Grammar

Grammar is a collection of rules through which we know how words are used in a
language.
1—Descriptive grammar—Descriptive grammar Describes how people actually
use language in real life situations, without judging whether its correct or
incorrect. (what is used)
He don’t like coffee. (some people may use it)
2-prespictive grammar- perspective grammar tells people how they should use
language, according to established rules and standard. (what should be used)
He doesn’t like coffee. (correct is this)

Part of speech

1--Noun—noun is the name of person, place, animal, thing an iDea, thought, etc.
Types of noun

Eg— Ahmad teaches advanced grammar. (person)

Your assumption seemed wrong. (thought)

Your kindness is appreciated. (iDea)

Let’s go to school and study. (place)

We love to play with cat. (animal)

Did you buy a computer? (thing)

A---Common noun— general name for people place and thing, no need to
capitalize unless in the bEginning of sentence.
Eg----city-university-bridge-car-teacher-computer—book-sandal-jug—phon—
room--etc
B----Proper noun-names of specific people place or thing, always capitalize.
Eg—Ahmad---Mahmood---Kabul---London---Toyota---Baghlan— Harvard
university---united nation—Islam--etc

C---concert noun----nouns you can see, touch, hear, smell or taste (physical
things).
EG—apple---dog—music—ball—can—water--- book—driver—computer--etc

D---Abstract noun— things that you cannot see or touch like iDeas, qualities, or
feeling
EG—freedom--love—happiness-sadness- darkness--kindness— luck—passion—
education—news—priDe—eviDence—iDea—energy--- etc

E—countable noun—things you can count (have singular and plural forms).
EG—book/books---apple/apples—care/cars--- glass—glasses---fire/fires --etc

f—uncountable noun---things that you can’t count individually (no plural form
usually).
Eg---water, sugar, information, rice, flour, tea, milk, yogurt—etc

Note---there are the number of common nouns used as both countable and
uncountable.

Eg—metal—cheese—wine—wind—cofee—fruit—tea—beer—fire—etc

We had a talk about you. (countable) I hate foolish talk. (uncountable)

Give me one melon and tow watermelon. (countable)

Let’s eat some melon and watermelon. (uncountable)

These lambs are eating grass. (countable) I saw the lamb in the menu.
(uncountable)

g—collective nouns—words that refer to a group of people or things.

EG---team—family—audience—class—crowd- nation—army--- gang--etc

H—Compound noun—compound nouns are maDe of more than one word.

Eg---shortcut---classmate---keyboard—cupboard—apple jouce—bus driver—
grammar book---tv chanel—homework—database—take-off—fireman—etc.

2- pronoun—a pronoun is a word used instead of noun to avoid or prevent its

repetition and make sentence smoother.

Types of pronoun
A—personal pronouns—refer to people or thigs.
EG—I-We-You-They- He-SHE-It

B-possessive pronoun—shows possession or ownership.

Eg-mine-yours-his-hers-ours-theirs-

C—Reflexive pronoun—reflex back to the subject.

EG-myself—yourself—himself—herself—itself—ourselves—themselves--- D—

Demonstrative pronoun---point out specific things.

Eg—this-that-these- those

F—interrogative pronoun—used to ask question.

Eg—who-whom-whose-which-what-who is knocking at the door---whom did you
call yesterday—whose book is this---which color do you prefer-blue or red ---what
is your name.

g-Relative pronoun—introduce relative clauses.

Eg---who—whom-whose-which-that—the teacher who helped me was very kind--
the girl whom I met yesterday is my neighbor. The boy whose bike was stolen is
crying. The book which you give me interesting. The phone that I bought it is very
fast.
3-verbs—A verb is a word that shows action or state of being.
Type of verb

A----Action verb—show what someone or something does Eg--run, eat, write,

read-

B---linking verb— connect the subject to more information—Eg---is, am, are,

was, were, seem, become. he is tired-he become angry.

C---helping verbs (auxiliary verbs)—used with main verbs to show tense,

voice or mood.
EG—have, has, do-does-will-can-should. They have eaten lunch. She will study
hard.

D---transitive verbs---take a direct object—Eg—she read a book. He writes a

story.

E---intransitive verbs---do not take a direct object. Eg-he sleeps peacefully. She
fights normally. He fights bravely.

