SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHER

CRASH COURSE BOOK

SCIENCE CATEGORY
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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
SERIAL NO DESCRIPTION PAGE NO
ENGLISH…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
1 BASICS OF GRAMMAR 1
2 PARTS OF SPEECH (In detail) 1
3 TENSES 13
4 ARTICLES (a, an and the) 22
5 VOICES 23
6 NARRATION 23
7 COMPREHENSION 26
8 SYNONYMOUS (Text books) 27
SCIENCE SUBJECTS…………………………………………………………………………………….
9 BIOLOGY CLASS 9 32
10 BIOLOGY CLASS 10 66
11 CHEMISTRY CLASS 9 97
12 CHEMISTRY CLASS 10 126
13 PHYSICS CLASS 9 164
14 PHYSICS CLASS 10 189
MATHEMATICS……………………………………………………………………………………………
15 MATH CLASS 6 223
16 MATH CLASS 7 224
17 MATH CLASS 8 227
18 MATH CLASS 9 230
19 MATH CLASS 10 239

Note:
Text books means that all content is compiled from Sindh Text Book Board’s Books (Syllabus) |
Class 6th to Class 10th | Prepared according to SELD GoS Policy.
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 A meaningful combination of words is called Sentence.
1. He and she sat on a wall.
BASICS OF GRAMMAR
 Grammar is the science of language.
 It contains rules for writing, reading and speaking the PARTS OF SPEECH
language correctly.  There are eight (8) parts/kinds of speech.
 The word Grammar comes from Latin and Greek, NOUN
(Gram = Write) which means writing.  Noun is a naming word. A noun is a word used as the
ALPHABET name of a person, place, or thing.
 The letters of any language are called alphabet. Functions of Noun
 All the letters of any language together make the  Noun works in sentence as a noun and an object.
alphabets. Example:
 There are 26 letters in the alphabet of English 1. Rahim likes Dua.
language, i.e. A, B, C……..Z.  Here in this sentence Rahim is noun and Dua is an
LETTER Object.
 All the alphabetical symbols of any language are More examples
called letter. 2. Akbar was a great King.
3. Karachi is in Pakistan.
 A letter is a certain sound, so it stands like a mark i.e.
4. Abubakar is playing.
A, C, H, D etc.
5. Zakaullah and Karim are studying.
 There are two kinds of letter i.e. Vowel and
6. Book is on the table.
Consonant.
 Akbar, king, Karachi, Pakistan, Abubakar,
 Vowels: (Vocalis = Sounding) A letter which can be
Zakaullah, Karim, Book, and Table are the nouns.
pronounced itself.
PRONOUN
 There are five vowels i.e. AEIOU (Y is semi/half
 All those words which are used at the place of noun
vowel).
is called Pronoun.
 Consonants: (Conso+nas = Sounding with) A letter
 Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun; as,
which can be sounded with the help of vowel. All the
1. Ali likes Dua, because she is handsome.
letters of English alphabet except vowels are
2. Dua likes him too.
consonants.
3. He plays with her.
 21 are the consonants.
4. She dances with him.
WORD
5. Sikandar is absent, because he is out of city.
 A meaningful combination of letters is called word
 She, him, he, her, are the pronouns
i.e. Cow, Cat, Take, Stand, Go, Come etc.
 “Her” and “him” are the objective cases of “he” and
PHRASE
“she”.
 A group of words, which makes sense, but not
ADJECTIVE
complete sense, is called a Phrase.
 Expresses the quality of noun and pronoun.
 In the following sentences, the group of underlined
 An Adjective is a word used to add something to the
words are phrases
meaning of noun and pronoun; as,
1. The sun rises in the east.
1. Dua is beautiful.
2. It was a sunset of great beauty.
2. Dua is beautiful mother.
3. The tops of mountains were covered with snow
3. She is a good girl.
4. Show me how to do it.
4. Rehan is a brave boy.
CLAUSE
5. Sajjad is an intelligent.
 Group of words which forms part of a sentence, and
6. There are twenty boys in this class.
contains a subject and a predicate, is called Clause.
 Beautiful, good, brave, intelligent, twenty, and this
 In the following sentences, group of underlined
are the adjectives.
words are clauses.
VERB
1. He has a chain of gold.
 Action or doing word. A word used to express an
2. He has a chain which is made of gold.
action or state of subject.
Subject:
1. The girl wrote a letter to her cousin.
 The part of sentence which names the person or
2. Karachi is a big city.
thing we are talking about, that is doing an action,
3. I am writing an essay.
focus of the sentence, is called Subject.
4. Iron and Copper are useful metals.
Predicate:
5. He was singing a song.
 The part of sentence which tells something about
6. Dua and Simran were going to college.
the subject, contains the action, is called Predicate.
