Groups Related to Education or Knowledge
● Content: Satisfaction or substance. ● A curriculum of studies
○ Example: I am content with the ● A board of trustees
contents of this book.
● Contents: Specific parts of something. Groups of Objects or Things
6. Light vs. Lights Natural and Astronomical Entities

● Light: Radiance or brightness. ● A bouquet of flowers

○ Example: There was a light on ● A constellation of stars
the ascetic’s face.
● Lights: Lamps or artificial illumination.
○ Example: Diwali is a festival of
lights.

010
 Rules of Personal Pronouns
Man-Made Structures and Tools
1. Agreement with Antecedent:
● A battery of guns
● A block of buildings A personal pronoun must match the
noun it replaces in number, gender,
Sports-Related Groups and person.
○ I am not one of those who
● A century of runs
believe everything I / they see.
Animal Groupings ○ Every man must love his / her /
their country.
● A herd of cattle 2. Pronouns with the Verb ‘To Be’:
The pronoun following a form of ‘to be’
Pronoun (is, am, are, etc.) should be in the
nominative case.
Definition:
Words used in place of nouns are called ○ It is me / I.
pronouns. They are used to avoid the ○ Was it her / she who did it for
repetition of nouns in a sentence. you?
Example: 3. Pronouns as Objects of Verbs or
I saw a boy on the roof. He seemed to Prepositions:
recognize me.
When a pronoun functions as an
In this example, the pronoun ‘he’ is used
instead of repeating the noun ‘boy’. object, it should be in the objective
case.
○ He was shouting at I / me.
○ The sweets are to be distributed
Kinds of Pronoun among you, him, and me.
4. Pronouns After Words like ‘Let’ and
1. Personal Pronouns
‘But’:
This pronoun refers to or is related to words Use the objective case after words like
used in place of nouns referring to a person. let, like, and but.
○ Let him come inside.
Characteristics:
○ It is no one else but he / him
● 1st Person: The one(s) speaking (I, me, who has done the crime.
my, mine, we, us, our, ours) 5. Usage with Phrases like ‘As Good As’:
● 2nd Person: The one(s) spoken to (you, Phrases like as good as are followed by
your, yours) the nominative case.
● 3rd Person: The one(s) spoken about ○ No one is as good as he.
(he, him, his, she, her, hers, it, its, they,
6. Order of Pronouns – 2, 3, 1 Rule:
their, theirs)
○ Singular Pronouns: Second
person → Third person → First
Persons and Cases of Personal Pronouns person.
Correct: You, he, and I are good
Nominative Objective Possessive
Case friends.
Singular Plural Singular
○ Plural Pronouns: First person →
1st Person I We Me Second person → Third person.
2nd Person You You You Correct: We, you, and they will go
Him / Her / to the party.
3rd Person He / She / It They
It

011
 2. Reflexive Pronouns

○ Exception (Confession): For Definition: Reflexive pronouns refer back to

confessions, always follow 1 → 2 the subject. They end in ‘self’ (singular) or
→ 3. ‘selves’ (plural).
Example: I, you, and he will be Examples: Myself, yourself, herself,
punished. themselves.
2. Collective Nouns:
○ Use neuter gender pronouns for Rules:
collective nouns in unity.
Example: The jury gave its 1. Used with specific verbs: absent, pride,
decision. avenge, etc.
○ Use plural pronouns when ○ He absented himself from the
expressing division. meeting.
Example: The jury were divided in 2. Not used with certain verbs: bathe,
their opinion.* hide, move, etc.
3. Nouns Joined by ‘And’: ○ We bathed in the river.
○ Plural Pronoun: For separate
persons. 3. Demonstrative Pronouns
Example: Ram and Mohan went
Definition: Pronouns that point to objects.
to their school.
Examples: This, that, these, those.
○ Singular Pronoun: For the same
person (indicated by a single ● This is the book I was looking for.
article).
Example: The Chairman and Rules:
Managing Director has
submitted his report.* 1. Avoid omission errors.
4. Singular Nouns with ‘Or’ or ‘Nor’: ○ The Mumbai Film Studio is
Use a singular pronoun and verb. bigger than that of Noida.
Example: Either Raj or Amar is doing his 2. Use ‘it’ for preceding clauses and ‘this’
duty. for following clauses.
5. Singular and Plural Nouns with ○ It is true that India won the
‘Either-Or’: match.
When one noun is singular and the
4. Relative Pronouns
other plural, place the plural noun
second, and the pronoun and verb
Definition: Pronouns that relate to a noun and
become plural.
also act as conjunctions.
Example: Neither Amit nor his friends
Examples: Who, whom, which, that.
were present in their house.
6. Question Tags: ● He is the boy who topped the class.
Ensure subject and verb agreement in
question tags. Rules:
● Our minister is intelligent, isn’t he?
● The boys are not enjoying themselves, 1. Use ‘who’ for subjects and ‘whom’ for
are they? objects.
○ Whom were you talking to?
2. Prefer ‘that’ after superlatives and
specific words like all, same, only.
○ It is the best movie that I have
ever seen.

012
 2. Linking Verbs
VERB
Definition: Linking verbs do not take objects;
Definition: instead, they connect the subject to
additional information about it.
A verb is a word (e.g., jump, think, happen, or
exist) that is one of the main parts of a Examples: appear, feel, look, seem, sound,
sentence. It expresses an action, an smell, taste, become.
occurrence, or a state of being.
● Example: A face appeared at the
Classification of Verbs window.
○ Linking Verb: appeared
1. Main Verbs ○ Phrase: at the window

Main verbs convey actions, events, or states. Correct Answer: "A face appeared
Most verbs in English fall into this category. at the window."
Incorrect Answer: "A face
Examples: go, show, exist. appeared." (Incomplete due to
lack of extra information.)
a. Transitive Verbs

Definition: A transitive verb takes a direct

object. 3. Auxiliary Verbs

● Example: She played the piano. Auxiliary verbs are used to help main verbs
○ Transitive Verb: played and can be divided into two categories:
○ Direct Object: the piano
a. Primary Auxiliary Verbs
Correct Answer: "She played the
piano." 1. Verbs to be: is, am, are, was, were, will
Incorrect Answer: "She played." be, shall be
(Incomplete due to the lack of a 2. Verbs to have: have, has, had
direct object.) 3. Verbs to do: do, does, did

Correct Answer: "He is happy."

Incorrect Answer: "He happy."
b. Intransitive Verbs (Lacks the auxiliary verb is.)