4- Adjective-Adjective is a word that modify noun or pronoun. EG-she has a

beautiful dress.
Types of adjective

A—Descriptive adjective—Describe quality, appearance, or condition. Eg---

tallred-soft-hard-short

B—quantitative adjectives-show the quality or amount---Eg-some-many-few--

he has many friends.

D-numeral adjective-shows number or orDer. Eg—one-toe-three-four—

firstsecond-third.

E-Demonstrative adjectives-point out specific things. Eg-this that these-

thosethese books RE MINE.
F- possessive adjective—shows possession or ownership—Eg-my-your-theirhis-
her. —this is my bag.

D—interrogative adjective—used to ask question. ex-which-what-whose—

which color do you like?

Degree of comprehension of adjective positive Degree-good—

comparative Degree-better—superlative Degree—best.

4-Adverbs—An adverb is a word that modifies (gives more information about) a

verb, adjective, and another adverb.
Eg-she run fast. It is very cold today. He speaks too quickly.
Types of adverb

A-Adverb of manner-shows how something happen.

Eg—quickly—slowly—well

B-Adverb of time—shows when something happen.

Eg—now—yesterday—soon.

C-Adverb of place—shows where something happens.

EG—always—never—often.

D-Adverb of Degree—shows how much or to what extent.

EG—very—too-almost

5-preposition—A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a

noun or pronoun and other words in a sentence.
Eg—of-in-on-unDer-about-over-between etc
Type of preposition.

A-preposition of place—in—on—at—unDer—the book is on the table.

B-preposition of time----at-on-in-since-----we met at five o clock on Sunday.
C-preposition of direction—to, into, onto, through—she walked through the
park.

D-PREPOSITION OF reason—because of-due to----cricket match stop due to

rain.

E- preposition of manner—by—with----I come with my friend by a car.

6-conjunction—A conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases, or
clauses in a sentence.
Type of conjunction

A-coordination conjunction—these join equal part (word to word, phrase to

phrase, or clause to clause).Eg—for-and-nor-but-or-yet-so(fan boys) B-
subordinating conjunction—these conjunctions connect a DepenDent
(subordinate) clause to an inDepenDent clause. Eg-because-although-if- when
since-while-unless. I stayed home because it was raining. Although he was tired,
he kept working.

C—correlative conjunctions—these conjunction work in pairs to connect

sentence element. Eg—either…..or---neither…..nor-----both…..and-----not
only…..but also.
Either you study, or you fail. Not only did she sing, but also danced.

8-interjection—An interjection is a word which is used to express sudDen feeling

or emotion. wow! that’s a beautiful view. Hey! What are you doing. Oh no! I forgot
my keys.

9-Article—the article is a word that is used before a noun to show whether it

refer to something specific or unspecific.
Type of article

A—Definite article---it refers to a specific noun that is known to the speaker and
listener. Ex—I saw the movie you recommenDed (a specific movie) ---the sun rises
in the east. (a unique noun). She gave me the book on the table. (a specific book)
B-indefinite article—it refers to a non-specific noun. Eg-I saw a dog in the park.
--he bought a house. She is an artist. He at an orange.

C-Zero article----sometimes no article is used when talking about things in general

or certain proper noun. Eg—I love music. (uncountable noun) ----mount Everest is
the highest mountain. Water is necessary (essential) for life.

Tenses
1-Tenses Denote the time of action.
2-They show when the work is done.
3-Tense is a verb form which tells us whether an action takes place in the present,
took place in the past, or will take place in the future time.
They are 1-present tense 2- past tense 2- future tense

1-simple present---it is used to Denote habitual action, permanent action,

general facts, future timetables.
Eg: she speaks English with us. My mom cooks lunch for us. We wake up at five
pm. Water freezes in zero degree Celsius. They are our students in this class.
The sun rise from the east and set in the west. Our prophet says “say salaam to
one another”. Our meeting start at 10:00 o’clock today.

He speaks English very well. ----he doesn’t speak English very well. ----does he
speak English very well. --you know English----do you know English? ---don’t you
know English? Etc.

2-present continuous--- it is used to show action happening at the moment of

speaking and fixed future action.
Note: when used with (always/forever), it shows complaint or annoyance.
Eg: He is always giving me a headache. He is going to his class late, so I am
scolding him.

we are focusing on our education. My brother is watching tv.