 “Is, am, are, was, were” in above sentences are the
1. Mr. Zakaullah took a walk. (Mr. Zakaullah is
stative verbs, also called helping verbs when they
subject and took a walk is Predicate)
come before the main verb, showing state of noun
2. Dog is barking. (Dog is subject and is barking is
and pronoun.
predicate)
SENTENCE
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 “Wrote, writing, singing, and going” in above  A Common noun is a name which is common to
sentences are action verbs, also called main verb, any and every person, place and thing of same
showing action of noun and pronoun. kind.
ADVERB  So it denotes a name which is common to all the
 Adverb is the word which qualifies/add something to things of same class or kind.
the meaning of an adjective, verb, and another Examples:
adverb in same sentence. Names of Common Persons:
1. He speaks fluently. (Fluently is adverb of manner)  Father, Friend, Farmer, Doctor, Student, Patient,
2. He speaks quite fluently. (Quite is adverb of Boy, Child, Man etc.
degree) Names of Common Places:
3. He is a very fluent speaker. (Very is adverb of  Home, Hospital, Mosque, School, Hotel, Country,
degree) State, Bazar etc.
4. He worked the sum quickly. (Quickly is adverb of Names of Common Things:
manner)  Duster, Board, Chair, Table, Book, Newspaper,
5. This flower is very beautiful. (Very is adverb of Mobile, Jug, Light etc.
degree) Names of Common Living Organisms:
6. She pronounced the word quite correctly. (Quite is  Horse, Sheep, Camel, Frog, Hen, Zebra, Parrot, Snake
adverb of manner and correctly is adverb of etc.
manner).
PREPOSITION  A Common noun begins with capital letter,
 Pre+Position. whenever used at the very beginning of a sentence.
 Preposition is a word which is placed before noun or  A Common Noun in its singular form always carries
pronoun to show its relation to other noun or the Indefinite Article “a” or “an” in the sentence and
pronoun in the same sentence. is written in smallletters when is used in between
1. There is a cow in the garden. the sentence or in the beginning of a sentence.
2. The girl is fond of music Example:
3. A fair little girl sat under a tree. 1 . A cat is running after a rat.
4. Bottle is on the table. 2. I saw an elephant.
 “In, of, under, and on” are the prepositions.  A Common Noun is used as a Proper Noun when it
CONJUNCTION denotes a particular person.
 Con=Together, Junction=Join. Conjunction is the Example:
word which join the two words, phrases or clauses. 1. Our father loved us.
1. Ghani and Ghaffar are cousins. 2. My mother prays for me.
2. Two and two make four. Identification of Common Noun: If the Noun ends with
3. I ran fast, but missed the train. following letters then it is defined as Common Noun.
 “And, but” in above sentences are the conjunctions.  ar: Beggar, Liar, Scholar, Registrar, Tapedar,
INTERJECTION Mukhtiarkar etc.
 A word which expresses some sudden feeling.  ary: Diary, Library, Salary, Secretary, Granary, and
1. Hurrah! We have won the game. Dispensary etc.
2. Alas! She is dead.  eer: Beer, Deer, Engineer, Volunteer etc.
3. Oh! I am so sorry.  er: Brother, Father, Mother, Sister, Teacher,
 “Hurrah, Alas, and Oh” in the above sentences are Writer, Driver, Farmer, Player, Gardener, Dancer
interjections. etc.
IDENTIFY THE PARTS OF SPEECH.  or: Actor, Author, Tailor, Operator, Sailor, Editor,
1. She is pretty. Adjective Conductor, Governor, Director, Contractor etc.
2. She is pretty good in singing. Adverb of degree  ist: Artist, Scientist, Dentist, Dramatist, Novelist,
3. I like this pen. Demonstrative adjective Chemist, Druggist etc.
4. This is a good idea. Demonstrative pronoun  ian: Politician, Physician, Magician, Musician,
5. The train had left before I reached the station. Technician etc.
Conjunction 02. PROPER NOUN
6. I have met you before. Adverb of time (qualifies the  The word “Proper” is derived from the Latin word
verb “met” it mean “before” qualifies the verb met) “Proprius” which means own.
7. You are sitting before me. Preposition  Proper Noun is the name of some particular person,
THE NOUN: KINDS OF NOUN place and an object as his own.
 Noun is a naming word. A noun is a word used as the  A name which belongs to a particular person, place,
name of a person, place, or thing. and thing is called Proper Noun.
Note: Examples:
 The word thing mean is used to mean anything that Names of Persons:
we can think of.  Zakaullah, Abid, Sooraj, Lateef, Ganesh, Khan
01. COMMON NOUN: Muhammad, Gotam, Ghos Ali etc.
Name of Places, Cities and Countries:
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 Minar-e-Pakistan, Taj Mehal, Rani Kot, Karachi, which is used instead of a Noun in a
Japan etc. sentence.