Definition: An intransitive verb has two

characteristics:
b. Modal Auxiliary Verbs
1. It is an action verb expressing an
activity (e.g., arrive, go, lie, sneeze, sit, Definition: Modal verbs indicate the mood or
die). mode of the subject.
2. It does not require a direct object to
complete its meaning. Examples: can, could, may, might, should,
● Pattern: Noun (Subject) + Verb. used to, need, dare.
● Examples:
○ John smiled. Correct Answer: "She can sing."
○ Nothing happened. Incorrect Answer: "She sing."
(Missing the modal verb can.)
Correct Answer: "John smiled."
Incorrect Answer: "John smiled
the." (Incorrect due to the inclusion
of an object.)

013
 2. Continuous Tense
Tenses
Present Continuous
Verbs are categorized into three basic tenses:
Form:
1. Present
2. Past ● (is/am/are + V1 + ing)
3. Future
Uses:
Each tense has four forms:
1. For actions happening at the time of
● Simple speaking:
● Continuous ○ I am studying in the library.
● Perfect 2. For temporary actions not necessarily
● Perfect Continuous happening at the time of speaking:
○ I am preparing for a
competition.
○ She is working on a project.
1. Simple Tense 3. For definite arrangements in the near
future:
Simple Present ○ I am going to Mumbai tomorrow.
○ He is coming tonight.
Form:
4. For an obstinate habit (with adverbs
● He, She, It, Singular Name: V1 + s/es like always, constantly):
● They, You, I, Plurals: V1 ○ He is always complaining about
his work.
Uses:
Note: Certain verbs are typically used in the
1. To express habitual actions: simple present tense, not the continuous
○ He goes for a walk every tense. These include:
morning.
○ It rains in Tamil Nadu during ● Verbs of Appearance: look, appear,
winter. seem
2. To express universal truths: ● Verbs of Emotion: want, wish, desire,
○ The sun rises in the East. like, love, hate, prefer
○ Two and two make four. ● Verbs of Perception: see, hear, smell,
3. In exclamatory sentences beginning taste, notice, recognize
with ‘here’ and ‘there’: ● Verbs of Possession: belong, consist of,
○ Here he comes! contain, own
○ There goes the train! ● Verbs of Thinking: agree, believe,
4. To indicate future events as part of a consider, forget, know, remember 1
plan or arrangement:
○ The Prime Minister visits the town
next month.
○ The team goes to England this
week.
5. To introduce quotations:
○ Gita says, “Give your best and do
not worry about the results.”
○ Pope says, “A little knowledge is
a dangerous thing.”

014
Present Tense Present Perfect Continuous Tense (Have
been / Has been + V1 + ing)
Present Perfect Tense
Definition
Form: (Has / Have + V3)
● Describes an action that began in the
Definition past and is still continuing.

● Indicates completed actions in the Examples:

immediate past.
● Reflects a strong connection between ● He has been playing since 8 o’clock.
the past and present. (✓)
● They have been writing since morning.
Correct Example: (✓)
● He is playing since 8 o’clock. (✗)
● He has just gone out.

Usage
Past Tense
1. For past actions with unspecified or
indefinite time:
○ He has come here. (✓)
○ He came here. (✗) Simple Past (V2)
○ He came here yesterday. (✓)
2. Common adverbs used with Present Definition
Perfect:
○ ever, just, recently, already, yet, ● Used for actions completed in the past
so far, of late, lately, by the time, at a definite time.
for.
Examples:
Correct Examples:
● I did this yesterday. (✓)
● He has already finished the work. ● I have done this. (✗)
● Recently, he has started working on a
Time Indicators
new project.
● I have just seen that film.
● Words like last, ago, yesterday, back,
● It is the best book that I have ever read.
before, formerly, specific time.
● I have known him for twenty years.
● He has started coming late lately. Correct Examples:
● He hasn’t paid the bill so far.
● We heard terrifying news last night.
Words that cannot be used with Present ● They celebrated the occasion two days
Perfect: ago.
● He inherited his father’s business after
● Words indicating a specific past time his father’s demise.
such as last, ago, yesterday, before, ● The train didn’t arrive on time
back, formerly. yesterday.
● She didn’t go there in the morning.
Incorrect Examples:

● He has come here yesterday. (✗)

● India has won last year. (✗) Past Habits
Correct Examples: ● Indicated by adverbs like often, seldom,
never, generally, always, used to.
● He came here yesterday. (✓)
● India won last year. (✓)

015
Correct Examples: Past Perfect (Had + V3)

● As a kid, I often went to school on foot. Definition

● My friend frequently visited his
● Describes an action completed before
hometown in the past.
another action in the past.
● He always carried a stick when he
went for a walk. Correct Examples:

● I met him in New Delhi in 2000. I had

seen him five years before.
After 'It is Time':
● Ravi had walked two miles by
● After It is time, use either Simple Past or lunchtime.
Subjunctive mood.
Incorrect Usage:
Example:
● It had rained yesterday. (✗)
● It is time Indian cricket team started ● It rained yesterday. (✓)
winning Test matches.
Important Note:

● Use Past Perfect only when one past

With Conjunction 'Since': action was completed before another
began.
● Follow since with Simple Past and
precede it with Present Perfect.

Correct Example: Past Perfect Continuous (Had been + V1 +

ing)
● Many things have happened since I left
the school. Definition

● Indicates an action that began before

a certain point in the past and
Past Continuous (Was/Were + V1 + ing) continued until that point.

Definition Correct Examples:

● Describes an action in progress at a ● He had been studying for two hours

specific past time. when his girlfriend came.
● Tendulkar had been playing for eleven
Correct Examples: years when his toe got injured.

● When I went to his house, he was Clause Agreement

playing.
● I was studying yesterday. ● If the Principal clause is in Past tense,
the Dependent clause must also use a
Persistent Habits in the Past Past tense verb.

● Often accompanied by adverbs like Correct Example:

always, constantly.
● He told me that he had intended to
Correct Example: start a business.

● He was always mooching around.

016
 Correct Example:
Exception: Retain Present tense in universally
true facts.
● Tendulkar will have been playing for
● He told me that the Earth moves India for 20 years when he completes
around the Sun. the age of 35.

Future Tense
Subject-Verb Agreement
Simple Future (Shall / Will + V1)
1. Singular Verb with Combined Subjects
Definition
Rule:
● Refers to actions yet to happen. When two subjects together express one idea,
the verb is singular.
Correct Example:
Explanation:
● I shall go for preparation when I
receive the call letter. One subject emphasizes or clarifies the other.