I am studding book now ---am I studding book now— he is going to Kabul
tomorrow----is he going to Kabul tomorrow?

3- simple past—it is used to show finished action in the past.

Eg---He visited his friend in Dubai last month. He finished his education last
month.

he worked yesterday---did he work last week? ---he didn’t work last month.

4- past continuous tense---it is used to Denote an action going on at some

time in the past. Or it shows an action which was in progress in the past.
Eg---Ali was brushing his teeth in the morning. Ali wasn’t brushing his teeth in the
morning. While you were eating, I was typing a message.

I was driving a car when you came. -----was I driving a car? ----you were playing
football when I called you.

5--- simple future tense—it is used to show an action which will happen in the
future. Or it shows an action which will take place in the coming time.
Eg---she will write a letter tomorrow. Will she write a letter? --It shall rain on
Friday. We will leave for school in 30 minutes. They will come here at 7:00 Am.

I am going to rebuild my house. I will answer the question.

6- future continuous tense.it is used to express ongoing or continued

action in the future or it shows an action which will be in progress in the future.
Eg—she will be writing a letter---she will not be writing a letter---will she be
writing a letter? —will she not be writing a letter.

7- present perfect.it used to show an action that start in the past and has
just finished or the time is not important.
Eg—we have don our assignment. Sana has already received my email. He has
failed several times. We have worked here for two years. He has lived here since
2010.
I have gone to Kabul. ---have I gone to Kabul? ---I have not gone to Mazar. ---he
has written a letter to me. ---has she written a letter to me?

8—present perfect continues—this tense shows the action which started in

the past and is still continuing. Or it shows an action which that started in the
past, come to the present and may or may not going to the future.
Eg—she has been studding since morning. ---they have been sleeping since night.
They haven’t been fixing their car since morning. Have they been fixing their car
since morning? Haven’t they been fixing their car since morning.

9-past perfect tense—used to Describe an action complete before a certain

moment in the past. if tow action happens in the past, past perfect is used to
show the action that took place earlier.
Eg-I had gone before Ali arrived----I came here after you had left you had left. ----
he had bought a car last year.

10—past perfect continues—used to show an action that began before a

certain point in the past and continued up to sometime in the past.
Eg---he had been living in London since 2010------it had been raining since
morning. I had been learning English in this course for 20 days.

11—future perfect tense—it is used to express an action which will happen in

future and will be completed by certain time in the future. We use the future
perfect to say that something will be finished by a particular time in the future.
Eg—they will have shifted the house by Sunday morning. ---will they have left the
job? -----she will have written a letter.

12---future perfect continues tense---it is used to talk about action that will
commence at a fix time in future and will continue for some time in future.
Eg---I will have been waiting here for three hours by six o clock----she will not have
been writing a letter. ---will she have been writing a letter?
 Verbs
A verb is a word or a phrase or a phrase that shows action, state, feeling, and
possession.

Eg. She has a big apartment. They study hard for their test. He was fixing my car
yesterday. He was impressed by my action. They are very serious people.

Finite verbs---finite verbs are limited to the subject, tense and number. It
means when the subject, the verb changes; when the tense changes, the verb
changes. When the number of subject changes, the verb changes.

Eg: they are at home and eating lunch. He was at home and eating lunch.

She will leave this place as soon as possible. They would leave this city
tomorrow.

Nonfinite verbs—nonfinite verbs have nothing to do with changing the

subject.

Eg—they cannot come here anymore. I could not come here yesterday.

She is teaching English in this class. She was teaching in this class.

The boys have seen her several time. Ali had seen her several time.

Modals verbs---model verbs are auxiliary verbs (helping verbs) that express
necessity, possibility, permission, ability, or advice.

A--Can—shows ability, possibility or permission. Eg—I can swim---can I swim—he

can dance.

B--Could— shows past ability or polite permission. Eg—I could swim when I was
young—could you help me.

C—may—formal permission or possibility. Eg—you may leave know---may I

come in—may I have a glass of water.
D—might—shows possibility. Eg—it might rain today—it might be good to you.
E—must—shows strong necessity or obligation---you must wear a paint.
F—shall—shows suggestion. Eg----Shall we begin?
G—should—show advice or weak obligation—Eg—you should study for test.
H—will—future or Willingness-Eg—I will call you later.
J—Would—polite requests or hypothetical situation. ---Eg—would you like some
tea?