Names of Things, Books, Days and Months:  Anything which has no any name and used
 Rado Watch, Tube Light, Holy Quran, Monday, March as a subject in a sentence is called Pronoun.
etc. Note:
Sometimes Proper Nouns are used as Common Nouns such  The repetition of a Noun makes language absurd
as; and leads some serious errors.
1. Iqbal is often called the Shakespeare of Pakistan.  It is not necessary that pronoun used instead of a
2. Faisalabad is the Manchester of Pakistan. Noun in a sentence, it is also can be used in
3. Dr.Abdul Qadeer Khan is the Newton of Pakistan. general way in a sentence.
03. COLLECTIVE NOUN 01. PERSONAL PRONOUN
 A Collective Noun is the name of a number (or  I, we, you, he, she, it and they are called Personal
collection) of persons or things taken together as Pronouns because they stand for the three persons.
one whole.  The pronouns which only used for the persons
 A name given to collective persons or things taken as called personal pronoun.
one whole is called a Collective Noun. Personal pronoun is further divided into three types
 A collective Noun is always written in small letters discussed below:
and seems to be singular but plural in meaning. First Person Pronouns:
Examples:  The pronouns I and We, which denote the person
 Crowd, Mob, Team, Herd, Army, Fleet, Jury, Family, or persons speaking, are said to be Personal
Nation, Parliament, Committee, Brood, Grove, Flock, Pronouns of the First Person.
Bazar, Assembly, Government, Press, Audience, Examples:
Alliance, Party, Police, People, Library, Faculty,Tribe, 1. I am young.
Troop etc. 2. We are young.
04. ABSTRACT NOUN Second Person Pronouns:
 The word “Abstract” is derived from the Latin word  The pronoun you, which denotes the person or
“Abstractus” which means drawn away from. persons spoken to, is said to be Personal Pronoun of
 An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality, action, the Second Person.
state or condition along with art and science.  (You is used in both singular as well as plural)
 An Abstract Noun is also defined as the name of Examples:
such things which we cannot see or touch but we 1. You are young.
can only think ofit in our mind. 2. You are going to market.
 An Abstract Noun is the name of quality, action, Third Person Pronouns:
state or condition, which does not have any  The pronouns He and She and They, which
existence materially so it cannot be perceived by denote the person or persons spoken of, are said
our senses. to be Personal Pronouns of the Third Person.
Examples:  It, although it denotes the thing spoken of, is also
Quality: called a Personal Pronoun of the Third Person.
 Goodness, Wisdom, Kindness, Whiteness, Examples:
Hardness, Brightness, Greatness, Vice, 1. He is young.
Bravery, Truth,Cruelty etc. 2. She is young.
Action: 3 . They are young.
 Movement, Punishment, Growth, Flight, Play, 4. It is young.
Fight, Division, Theft, Pardon etc. Rule 01:
State or Condition:  If three singular pronouns of different
 Boy hood, Birth, Poverty, Sorrow, Youth, Death, persons are used together in a sentence. The
Health, Wealth etc. normal structure is secondperson + third
Art and Science: person + first person, it’s called 231.
 Grammar, Physics, History, Music, Chemistry, Examples:
Medicine etc. 1. You, he and I are going to the market.
An Abstract Noun is formed from Adjective, Verb, and Rule 02:
Common Noun.  If three pronouns of different persons are used
1. Kindness from Kind. together in a sentence but the sense of the
2. Honesty from honest. sentence is confess aguilt, crime and flaw etc.
3. Obedience from obey. The structure is first person + second person +
4. Growth from grow. third person, is called 123.
5. Childhood from child. Examples:
2. I, you and he have done this crime.
PRONOUN: KINDS OF PRONOUN Rule 03:
 The word which is used to check the  In the case of plural or mixture of the subject, 123
repetition of a Noun in a sentence, the word is used.
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Examples: 04. You hurt yourself.
03. We, you and they are going to the market. 07. EMPHATIC PRONOUN
02. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN  An Emphatic pronoun is that which is used to add
 Demonstrative pronouns indicate the object that emphasis to the subject of the sentence.
we try to describe or tell you the specific distance  They are used to emphasize noun or pronoun.
(near or far) of the objects. Examples:
Examples: Self (My, Your, Him, Her and It)
Near (This = These) Selves (Our, Them and your)
Far (That = Those). 01. He himself opened the window.
01. This is my book. 08. DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUN
02. These are my books.  The pronouns, which refer to the person or things
03. That is your book. one at a time are known as Distributive Pronoun.
04. Those are your books.  They are always singular.
03. I N D E F I N I T E P R O N O U N: Examples:
 The pronouns, sometimes used in a sentence Neither /Either (Group of two people)
don’t refer to any particular thing or person. Each/None (Group of more than two people) etc.