Future Continuous (Shall be / Will be + V1 + Correct Examples:

ing)
● Slow and steady wins the race.
Definition ● Bread and butter is essential for one’s
existence.
● Indicates an ongoing action at a
specific time in the future. Incorrect Example:
Correct Example:
● Slow and steady win the race.
● I shall be earning when I am 21. (Incorrect: should be "wins")

Future Perfect (Shall have / Will have + V3) 2. Singular Verb with Specific Quantities
Definition Rule:
● Indicates the completion of an action When a plural noun denotes a specific
by a specified time in the future. quantity, distance, time, or amount
considered as a whole, the verb is singular.
Correct Examples:
Correct Examples:
● We shall have completed our syllabus
by next month. ● Six miles is not a long distance for me.
● I shall have done this work by ● Ten lakh is equivalent to a million.
tomorrow.
Incorrect Example:
Future Perfect Continuous (Will have been /
Shall have been + V1 + ing)
● Six miles are not a long distance for
Definition me. (Incorrect: should be "is")

● Describes an action in progress over a

period that will continue up to a
specific point in the future.

017
 Correct Examples:
3. Singular Verb with Either/Neither
● Each one of these boys has the
Rule:
potential to get selected.
Two or more singular subjects connected by
● Every man and woman was filled with
either-or or neither-nor take a singular verb.
joy.
Correct Examples: ● Every day and each hour teaches us
something.
● Either Vivek or Vimal is absent today.
● He asked me if either of the applicants Incorrect Example:
was suitable.
● Each one of these boys have the
● Either you or I shall/will go to the party.
potential to get selected. (Incorrect:
Incorrect Example: should be "has")

● Either Vivek or Vimal are absent today. 6. Verb Agreement with First Subject
(Incorrect: should be "is")
Rule:
The verb agrees with the first subject when
connected with and not, as well as, in
4. Plural Verb with Different Numbers addition to, along with, besides, like, together,
etc.
Rule:
When subjects joined by or or nor are of Correct Examples:
different numbers, the verb must be plural,
and the plural subject must be placed next to ● Rahul and not his friend was absent.
the verb. ● Amit, like his friends, is always late.
● He, as well as you, is a good boy.
Correct Example:
Incorrect Example:
● Either Amit or his parents are coming
to the party. ● Rahul and not his friend were absent.
(Incorrect: should be "was")
Incorrect Example:
7. Agreement with Compound Subjects
● Either Amit or his parents is coming to
the party. (Incorrect: should be "are") Rule:
When two nouns or pronouns are joined by
not only...but also, the verb agrees with the
second noun or pronoun.
5. Singular Verb with Each/Every
Correct Example:
Rule:
Any noun qualified by each or every is ● Not only the officer but also the
followed by a singular verb. Even if two nouns soldiers were awarded.
are connected by and, the verb remains
singular.

018
 Compound Sentences
8. Subject: The Number Of

Rule: 1. Auxiliary and Principal Verbs

When the subject is The number of, a singular
verb is used, and the noun is plural. Rule:
In a compound sentence, both auxiliary verbs
Correct Example: and principal verbs should be mentioned
separately if they differ in number, form, or
● The number of one-dayers played voice. One verb cannot act for both clauses.
these days has led to the deterioration
of the game. Examples:

● Incorrect: He has not and will not

9. Usage of "Great Many"
marry in the near future. (✗)
Rule: Correct: He has not married and will
A great many is always followed by a plural not marry in the near future. (✓)
verb and a plural noun. ● Incorrect: She is intelligent but her
sisters dull. (✗)
Correct Examples: Correct: She is intelligent but her
sisters are dull. (✓)
● A great many students have passed
this year. 2. Use of ‘Shall’ and ‘Will’
● A great many fish are there in the
pond. A. Future Action

10. Usage of "Many A" Rule:

To express simple future action:
Rule:
Many a is always followed by a singular verb ● Shall is used with the first person.
and a singular noun. ● Will is used with the second and third
persons.
Correct Examples:
Examples:
● Many a soldier has got a medal this
year. ● I shall come. (Correct)
● Many a student has passed this year ● You will come. (Correct)
with flying colours. ● He will come. (Correct)

B. Commands, Promises, Threats, and

11. Agreement with Collective Nouns
Determination
Rule:
Rule:
The verb used with collective nouns depends
on the sense of the sentence. ● Shall is used with the second and third
persons to express a command,
Correct Examples:
promise, threat, or determination.
● A large number of girls were absent on
account of bad weather. (Plural)

019
 3. Unreal Past / Subjunctive Mood
● Will is used with the first person to
express willingness, promise, threat, or
Definition:
determination.
The subjunctive mood is used to express a
Examples:
wish, desire, purpose, or supposition contrary
to fact. It may also indicate a condition.
● You shall not steal. (Command)
Sentences in this mood generally use past
● You shall have a holiday tomorrow.
tense verbs such as were and had.
(Promise)
● You shall be punished for this. (Threat)
Examples:
● You shall do it for your country.
(Determination) ● I wish I had a car. (Correct)
● I will send you my book. (Willingness) ● I wish I had not met him. (Correct)
● I will try to do better next time.
(Promise)
● I will punish you if you do that again.
(Threat) 4. Types of Conditional Clauses
● I will succeed or die in this attempt.
(Determination) A. Present Likely Condition

Correct Examples:

C. Asking Questions ● I shall go for the preparation when I

get the call letter.
Rule: ● You will pass if you work hard.

● In asking questions, shall is used with

the first person and will with the third
person. B. Present Unlikely Condition
● In the second person, shall or will is
used depending on the expected Correct Examples:
answer.
● If I had a house, I would not have
Examples: rented yours.
● If I were there, I would not have let
● Shall we go? them go.
● We shall go.
● Will he come tomorrow?
● He will come tomorrow.
● Will you do this for me? C. Past Condition
● I will do it for you.
Correct Examples:

● If he had studied, he would have got

the call letter last year itself.
● If she had brought money, she could
have bought the jewellery.

020
5. Usage of ‘As If/As Though’ 4. Auxiliary Verbs

Correct Examples: Rule:

After auxiliary verbs like shall, will, can, may,
● He behaves as if he were the owner of did, should, the infinitive is used without to.
this place. However, ought is an exception and is
● He came in looking as though he had followed by to.
seen a ghost.
Examples:

The Infinitive (To + V) ● Correct: I should go.