2-semi modal verbs.

Semi models are phrases or verbs that function like modal verb but they are not
model.

A—have to—shows obligation. Eg—I have to finish this work.

B-Need to----shows necessity. —Eg—you need to see a doctor.
C—ought to—shows moral duty or advice. Eg—you ought to apologize.
D—Be able to---shows ability---Eg—she is able to speak three languages.
C—Be going to—future intention. Eg— I am going to travel next week.

IF—clause
1—Zero conditional—if + present simple, present simple=general thrust---EG--
if you heat water to 100 c, it boils.

2---first conditional---if + present simple, will + base form=real future

possibility----Eg—if it rains tomorrow, we will stay insiDe.

3—second conditional—if + past simple, would + base verbs=unreal situation

or imagination in the present or future. EG if I had a car I would drive to work.

4—third conditional—if + past perfect, would have with + past participle.

Eg—if she had studied, she would have passed the exam.

5-mixed conditional—mix of second and third conditionals.

Eg-if he had taken the job, he would be rich now.

voice in grammar
voice shows the relationship between the subject and the object.
There are two types of voice. 1-active voice 2-passive voice.

1-active voice—in active voice the subject does the action.

St=sub + verb + obj. EG--- john wrote a letter. ---the dog chased the cat.

2-passive voice--- in passive voice, the subject receives the action.

St=object + form of to be +past participle + (by + agent).
Uses=EG---the window was broken. (when the doer is unknown)
The vaccine was Deployed in 2020. (when the action is more important)
The results were analyzed. (formality or objective)

Direct and indirect speech

1—Direct speech—we report the exact words of the speaker.
2--- indirect speech--- we report what the speaker said without quoting the
exact word.
Eg—present tenses-past tenses-will-would-today-that day-tomorrow-the next
day-yesterday-the day before-now-then-here-there-this-that-next week-the
following week.

a-In yes/no question use if or whether. EG--“are you happy.” –he asked if I were
happy.

b-In WH question keep the question word. EG—“where do you live.”—she asked
where I lived.
(direct)-she said, “I am tired.” ---she said that she was tired. (indirect) (direct)-
He asked, “do you like pizza?” ---he asked if I like pizza.
(direct) ---“we will come tomorrow.” They said. ----they said that they would come
the next day.
Note—use verbs like—tell, ask, order, request and the to—infinitive.
Eg— “close the door,” she said----she told me to close the door.

Gerund
A gerund is the (ing) form of a verb that functions as a noun.
Eg—swimming is fun. (subject) –I enjoy reading. (object)
She is interested in learning French. (after a preposition)

A---Common verbs followed by gerund. --Enjoy-- I enjoy reading novels. Avoid—

he avoids talking so strangers. -- FINISH- they finished studying. Mind-do you
mind closing the window.

Infinitive
An infinitive is the base form of a verb with “to”.
To + verb (Eg., to eat, to go, to study)
Common verbs followed by infinitives.
Want—I want to go home. Need—you need to study more. Hope—we hope to
win. Decide- he Decided to travel.

Some verbs can be followed by both, but with a change in meaning.

Eg—I remember locking the door. (past action)—remember to lock the
door. (future an action) ---stop—she stopped smoking. (quit a habit)
She stopped to smoke. (paused to do something)
 Clause
A clause is a group of words that contains (at least) a subject and a verb. Or, A
clause is a group of words with a subject and a verb. Clauses can be independent
(can stand alone) or Dependent (cannot stand alone).
Eg—1- English a popular language. 2. Because he wants to get a good job for
himself.

A—independent clause—an independent clause contains a subject and a verb

and express a complete thought. Therefore, it can stand alone as a sentence by
itself.
Eg—I want to improve my English. -----She is rich.

B—Dependent clause—a Depended clause begins with a subordinating such us

while, if, who, that, when, because, etc. a Dependent clause does not express a
complete thought, so it is not a sentence by itself.
Eg—when I feel tired. ---while we were watching tv. ---which is located in pol-E-
sorkh. ---because he wants to get rich.