 They are used in a general way,such pronouns 01. Neither of girls was late.
are known as Indefinite Pronoun. 02. Either of you can go.
Examples: 09. RECIPROCAL PRONOUN
All, Anyone, Anybody, Anything, Everyone, Everybody,  These Pronouns denote the exchange of action
Everything, Someone, Somebody, Something, No one, between them.
Nobody, Nothing, Some, None etc.  These work as compound pronouns and are
01. Nobody can help you in this issue. separated by apreposition.
02. Did you ask anybody to come here?  Reciprocal pronouns are used for persons or things
03. Somebody has stolen my watch. what act and react upon one another.
04. INTEROGATIVE PRONOUN Examples:
 The pronouns that are used for asking the questions, Each other (Only for two persons).
called Interrogative Pronoun. One another (More than two persons).
Examples: 01. My students competed with each other.
What, Who, Which, Whose, Whom, Why etc. 02. Your friends faced each other.
01. Who is there? 03. You deceived one another.
02. What do you want?
03. Whom did you see? ADJECTIVE
05. RELATIVE PRONOUN
 The word Adjective is derived from the Latin word
 A Relative pronoun is one which is used to refer to
“Adjectivous” means “Adds to”.
nouns mentioned previously, whether they are
 An Adjective is a describing word used to add
people, places, things,animals or ideas.
something to the meaning of a Noun or Pronoun.
 Relative pronoun can be used to join two sentences.
 An Adjective is a word used to qualify a Noun or
 It is used to connect clause or phrase to a noun or
Pronoun by means of its quality, quantity and
pronoun.
number.
Example:
Examples:
01. A man who lost his wallet couldn’t buy his
01. Dua is good girl.
groceries.
02. Almas is an intelligent boy.
Examples:
03. Karachi is a large city.
Who, Whom, That, Which, Whoever, Whomever,
04. Your father is a rich man.
Whichever, Where etc.
05. I have some money.
01. This is a place where we met.
06. They had a red cow.
02. You can choose one person, whomever you like.
07. This is a fat dog.
06. REFLEXIVE PRONOUN
08. They are loyal to their country.
 The pronouns, which represent the action performed 09. Your brother is an old man.
by the subject is on the subject itself. 10. There are thirty boys in the class.
 They are used as objects of the verb when the action KINDS OF ADJECTIVE
of verb returns to the doer. Adjectives of quality (Descriptive Adjective):
 The subject and object are the samepersons in  Adjectives, show the kind, quality and the state of
reflexive pronoun. the persons or things.
Examples: Examples:
Self (Singular, added to my, your, her, him and it). Good, Bad, Thin, Thick, Full, Short, Tall, Long, Ugly,
Selves (Plural, added to our, them and your). Beautiful, Kind, Idle, Clever, Lazy, Active, Intelligent, New,
01. I hurt myself. Red, Dark, Honest, Fast, Foolish, Black, Old, Large etc.
02. He hurt himself. 01. Karachi is a large city.
03. They hurt themselves. 02. Aslam is a tall boy.
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03. That is a thin blanket.  These point out such adjectives used with noun to
04. This is a sweet mango. ask the questions.
Adjective o quality answers the questions, of what kind? Examples:
Adjectives of quantity: What, Which, Whose, and Where.
 Adjectives, show the quantity of a Noun. These point 1. What color is your hair?
out how much of a thing is meant. 2. Which purse is hers?
Examples: 3. Whose gifts are these?
‫)نه ڻ‬.
 Little (‫هئ برابر‬ Adjectives are formed from Nouns, Verbs, and Adjectives.
 A little (‫ ڪجهه‬،‫)ڪجهه قدر‬.
 The little (‫ جيڪا ڪجهه‬،‫)جيڪو‬. VERB
 Few (‫ گهڻو نه‬، ‫)مشڪل سان‬.  Action or doing word.
 A few (‫)ڪجهه‬.  A word used to express an action or state of subject.
 The few (‫جيڪ ڪجهه‬ ،‫)ڪجهه قدر‬.
‫ي‬  The Verb is derived from Latin “Verbum” means the
Some, Many, Any, Enough, Sufficient, Whole, All, Half,
“Say word”.
Several, A lot of, No, Plenty, Any etc.
 A Verb is a word that tells or asserts something
01. I ate some rice.
about a person or thing.
02. He showed much patience.
 It is the most important word in a sentence.
03. He has little intelligence.
 The word which indicates the action is known as
04. He have no sense.
Verb.