● Correct: I ought to go.
1. Negative Sentences
5. Synonymous Infinitives
Rule:
When using dare not and need not, the Rule:
infinitive is used without to. If two infinitives in a sentence are
synonymous, the to of one can apply to both.
Examples:
For separate ideas, each infinitive should
have its own to.
● Incorrect: You dare not to leave India.
(✗)
Examples:
Correct: You dare not leave India. (✓)
● Correct: How dare you fail in the ● Correct: He helped me to progress and
exam? (✓) prosper.
● Correct: It lies in my power to succeed
2. Prepositions or to fail.

Rule:
6. Qualifying Nouns
After but and except, the infinitive is used
without to. Rule:
When the infinitive qualifies a noun, a
Examples:
preposition must be used if required.
● Correct: He did nothing but cry.
Examples:
● Correct: There is no alternative except
this offer. ● Incorrect: I have no pen to write. (✗)
Correct: I have no pen to write with.
3. Common Expressions (✓)

Rule:
Expressions like would rather, had rather, The Gerund (V + ing)
rather than, had better, as soon as, etc., are
followed by the infinitive without to. 1. Definition of Gerund

Examples: A gerund is a verb form that performs the

action of a noun.
● Incorrect: I would rather to go for a
picnic. (✗)
Correct: I would rather go for a picnic.
(✓)

021
Examples: Examples:

● A running tap makes a lot of noise. ● He refrained from speaking at the

● Smoking isn’t a good habit. event.
● She succeeded in convincing him.
2. Rules of Gerund
D. Possessive Case with Gerund
A. Words Followed by Gerund
When a noun or pronoun governs a gerund, it
The following words are always followed by a must be in the possessive case.
gerund:
Examples:
● Avoid, dislike, enjoy, help (in the sense
● Incorrect: Please excuse me being late.
of avoid), mind, prevent, risk, stop, etc.
(✗)
Examples: Correct: Please excuse my being late.
(✓)
● I cannot help looking at you. ● Incorrect: I remember him winning the
● I do not mind going there. race. (✗)
Correct: I remember his winning the
B. Phrases Followed by Gerund race. (✓)
● Incorrect: I like my friend coming on
The following phrases are followed by a time. (✗)
gerund: Correct: I like my friend’s coming on
time. (✓)
● Accustomed to, fed-up with, habitual
to, addicted to, is no good, is used to,
looking forward to, tired of, is worth, Follow us on :
with a view to, owing to, object to,
given to, taken to, etc.

Examples:

● I am accustomed to talking for hours.

● I am fed up with his useless accusing.

C. Verbs and Participles Followed by Gerund

After verbs and participles that require

specific prepositions, a gerund is used.

Common Verbs/Participles:

● Desirous of, refrain from, debar from,

desist from, restrain from, prohibit
from, dissuade from, abstain from,
intent on, bent on, keen on, aim at,
confident of, insist on, persist in,
succeed in, fond of, successful in,
justified in, hesitate in, a hope of,
fortunate in.

022
 4. Adjectives of Quantity
3.ADJECTIVE
Adjectives of quantity show how much of
Adjectives something is meant.

An adjective is a word used with a noun or a Examples:

pronoun to add something to its meaning.
● Any, some, little, etc.

Kinds of Adjectives Confusing Words:

1. Proper Adjectives ● Little means hardly any (negative): He

has little hope of recovery.
Proper adjectives are derived from proper ● A little means some, though not much
nouns. (positive): He has a little hope of
recovery.
Examples:
● The little means not much but all there
is: The little money Bihar had went to
● India → Indian
Jharkhand.
● China → Chinese
● Any is used in negative/interrogative
● Turkey → Turkish
sentences: I shall not buy any material
● America → American
from this shop.
● Shakespeare → Shakespearian
● Some is used in affirmative or
2. Possessive Adjectives request/command sentences:
Can I have some money?
Words like my, our, your, his, their, her, and its
are called possessive adjectives. 5. Adjectives of Number

3. Adjectives of Quality These adjectives indicate how many persons

or things are referred to or in what order they
These adjectives describe the traits of a stand.
person or thing.
Types of Adjectives of Number:
Examples:
● Definite Numeral Adjective: Denotes
● Incorrect: Flowers were plucked fresh. an exact number/order. Example: The
Correct: Fresh flowers were plucked. first three benches.
● Indefinite Numeral Adjective: Includes
Confusing Words: words like few, many, less, more, some,
and any.
● Verbal refers to words: His verbal words Example: No fewer than 10,000 people
are more dangerous than his actions. attended.
● Oral refers to the mouth: He gave an ● Distributive Numeral Adjective:
oral presentation. Includes words like each and every.
● Common means shared by all: It is Example: Each day brings a new
common knowledge that India and opportunity.
Pakistan have tensions. ○
● Mutual means in relation to each other:
They have a mutual respect.

023
 Examples:
Confusing Words:
● Meerut is bigger than Ghaziabad.
● Other means the second of two: Call
● Incorrect: Meerut is more bigger than
the other boy with you.
Ghaziabad.
● Another means an additional one:
There is another boy waiting.
3. Superlative Degree

6. Exclamatory Adjectives Used when comparing more than two cases.

Used to express surprise. Examples:

Examples: ● Meerut is the biggest city in West Uttar

Pradesh.
● What an idea!
● What a piece of work!
Confusing Words in Comparison
7. Interrogative Adjectives
1. Later/Latter/Latest/Last:
Used to ask questions. ○ Later and latest refer to time.
○ Latter and last refer to position.
Example: ○ Examples:
■ Correct: Tempest was the
● Which picture do you like the most? last play of Shakespeare.
■ Correct: What is the latest
8. Demonstrative Adjectives news?
2. Elder/Eldest:
Point out which person or thing is referred to.
○ Used for blood relations only.
Examples: ○ Example: I am his elder brother.
3. Old/Older/Oldest:
● This boy is intelligent. ○ Used for both persons and
● These sorts of questions are things.
frequently asked. ○ Example: My friend is older than
me.
Comparison of Adjectives 4. Farther:
○ Refers to geographical distance.
1. Positive Degree ○ Example: Mumbai is farther than
Gwalior.
Used when referring to only one case. 5. Further:
○ Means in addition.
Example: ○ Example: I would like to add
further details to the report.
● Meerut is a big city.
6. Nearest:
○ Refers to distance.
2. Comparative Degree
○ Example: The nearest post office
Used when comparing two cases. is next to the college.