1-A noun clause acts as a noun. It can be a subject, object, or complement in a

sentence. Adjective clauses come right after the noun they Describe.
Common words that introduce noun clauses. that, what, whatever, who,
whoever, how, why, when, where.
Eg--What he said surprised everyone. (sub)
She didn’t know that she was lying. (object)
The problem is that we are late. (complement)

2-An adjective clause (relative clause) Describes a noun and usually starts with
a relative pronoun.
EG--who--whose--whom--which--that--The book which is one on the table is mine.
The student who studies hard will pass. I saw the movie that you recommended.
3-Adverb clause gives more information about the verb, adjective, or adverb in
the sentence. It shows time, reason, condition, contrast, or place.
Common subordinating conjunction –beacause-although-if-when-while-
beforafter-since-so-that-unless.
Eg--I left because it was late. (Reason)-when the bell rang, we left the class. (time)
Although it was raining, we went out. (contrast)

sentence
A sentence is a group of words that we use to communicate our ideas. Every
sentence is formed from one or more clauses and express A complete thought.
Types of sentences —there are four kind of sentence: simple, compound,
compress, compound compress.

1—simple sentences—a simple sentence is one independent clause.

Eg—I am good at writing. (s + v) ---she went shopping and bought a nice pair of
sandals. (s + v + v) --- my brother and I so not wake up early on Fridays. (s + s + v) -
- Ahmad and his friend study their lessons and do the assignment every day. (s + s
+ v + v)

2-compound sentence--- A compound sentence is two or more

independent clauses joined together.
There are three ways to form them. a—with a coordinator. With a conjunctive.
With a semicolon.
St=independent clause, + FANBOYS + independent clause.
My father is a good man, for he always behaves politely with people.
Compound sentence with conjunctive adverbs
St=independent clause; + conjunctive adverb, +independent clause.
Eg—
1-community colleges offer preparation for occupation;
also/besides/furthermore/in addition/moreover, they prepare students to
transfer to a four-year college or university. (to add similar idea)
2-the cost of attending a community college is low; however,
/nevertheless/nonetheless/still, many students need financial aid. (to add an
unexpected continuation)
3-tuition at a community college is low; on other hand/in contrast, tuition at
private school is high. (to add a complete contrast)
4- student must take final exams; otherwise, they will receive the grade of
incomplete. (To give an alternative possibility)
5- native and nonnative English speakers have different; accordingly, /as a
result/consequently/hence/there for/thus, most schools provide separate English
classes for each group. (to add an expected result)
6-most colleges now have now have a writing requirement for graduation; for
example, /for instance, students at my college must past a writing test before
they register for their final semester.
Compound sentences with semicolon
This type of compound sentence is possible only when the two independent
clauses are closely related in meaning.
EG—grammar is an important part of a language; vocabulary is another essential
part.

3--Complex sentence—complex sentence has on independent one or more

independent clause.
Eg—what I do can shock him. (noun clause) ---- he wants to know how he can get
a high score. (noun clause) ----I asked how he could get a high score. (noun clause)
I just talked to the student who got 100 score. (adjective clause)
I just talked to Ahmad, who got 100 score. (adjective clause)
Although the reading state that group work is beneficial, the professor opposes it.
(adverb clause)
St=adverb clause, + independent clause. ---- independent clause + adverb clause.

3- compound complex sentence---compound complex sentence has two

independent clauses one or more Dependent clauses.
Eg ---because some students had mistaken in their writing, I Decided to teach
sentence structure; however, some student may still have difficulties with
sentence structure.

How to write task one in TEOFL?

Inductor paragraph
Both the reading and the listening are about university professors’ appearance on
TV program. The reading passage claims that it has many benefits, while the
professors, in the listening, refuses it. (if it refuses)
The reading and the lecture are both about university professors’ appearance on
TV program. The reading passage explores the various benefits of professors’
appearance on TV program, while the lecturer builds upon these ideas and
provide further information about its advantages. (it also emphasizes that, the
lecture supports this by providing examples, the lecture reinforces)

Body paragraph
First, the reading claims that ……………………………… Nonetheless, the professor
opposes it. (Details from listening)
In addition, the author states that ………………………… nevertheless, the professor is
against this point too. (Details from listening)
Finally, while the reading puts forward the idea that ……………. however, the
lecturer rejects it. (Details from listening)