05. There is little milk in the jug.
06. There was a little hope of his recovery.  A Verb may tell us; what a person or thing does?
07. The little amount he has, is saved. What is done to a person or thing? What a person
08. I have few biscuits. or thing is?
09. She has a few photos. KINDS OF VERB
10. The few mistakes he made were omitted. Transitive Verb:
Adjectives of number (Numeral Adjectives):  Transitive is derived from the Latin “Transitivus”
 Adjectives, show the number of persons or things means “That which passes over”.
meant and in what order the same stand.  A Verb is said to be used transitively, when it
A) Definite Numeral Adjectives: indicates an action which is exercised directly upon
 These adjectives point out some definite some object.
number of a Noun.  A verb which requires an object after it to complete
Cardinal (One, Two, Three, Four, Five etc.) its sense is called “Transitive Verb”.
Ordinal (First, Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth etc.)  A transitive verb is a verb that denotes an action
B) Indefinite Numeral Adjectives: which passes over from the doer or subject to an
 These adjectives do not point out the exact or object.
accurate number of a noun, so these give the Examples:
idea of an indefinite number. 1. The boy kicks the football.
Examples: 2. Aslam kills the snake.
All, Many, Few, Some, Any, Much, More, Several, 3. He cooks rice.
Sundry, Certain, No etc. Intransitive Verb:
C) Distributive Numeral Adjectives:  An intransitive verb is a verb that denotes an action
 Such Adjectives point out or set apart each one which does not pass over to an object, or which
of the number or the groups. expresses a state or being.
Examples: Examples:
Each, Every, Either, Neither etc. 1. He ran a long distance (Action).
1. Each student did his homework. 2. The baby sleeps (State).
2. Everyone should do ones duty. 3. The boy runs.
3. Either bird will fly. 4. River flows.
4. Neither one is loyal. 5. The Sun shines.
Demonstrative Adjective: 6. He comes daily.
 These adjectives point which person or thing 7. The bay cries.
is meant. VOICE
Examples:  In grammar voice does not mean sound from the
This, That, These, Those and Such. mouth but it points out the way or manner of
1. This book is mine. expression.
2. That man is lazy.  It is the form of verb which shows whether the
3. I like these apples. subject does something or something is done by the
4. Those students must be taught. subject.
5. She hates such things.  There are two voices; Active voice and Passive Voice.
Demonstrative adjectives answer the question, which? Active Voice:
Interrogative Adjectives:  The verb whose subject is active or when the subject
is doer of some action.
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 The active Voice is so called because its subject acts. 2. This story is well written.
Examples: 3. The child slept soundly.
1. Aslam writes a letter. Adverbs of Degree or Quantity:
2. She will sing the songs.  Which show how much, or in what degree or to what
3. Your team has won the match. extent.
Passive Voice: 1. He was too careless.
 The verb is in the Passive Voice when something is 2. Is that any better?
done to its subject. 3. These mangoes are almost ripe.
 The Passive Voice is so called because the verb is not 4. The sea is very stormy.
active. 5. She sings pretty well.
 Here the subject receives an action. 6. You are partly right.
 Only a Transitive verb is used in the Passive voice Adverbs of Affirmation or Negation:
because Intransitive verb has no any object. 1. Surely you are mistaken.
Examples: 2. He certainly went.
1. A letter is written by me. 3. I do not know him.
2. A snake was killed by Almas. 4. Adverbs of reason:
3. The songs will be sung by her. 5. He is hence unable to refute the charge.
6. He therefore left the school.
ADVEERB
 An Adverb is a word which modifies the meaning of a PREPOSITION
Verb, an Adjective or another Adverb.  Preposition is derived from the Latin “Praepositionem”
 Adverbs standing at the beginning of sentences which means “I place before”, thus the preposition
sometimes modify the whole sentence, rather than called that which is placed before.
any particular word; as,  A preposition is a word which joins a Noun or Pronoun
1. Probably (‫ )غالئ‬he is mistaken. to another word and indicates some relation between
2. Possibly it is as you say. the Noun and Pronoun and that word.
3. Evidently (‫ )واضح طور يت‬the figures are incorrect.  A preposition is a word that makes the position of
4. Unfortunately no one was present there. different things specially Noun or Pronoun clear in a
5. Luckily he escaped unhurt. sentence, so it is used to show the ways in which other
KINDS OF ADVERB words are connected.
Adverbs of Time:  A preposition is a word placed before a Noun or a
1. Which show when. Pronoun to show in what relation the person or thing
2. I have heard this before. denoted by it, stand in regard to something else.
3. We shall now begin to work. Uses of Preposition
4. He comes here daily. To another Noun or Pronoun:
5. I have spoken to him already.  The Purse is in the pocket (Noun). He sat beside me
6. He once met me in Karachi. (Pronoun).
7. Mr. Almas formerly lived here. To an Adjective:
8. Wasted time never returns. 1. He was great in war.
9. He called here a few minutes ago. To a Verb:
10. The end soon came. 1. Come with me.
11. I hurt my knee yesterday. To an Adverb of time:
Adverbs of frequency: 1. He will work from now.