024
 4.ARTICLES

Rules of Degrees
Articles: A Comprehensive Guide
1. Avoid Double Comparative and
Superlative: Articles are part of the determiners family,
○ Incorrect: She is the most specifically "a," "an," and "the." Articles are
prettiest girl. used before nouns to clarify their specificity or
○ Correct: She is the prettiest girl. generality. This guide provides an in-depth
2. Comparative Cases with 'Other': explanation of the types, uses, and rules of
○ Incorrect: He is stronger than articles, complete with examples for clarity.
any person in the class.
○ Correct: He is stronger than any Types of Articles
other person in the class.
3. Superlative Cases: 1. Indefinite Articles ("A" and "An")
○ Do not use 'other.'
○ Example: Samudragupta was Indefinite articles are used when referring to
the most powerful king of his nonspecific items or general entities.
time.
Examples:
4. Absolute Qualities Cannot Be
Compared: ● Correct: My brother is a businessman.
○ Incorrect: This glass is more full ● Correct: An apple a day keeps the
than that one. doctor away.
5. Comparison of Similar Things:
○ Incorrect: The climate of Rules for Using "A" and "An"
Dehradun is better than Meerut.
○ Correct: The climate of ● "A" is used before words that start with
Dehradun is better than that of a consonant sound.
Meerut. ○ Example: A European lives in our
6. Adjectives Followed by 'To': colony.
○ Examples: ○ Correct: Meerut has a university.
■ Correct: He is senior to ● "An" is used before words that start
me. with a vowel sound (a, e, i, o, u).
■ Correct: I prefer tea to ○ Correct: An umbrella is kept
coffee. there.
7. Gradual Increase with Comparatives: ○ Correct: An honest and
○ Examples: hardworking person always
■ He became more and succeeds in life.
more intelligent while ○ Correct: An hour is left.
studying. ○ Correct: An MA, An SP, An LLB.
8. Same Degree for Two Adjectives:
○ Incorrect: He is the best and
honest minister.
○ Correct: He is the best and the
most honest minister.

025
 2. Definite Article ("The")
Uses of Indefinite Articles
The definite article "the" is used to refer to
1. To Indicate "One"
specific items already mentioned or
Used before a singular common noun
understood in context.
to indicate one item.
Examples: Uses of "The"
○ Correct: Twelve inches make a
foot. 1. To Specify a Particular Person or Thing
○ Correct: There is a fan in the Examples:
room. ○ Correct: The book is kept there.
○ Incorrect: A twelve inches make ○ Correct: The pleasant weather is
foot. inviting us outside.
2. To Suggest a Certain or Any ○ Incorrect: Book is kept there.
Used to imply a vague sense of 2. Before Names of Geographic Features
"certain" or "any." Examples:
Examples: ○ Correct: The Himalayas, The
○ Correct: A book is kept there. Indian Ocean.
○ Incorrect: An book is kept there. ○ Incorrect: The Kanchenjunga is
3. To Make a Common Noun of a Proper the highest peak of the
Noun Himalayas in India.
Likens someone to a notable figure. 3. Before Unique Nouns
Examples: Examples:
○ Correct: Ajay is a Sherlock ○ Correct: The Sun, The Moon, The
Holmes of our class. Earth.
○ Correct: Samudragupta was the ○ Incorrect: Sun is shining brightly.
Napoleon of India. 4. Before Names of Countries Indicating
○ Incorrect: Ajay is Sherlock Federation
Holmes of our class. Examples:
4. To Mean "Each," "Every," or "Per" ○ Correct: The United States of
Implies frequency or distribution. America, The Netherlands.
Examples: ○ Incorrect: United Kingdom has a
○ Correct: The doctor advised the rich history.
patient to take the medicine 5. Before Religious Books, Newspapers,
twice a day. and Magazines
○ Correct: He studies for two hours Examples:
a day. ○ Correct: The Bible, The Times of
○ Incorrect: He studies two hours India.
per day. ○ Incorrect: India Today (should be
5. In Exclamations with Singular "The India Today").
Countable Nouns 6. Before Superlatives
Used in exclamatory sentences. Examples:
Examples: ○ Correct: I am the best.
○ Correct: What a shot! ○ Incorrect: I am best.
○ Correct: What a beautiful girl! ○
○ Incorrect: What beautiful girl!

026
 Examples:
Omission of Articles
● Correct: I shall meet you tomorrow.
Certain rules dictate when articles should be
● Correct: We were late by two hours.
omitted:
● Correct: The newspaper arrives daily.
1. Before Proper Nouns ● Incorrect: I shall meet you yesterday.
○ Correct: New Delhi is the capital (Refers to a past time that is no longer
of India. valid.)
○ Incorrect: The New Delhi is the ● Incorrect: We were late forever. (Does
capital of India. not represent a specific duration of
2. Before Material and Abstract Nouns in time.)
General
2. Adverb of Place
○ Correct: The building is made of
brick and stone.
Definition: Answers the question where.
○ Incorrect: The building is made
of the brick and the stone. Examples:
3. Before Regular Meals
○ Correct: I usually take breakfast ● Correct: I shall meet you in the market.
at 9 o'clock. ● Correct: I shall meet you there.
○ Incorrect: We should take the ● Correct: We were studying in the
dinner at least two hours before institute.
sleeping time. ● Incorrect: I shall meet you nowhere.
(Implies no place, contradicting the
ADVERB intent of meeting.)
● Incorrect: I will meet you here. (Could
Definition: be correct but lacks specificity of
location.)
An adverb tells more about a verb, an
adjective, or another adverb. 3. Adverb of Manner

Example: Definition: Answers the question how.

● Correct: He is running fast. (‘Fast’ is the Examples:

adverb that tells how he is running.)
● Incorrect: He runs quickly. (This is also ● Correct: He is sitting quietly.
correct; ‘quickly’ is an adverb that tells ● Correct: He is dancing like Hritik
how he runs.) Roshan.
● Incorrect: He is sitting loudly.
(Contradictory as sitting is usually
Kinds of Adverbs
quiet.)
1. Adverb of Time ● Incorrect: He dances ugly. (‘Ugly’ does
not properly describe how he dances.)
Definition: Answers the question when, for
how long, or how often a certain thing 4. Adverb of Frequency
happens.
Definition: Tells us how often an action takes
place.