1. Which show how often. To a phrase:
2. I have told you twice. 1. He has stolen my purse from under my pillow.
3. He often makes mistakes. To a clause:
4. I have not seen him once. 1. I am interested in what he says.
5. He seldom comes here. When the object is an interrogative pronoun, the
Adverbs of place: Preposition is placed at the end:
1. Which show where. 1. What are they looking at?
2. Stand here. When the object is Relative Pronoun “that”, the
3. Go there. preposition is always placed at the end:
4. The little lamb followed Mary everywhere. 1. It is the picture that you are looking at?
5. He looked up. When the object is Relative Pronoun (Understood) the
6. My brother is out. Preposition comes at the end:
7. Come in. 1. The boy (whom) you spoke of has come.
8. Walk backward. KINDS OF PREPOSITION
Adverbs of manner:  There are 5 main kinds of Preposition, discussed
 Which show how or in what manner. below in detail.
 This adverb clause includes nearly all those Adverbs 01. Simple Preposition:
which are derived from adjectives and end in –ly.  Such prepositions contain simple words.
1. Govind reads clearly. Example:
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At, By, For, From, In, Of, Off, On, Out, Over, Through, Till, To, 04. They aimed at doing well.
Under, Up, With etc. 05. The tiger growled at the farmer.
02. Compound Preposition: It is used to indicate work/occupation:
 When a single/simple preposition is not sufficient to 01. He is hard at it.
express the idea then compound Prepositions are 02. They are at party.
used. 03. I am at work.
 Such Prepositions are generally formed by adding 04. What is he at now?
“A=no”, and “Be=By”. It is used to denote
Examples: rate/degree/value/cost/sate/condition/order/manner/ag
Amidst, Amongst, Around, Before, Behind, Below, Beneath, e/distance and position:
Beside, Between, Beyond, Inside, Outside, Underneath, 01. He is driving the car at full speed.
Within, Without etc. 02. He sold his bike at a loss.
03. Double Preposition: 03. Both the parties are at peace nowadays.
 These are two Prepositions used together. 04. Pakistan is not at war with India.
Examples: 05. I am glad at his success.
Against, as far, As regards, as to, From among, From under, 06. My father is anxious at my failure.
from within, Out of, Owing to, Within etc. 07. My friend passed the entry test at the second
04. Phrase Preposition: attempt.
 These are the groups of words functioning as 08. He is at ease.
Preposition and used with the force of a single 09. My brother is busy at the movement.
Preposition. 10. It looks better at distance.
Examples: 11. He was working at the table.
According to, Agreeably to, Along with, Away from, 12. The vehicles are at the signals/lights.
Because of, By dint of, By means of, By reason of, For the IN:
sake of, In accordance with, In addition to, In case of, In It is used for the large towns, countries, and places
comparison to, In compliance with, In consequence of, In important to the speakers:
consequence of, in course of, In favor of, In lieu of, In order 01. He lives in Karachi.
to, In place of, In reference to, In regard to, Inspite of, 02. The statue of liberty is in America.
Instead of, In the event of, On account of, Owing to, With a 03. The Himalaya is the highest mountain in the world.
view to, With an eye to, With reference to, With regard to 04. They are in temple/church/mosque/prison.
etc. 05. He was born in London.
05. Participle Preposition: 06. Which is the biggest ocean in the world?
 These are present ot past Participles used as It is used to denote a period of time:
Prepositions. 01. He gets up early in the morning.
Examples: 02. She reaches school in time.
Barring, Concerning, Considering, During, Not withstanding, 03. The flowers bloom in spring.
Pending, Regarding, Respecting, Saving, Supposing, 04. The train will be leaving in 10 minutes.
Touching, (Such words do not take a Preposition before or 05. He learnt to drive in four weeks.
after them). It denotes position or rest:
Different uses of Prepositions: 01. An old man has a stick in his hand.
AT – IN – INTO 02. My mother is lying in bed at home.
AT: 03. There is no one in the room/in the building/ in the
It is used to denote small, and less important places, 04. Park/in the garden/in the office.
villages, towns and definite part of space. 05. He is sitting in chair/he is in chair.
1. My brother lives at Chelhar. 06. There is something in the box.
2. I am at the door. It expresses manner:
3. The passengers are at the bus stop. 01. She sings in a sweet tune.
4. My brother is at home. 02. You must be polite in your attitude.
5. He lives at the top of hill. 03. Aslam prefers to sit in first row.
6. He will meet you at the college. 04. He always pay his bills in cash.
7. Open your book at page 50. 05. They fell in love with each other.
It is used to indicate definite point of time: 06. We trust in God.