027
Examples: Examples:

● Correct: Delhi Police is with you, always. ● Correct: He sometimes comes late.
● Correct: She often goes to the gym. ● Correct: She always looks beautiful.
● Incorrect: I eat seldomly. (The correct ● Incorrect: She looks never beautiful.
form is “seldom.”) ● Correct: They frequently visit us.
● Incorrect: He rarely plays. (Correct but
requires proper context.) 3. Usage of ‘Enough’ as Adjective and Adverb

5. Adverb of Degree or Quantity Rule:

Definition: Tells us how much, in what degree, ● As an adverb, it is placed after the
or to what extent. adjective it modifies.
● As an adjective, it is placed before the
Examples: noun.

● Correct: We have studied enough. Examples:

● Correct: There is something fishy out
here. ● Incorrect: He is enough intelligent.
● Correct: There is little doubt of his ● Correct: He is intelligent enough to win
success. the competition.
● Incorrect: We have studied very. (‘Very’ ● Correct: He has enough money to
must modify an adjective or another spend.
adverb.) ● Additional Incorrect: She is enough
● Incorrect: There is too few fish in the happy.
pond. (Correct form: "too few" with ● Additional Correct: She is happy
countable nouns.) enough to celebrate.

4. Placement of ‘Only’ and ‘Even’

Rules and Placement of Adverbs
Rule: ‘Only’ and ‘even’ should be placed
1. Position of Adverbs Modifying Adjectives
immediately before the word they modify.
and Other Adverbs
Examples:
Rule: When an adverb modifies an adjective
or another adverb, it comes before the ● Incorrect: I worked only two sums.
modified word. ● Correct: I only worked two sums.
● Additional Incorrect: She is even
Examples:
intelligent the most.
● Additional Correct: She is the most
● Incorrect: Her dress was ready nearly.
intelligent even among experts.
● Correct: Her dress was nearly ready.
● Incorrect: She runs fast hardly.
● Correct: She hardly runs fast.

2. Placement of Adverbs of Frequency

Rule: Adverbs of frequency (always, ever,

never, seldom, frequently, etc.) are placed
before the verb they modify.

028
 4.Conjunctions 3. Use of ‘Seldom’

● Rule: Both seldom or never and seldom

Definition
if ever are correct.
A conjunction is a part of speech that ○ Correct:
connects words, phrases, clauses, or ■ He seldom or never goes
sentences. to see movies in a theatre.
■ She seldom if ever speaks
Examples: and, but, while, though, although, in class.
lest, etc. ○ Incorrect:
■ He seldom or ever goes to
Rules of Conjunctions see movies in a theatre.
(✗)
1. Use of ‘Scarcely’ and ‘Hardly’ ■ They seldom or ever
attend meetings. (✗)
● Rule: Should be followed by when and
not by than. 4. Correlative Conjunctions
○ Correct:
■ Scarcely had I started for ● Rule: Conjunctions like either-or,
the institute, when the rain neither-nor, not only-but also,
started. both-and, whether-or must connect
■ Hardly had he arrived, the same parts of speech or functions.
when he had to leave ○ Correct:
again. ■ He neither agreed to my
○ Incorrect: proposal nor to his.
■ Scarcely had I started for ■ He helps his mother not
the institute, than the rain only by money but also by
started. (✗) other means.
■ Hardly had he arrived, ○ Incorrect:
than he had to leave ■ Neither he helps his
again. (✗) mother by money nor by
other means. (✗)
2. Use of ‘No Sooner’
5. Use of ‘Though’ and ‘But’
● Rule: Should be followed by than and
not by when. ● Rule: Though and but should not be
○ Correct: used together in a sentence.
■ No sooner had I left, than ○ Correct:
the rain started. ■ Though he worked hard,
■ No sooner did he arrive, yet he could not top the
than he had to leave. class.
○ Incorrect: ■ Though she was tired, she
■ No sooner had I left, when continued to work.
the rain started. (✗) ○ Incorrect:
■ No sooner did he arrive, ■ Though he worked hard
then he had to leave. (✗) but he could not top the
class. (✗)

029
 3. Use of 'Both'
6. Use of ‘Other’
● Rule: Both should be followed by and
● Rule: After the adjective other, use than not by as well as and should not be
for contrasting. used in negative sentences.
○ Correct: ○ Correct:
■ He had no other option ■ Both Amit and his friends
than to fight. are coming.
○ Incorrect: ○ Incorrect:
■ He had no other option ■ Both Amit as well as his
from to fight. (✗) friends are coming. (✗)

7. Use of Conjunction ‘That’ 4. Meaning of 'Unless'

● Rule: Avoid using that in direct ● Rule: Avoid using unless with negative
narration or interrogative indirect clauses.
speech. ○ Correct:
○ Correct: ■ Unless you work hard, you
■ He said, “I am smart.” will fail.
■ He asked who he was. ○ Incorrect:
○ Incorrect: ■ Unless you do not work
■ He said that, “I am smart.” hard, you will fail. (✗)
(✗)
5. Use of 'Lest'
Special Cases
● Rule: Lest should not be followed by
1. Agreement in 'Not Only... But Also' not. It is always used with should.
Sentences ○ Correct:
■ Walk steadily, lest you
● Rule: The verb should agree with the should fall.
noun or pronoun mentioned second. ○ Incorrect:
○ Correct: ■ Walk steadily, lest you
■ Not only the teacher but should not fall. (✗)
also the students are
enjoying themselves. 6. Use of 'Different'

2. Usage of 'Such As' and 'Such That' ● Rule: Use from after the adjective
different.
● Rule: Such as denotes a category, ○ Correct:
while such that emphasizes the degree. ■ He took a different role
○ Correct: from the ones he has
■ He played such an innings been doing for long.
as was played by the best ○ Incorrect:
batsman. ■ He took a different role
■ He played such an innings than the ones he has
that it took the match been doing for long. (✗)
away.
7. Present Tense After 'As If' and 'As Though'

● Rule: Avoid present tense after as if

and as though (Subjunctive Mood).
○ Correct:
■ He looks as if he
suspected something.
○ Incorrect:
■ He looks as if he suspects
something. (✗)

030
 5.Preposition 3. Use of ‘On’ and ‘Upon’

Correct Usage:
Definition
A preposition is a word that connects a noun ● ‘On’ denotes position.
or pronoun to another word, especially to a ○ Example: The cat is on the table.
verb, another noun, or an adjective. ● ‘Upon’ denotes movement.
○ Example: The cat pounced upon
the mouse.
Some Important Prepositions Incorrect Usage:
1. Use of ‘In’ and ‘At’ ● Using ‘upon’ for position.
○ Incorrect: The cat is upon the
Correct Usage:
table.
● ‘In’ is used for bigger places (towns, ● Using ‘on’ for movement.
cities, countries). ○ Incorrect: The cat jumped on the
○ Example: I live in Meerut. mouse.
● ‘At’ is used for smaller places.
○ Example: I live at Shastri Nagar.
4. Use of ‘With’ and ‘By’
Incorrect Usage:
Correct Usage:
● Using ‘in’ for smaller places.
○ Incorrect: I live in Shastri Nagar. ● ‘With’ denotes the instrument.
● Using ‘at’ for bigger places. ○ Example: The letter was written
○ Incorrect: I live at India. with his pen.
● ‘By’ denotes the agent.
○ Example: The music was
2. Use of ‘In’ and ‘Into’ generated by a guitar.

Correct Usage: Incorrect Usage:

● ‘In’ is used when speaking of things at ● Using ‘by’ to indicate the instrument.
rest. ○ Incorrect: The letter was written
○ Example: He is shopping in the by his pen.
market. ● Using ‘with’ to indicate the agent.
● ‘Into’ is used when speaking of things ○ Incorrect: The music was
in motion. generated with a guitar.
○ Example: He jumped into the
well.
5. Use of ‘Ago’ and ‘Before’
Incorrect Usage:
Correct Usage:
● Using ‘into’ for things at rest.
○ Incorrect: He is sitting into the ● ‘Ago’ refers to past time.
office. ○ Example: India achieved
● Using ‘in’ for things in motion. independence 69 years ago.
○ Incorrect: He walked in the room.

031
 ● ‘Before’ denotes precedence between Incorrect Usage:
two events.
● Using ‘under’ to imply independence.
○ Example: He came before me.
○ Incorrect: He is over me.
Incorrect Usage: ● Using ‘under’ to imply not affected.
○ Incorrect: I’m always under no
● Using ‘before’ for past time. pressure.
○ Incorrect: India achieved
independence before 69 years.
● Using ‘ago’ to indicate precedence.
8. Government Context of ‘Under’
○ Incorrect: He arrived ago me.
Correct Usage:

● When something happens under a

6. Use of ‘Above’ and ‘Below’ vs. ‘Over’ and
particular person or government, it
‘Under’
indicates their authority or leadership.
Correct Usage: ○ Example: There will be no new
taxes under his leadership.
● ‘Above’ and ‘below’ merely denote
position. Incorrect Usage:
○ Example: The sky is above us.
● Using ‘under’ for past leadership.
● ‘Over’ and ‘under’ carry a sense of
○ Incorrect: There were no new
covering or movement.
taxes under his leadership
○ Example: The bird is flying over
before.
the pond.
● Using ‘under’ for events outside
Incorrect Usage: governance.
○ Incorrect: There will be new taxes
● Using ‘over’ for position. under my decision.
○ Incorrect: The sky is over us.
● Using ‘below’ to indicate movement.
○ Incorrect: The train ran below the
bridge.

7. Specific Uses of ‘Under’

Correct Usage:

● ‘Under’ is used to indicate a person or

thing affected by something.
○ Example: I’m rarely under
pressure.
● ‘Under’ can mean junior in rank.
○ Example: He is under me.
○

032
 6.Solving the Sentence 4. Check for Grammar and Syntax
Completion in Passage
● Ensure Correct Grammar:
1. Understand the Context
The word you choose should
● Read the Passage Carefully: grammatically fit into the sentence.
Begin by reading the entire passage to Check for subject-verb agreement,
grasp its overall theme, tone, and tense, and sentence structure.
purpose. Understanding the context is ● Maintain Consistency:
crucial for selecting the correct Ensure that the completed sentence
sentence completion options. maintains consistency with the rest of
● Identify Key Ideas: the passage. The chosen word should
Highlight or note down important ideas, not create contradictions.
concepts, and transitions within the
5. Predict Before Looking at the Options
passage, as they will guide you in filling
in the blanks. ● Try to Predict the Answer:
Before looking at the options, think of a
2. Analyze the Sentence
word or phrase that would fit well. This
● Identify the Clue Words: helps you remain focused on the
Focus on keywords in the sentence to meaning rather than getting swayed
be completed. Look for clues that by the options.
indicate the type of word needed (e.g.,
6. Re-read the Sentence with the Chosen
noun, verb, adjective).
Option
● Determine the Tone:
Pay attention to the tone of the ● Check for Flow and Coherence:
passage and the sentence. Is it After selecting an option, read the
positive, negative, neutral, critical, or entire sentence again with the chosen
descriptive? The tone will influence your word. Ensure that it makes sense and
choice of words. flows well with the surrounding text.

3. Consider the Options 7. Practice Regularly

● Read All Options Carefully: ● Solve Previous Years’ Papers:

Go through all the answer choices Regular practice with past papers
provided. Sometimes, more than one helps you become familiar with the
option may seem plausible, so types of sentence completion
consider how each fits into the questions that appear in exams.
passage. ● Take Mock Tests:
● Use Process of Elimination: Attempting timed mock tests will
Narrow down your options by improve your speed and accuracy in
eliminating those that do not fit the this section.
context, grammar, or tone of the
passage. This increases your chances 8. Review and Learn
of selecting the correct answer.
● Review Mistakes:
After practice, review any mistakes to
understand where you went wrong.
This will help you avoid similar errors in
the future.

033
 ● Learn New Vocabulary:
A strong vocabulary will aid in identifying the correct words. Make a habit of learning new
words and their usages.

9. Time Management

● Allocate Time Wisely:

Keep track of your time while solving passages. If you find a particular sentence difficult,
move on and return to it later if time permits.

Sample Example

Question:
“The scientist's research was groundbreaking, and it paved the way for new methods in the field
of ____. However, some of his peers were skeptical, believing that his conclusions were ____.”

Options:
A) experimentation; unfounded
B) neglect; indisputable
C) speculation; flawless
D) innovation; questionable

Analysis:

1. First Blank:
The context suggests a noun related to methods. “Innovation” aligns with the idea of
groundbreaking research.
2. Second Blank:
The tone suggests skepticism, so “questionable” fits well.