1. The farmer came home at day break/sunset. 07. Write in ink.
2. The train arrives at mid night. 08. Write your name in block letters.
3. He died at early hour this morning. 09. The children always play in street.
4. They will meet the guest at breakfast. INTO:
5. The principal will reach at 9 O’ clock. It denotes motion towards the inside of anything from
6. The function will end at half past time. outside:
It is used to indicate the direction/towards: 01. The boy fell into the pond.
01. I did not laugh at the beggar. 02. He walked into the room.
02. He is looking at the picture. 03. An angry women jumped into the well.
03. The boy threw the stone at the dog. 04. Thieves broke into the room.
 8
05. The river Indus flows into the Arabian sea. 04. He is with his father now but he will be with you
06. The lion rushed into its den. tomorrow.
BY – WITH – WITHIN 05. He has a good relationship with his parents.
BY: 06. He parted with his property.
It is used to indicate the doer or agent of an action after 07. I am bored with my job.
the verb in the Passive voice. WITHIN:
01. A letter was written by Almas. Which means before the end of:
02. He was murdered by a robber/a dacoit. 01. He will be there within two days.
It is used to denote time, measurement, division 02. I shall return your money within a week.
(arithmetic) 03. You must always try to live within your means.
01. What is the time by your watch? 04. Finish your work within a week/ in a day or two.
02. I shall return by 5 o’ clock in the morning. 05. To appoint him is not within my reach/power.
03. Eggs sell by dozen. ON – UP – UPON
04. Cloth is measured by meter. ON:
05. The prices have increased by 10 rupees. It is used to indicate time:
It is used to show the path or means of trave: 01. He was born on 25th December, 1980.
He prefers to travel by air/by sea. 02. We have holiday on Sunday.
1. She always go her home by train. 03. I gave him a gift on his birthday.
It is used to show how we do something or how 04. I sent him card on New Year’s Day.
something can happen: 05. The president addressed the nation on Labour
01. The streets are lighted by electricity. Day.
02. I sent him letter by post. It denotes something supported by/attached to/ lying
03. We pay our bill by cheque. against/in contact with:
04. They meet me at the party by chance. 01. Keep your book on the table.
05. He took my pen by mistake. 02. The book is on the table.
It is used to indicate a part of body that is touched. 03. They sit on the grass in the park.
01. He caught Abid by his neck. 04. Ice/wood floats on the water.
02. I took him by the hand. 05. There are many pictures on the wall.
It is also used in following cases: 06. The label is on the bottle.
1. He is Syed by caste. 07. There is no body living on the Island.
2. He has no child by his wife. 08. The guests are standing on the road.
3. He swore by God. It points out an activity/manner/state when followed by a
WITH: Noun or an Adjective:
It is used with the instrument with which the action is 01. He met me on the way.
done. 02. Aslam always goes school on foot/on a bicycle/ on
01. The teacher hit him with stick. a bike/ on horseback.
02. She cut an apple with knife. 03. The house is on fire. It is better, we may get out.
03. He hanged himself with a piece of cloth. 04. Keep on the left.
04. The farmer cut the tree with an axe. It is also used in following ways:
05. Let me write with a pencil. 01. They congratulated me on my success.
06. I always write with pen. 02. We cannot rely on him.
It is used to indicate manner: 03. He is dependent on his brother.
01. Why are you angry with me? 04. His income is not enough to live on.
02. My boss is pleased with me. 05. He goes on diet now.
03. I am satisfied with his progress. 06. Though I have some problems but on the whole I
04. Don’t quarrel with each other. enjoy my job.
05. The army fought with great courage. UP:
06. I agree/disagree with him on this matter. It is used in following ways.
07. The judge was satisfied with his statement. 1. Go upstairs/ladder.
08. He received guests with open arms. 2. Make up the loss.
It is used to indicate what is used for filling, covering, 3. The boy climbed up.
having or carrying: 4. The monkey ran up the trees.
01. The mountains were covered with snow. 5. You are walking too fast, I cannot keep up with
02. Fill this cup with tea. you.
03. She is the girl with red hair. 6. He gets up early in the morning.
04. The shopkeeper fill the bag with goods. 7. Ring up your father.
05. He went out with my permission. 8. We are square up now.
It is also used in following ways. 9. Time/game is up.