Final Answer: Follow us on :

D) innovation; questionable

034
 7.Reordering of Words 5. Experiment with Arrangements

1. Identify Key Components ● Try Different Combinations:

Rearrange the words until you achieve
● Recognize the Subject, Verb, and a grammatically correct and
Object: meaningful sentence.
Pinpoint the fundamental elements in
the given words. 6. Check for Meaning
○ Example: The dog (subject) ran
● Convey a Clear Message:
(verb) across the street (object).
Ensure the sentence delivers a
● Look for Conjunctions and Modifiers:
coherent idea without ambiguity.
Words like and, but, quickly, or
● Verify Grammar:
yesterday can indicate relationships or
Look for correct subject-verb
provide additional context.
agreement, appropriate tense, and
2. Determine the Sentence Structure logical sequence.

● Understand Basic Sentence Tips for Solving Reordering Questions

Structures:
1. Practice Regularly
Familiarize yourself with formats such
as Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) or
Frequent practice with diverse examples
Subject-Verb-Adverb.
sharpens your ability to recognize patterns.
● Recognize Sentence Types:
Identify whether the sentence is 2. Use Elimination
declarative, interrogative, imperative,
or exclamatory, as this will influence If options are provided, rule out choices that
the arrangement. are grammatically incorrect or nonsensical.

3. Look for Clues 3. Familiarity with Common Phrases

● Indicator Words: Some expressions or collocations are

Certain words suggest their placement. standard in English (e.g., "in the nick of time"
For example, adverbs often follow the or "as soon as possible").
verbs they modify, and prepositions
introduce phrases (e.g., on the table, 4. Manage Your Time
during the event).
In timed exams, move on from difficult
● Context from Phrases or Clauses:
questions and return later if time permits.
Identify phrases that make sense
together. Example: “in the morning” or
Practice Example: Sentence Reordering
“to the market.”
Given Words:
4. Group Related Words
the / quickly / dog / ran / across / the /
● Identify Natural Pairs: street.
Words that form logical units (e.g., the
Reordered Sentence:
quick brown fox or ran swiftly) help
The dog ran quickly across the street.
build a coherent sentence.

035
Reordering Sentences to Form a Paragraph Example Exercise

Sentences Provided:
1. Understanding the Passage
1. The rapid advancement of technology
● Read All Sentences Carefully: has transformed communication.
Familiarize yourself with the main idea 2. In the past, people relied heavily on
or theme. letters and face-to-face meetings.
● Identify Key Themes: 3. Today, instant messaging and video
calls are commonplace.
Look for recurring subjects or ideas that 4. This shift has made the world more
connect the sentences. interconnected than ever before.

2. Identifying the Structure Logical Order:

● Follow a Logical Flow: ● Start with the past (Sentence 2).

● Introduce technological advancement
Most paragraphs adhere to
(Sentence 1).
Introduction → Body → Conclusion. ● Discuss current practices (Sentence 3).
● Recognize Transition Words: ● Conclude with the impact (Sentence
Words like however, moreover, and 4).
consequently signal relationships.
Reordered Paragraph:
In the past, people relied heavily on letters
3. Finding Logical Connections
and face-to-face meetings. The rapid
advancement of technology has transformed
● Chronological Order: communication. Today, instant messaging
If events follow a timeline, arrange and video calls are commonplace. This shift
sentences accordingly. has made the world more interconnected
● Cause and Effect: than ever before.
Place cause before effect when Follow us on :
relevant.

4. Eliminating Options

● Identify Irrelevant Sentences:

Look for sentences that don’t logically
fit the paragraph.
● Narrow Down Choices:
If given options, discard unlikely
arrangements.

5. Testing Your Arrangement

● Read Aloud:
This helps ensure coherence and
smooth transitions.
● Verify Flow:
Confirm that the reordered paragraph
makes logical sense.

036
 8.Reading
comprehension section

1. Understand the Format 5. Pay Attention to Structure

● Types of Questions: ● Arguments and Examples:

○ Direct questions about details in Observe how the author supports the
the passage. main idea with evidence or
○ Inference-based questions counterarguments.
requiring logical deductions. ● Transition Words:
○ Vocabulary-related queries Words like "however," "therefore," and "in
about word meanings in context. contrast" indicate logical shifts and
● Passage Length: relationships.
Typically ranges from 200 to 400 words
in exams like CDS, NDA, and CAPF. 6. Answering Questions

2. Initial Reading ● Refer Back to the Passage:

Always double-check your answers
● Skim the Passage: against the passage to ensure
Quickly skim through the passage to accuracy.
grasp its theme and structure. ● Direct Questions:
● Identify Keywords: For factual questions, locate the
Highlight important names, dates, and answer directly in the text.
terms for quick reference later. ● Inference-Based Questions:
Interpret the implied meaning while
3. Focus on the Main Idea staying consistent with the passage’s
tone and context.
● Identify the Main Idea:
After skimming, determine the central 7. Eliminate Incorrect Options
argument or perspective of the
passage. ● Process of Elimination:
● Locate Topic Sentences: Rule out options that are irrelevant,
The first or last sentence of a contradictory, or unsupported by the
paragraph often conveys its main idea. passage.
● Beware of Extremes:
4. Detailed Reading Avoid answers with absolute terms like
"always" or "never," which are often
● Read Carefully:
incorrect.
Go back and read thoroughly to
understand finer details and nuances.
● Take Notes:
Summarize key points, arguments,
and examples in short notes for better
retention.

037
8. Manage Your Time

● Set a Time Limit:

Allocate time for reading and answering questions—e.g., 2–3 minutes for reading and 1
minute/question.
● Timed Practice:
Regularly practice comprehension passages with a timer to improve speed and
accuracy.

9. Practice Regularly

● Previous Year Papers:

Solve passages from past CDS, NDA, and CAPF exams to familiarize yourself with
patterns.
● Read Widely:
Enhance vocabulary and comprehension skills by reading newspapers, magazines,
and novels.

10. Review and Reflect

● Check Your Answers:

If time allows, revisit your answers to ensure they align with the passage.
● Learn from Mistakes:
Post-practice, analyze errors to understand gaps in comprehension or reasoning.

Example Passage and Question

Passage:
The industrial revolution marked a significant turning point in history. It not only transformed
economies from agrarian to industrial but also brought profound changes to society.
Urbanization increased as people migrated to cities for jobs in factories. However, this rapid
industrialization also led to issues such as overcrowded cities, poor working conditions, and
environmental pollution.

Question:
Which of the following is NOT a consequence of the industrial revolution as mentioned in the
passage?

● (A) Urbanization
● (B) Improved working conditions
● (C) Environmental pollution
● (D) Overcrowded cities

Answer:

● The passage mentions poor working conditions, so (B) Improved working conditions
is the correct answer as it contradicts the passage.

038