01. Compare Ali with Aslam. 10. He turned up late at night.
02. The pen is write with. 11. Give up all your bad habits.
03. The farmer rises with sun. UPON:
It is generally used in speaking of things in motion:
 9
01. The dog sprang upon the box. 02. Put off old clothes.
02. The patient has been operated upon. 03. The cap is off the head.
03. He had no evidence to go upon. 04. Friends fall off in adversity.
04. I have hit upon a plan. 05. The river flows off the bridge.
05. You have conferred a great favour upon me. 06. Turn off the tap.
BESIDE – BESIDES 07. He switched off the fan.
BESIDE: 08. The strike will be called off tomorrow.
Beside means by the side of. It is used in following ways: 09. It was only a yard off me.
01. He sat beside his father. 10. I took off my shirt.
02. The dog is sitting beside the Kinjhar Lake. 11. He is off his head.
03. His answer is beside the question. BEHIND – BEFORE
BESIDES: BEHIND:
Besides means is addition to, so it is used in following It is used in the sense of “at the back of (place) remaining
ways. after (time, rank):
01. Besides doing my work I help my father. 01. My house is behind yours.
02. Besides giving advice, he gave me money also. 02. He lives behind my house.
03. Besides being fined he was prisoned also. 03. He hide himself behind the curtain.
04. Besides a book Aslam gave me a note book also. 04. There is a history behind the ruins of Moen Jo
05. Besides bread he had butter also. Daro.
06. Besides a home he has a flat also. BEFORE:
07. Nobody besides my brother supported me at the It is used to denote a point of time:
election. 01. He wrote a letter to his friend before this.
08. He bought some books besides pencil. 02. I always work hard before the examinations.
OF – OFF 03. The sun will rise before six O’ clock.
OF: 04. My father will come before 7 O’ clock.
It is used to indicate cause: 05. We should put honesty before profit.
01. We are afraid of a snake. BETWEEN – AMONG
02. We should be proud of our country. BETWEEN:
03. He should be ashamed of his such a behavior. It is used in speaking for two persons or things:
04. I am tired of him. 01. Divide the cake between these two boys.
They are not afraid of death. 02. The property was divided equally between two
05. He died of cholera/cancer/typhoid/TB. brothers.
06. What are you thinking of? 03. Islamabad is between Mari and Rawalpindi.
07. He speaks ill of you. It can be used for more when we have a definite number
It is used to denote connection/relation: in mind:
01. He is blind of one eye. 01. Pakistan lies between India, Iran, China, and
02. Your horse is lame of one leg. Afghanistan.
03. She is deaf of one ear. 02. They reached here between noon and evening.
04. Diplo is to the south of Mithi. 03. The difference between 8 and 12 is 4.
05. He is sure of his success. 04. It is only between you and me.
06. I am confident of his arrival. AMONG:
07. I am fond of mangoes. It refers to more than two persons or things:
08. I am fond of music/ 01. He was standing among the people.
09. Beware of pick pockets. 02. The foolish quarrel among themselves.
10. His wife delivered of a male child. 03. The father divided his property among his sons.
11. He was relieved of his duties. 04. My village is among the hills.
12. This patient has been cured of the disease. 05. He was happy to be among friends again.
13. Be loyal of your country. 06. The brave, soldiers never quarrel among
14. One should not be jealous of others. themselves.
15. He reminds me of his brother. 07. Even honesty/Honour prevailed among thieves.
It is used to indicate origin, material, measurement and FOR – FROM – SINCE
etc. FOR:
01. He is man of principles. It is used for indicating the purpose:
02. The chair is made of wood. 01. The boy is crying for his mother.
03. Our home is built of bricks. 02. He does not prepare well for the test.
04. The basket was full of fruit. 03. I paid ten rupees for it.
05. He bought six meters of cloth. 04. He sacrificed for his country.
06. I need a sheet of a paper. 05. My father reads for pleasure.
07. It is a sum of addition/subtraction. 06. I am getting late for school.
OFF: 07. Let’s hope for the best.
It is used to denote not on, down from and away from: It is used to indicate suitability:
01. Cut slice off the bread. 01. He is fit for this job.
 10
02. Raw fruit is harmful for health. It is used in the sense of below, beneath
03. He has no clothes for this occasion. (anything/covered area on the surface) less than or lower
It indicates a period of time. than:
01. He stayed with me for two days. 01. The cat is under the table.
02. I have been waiting here for the last two years. 02. He may rest under the tree.
03. Aslam went Karachi for a week. 03. They are under the tree.
04. The fountains had been running for an hour. 04. He begins school from today.
It is also used in the following ways. It is used to show difference or distinction:
01. Please call/send for the doctor at once. 01. My pen differs from your pen.
02. The beggar begged him for money/charity. 02. God differs from brass.
03. I have no respect for a liar. 03. He does not know good from bed.
04. I always care for him. 04. These sights are different from others.
05. I am anxious for my father’s health. It is used to indicate the place and object, whose distance
FROM: and absence is stated:
It is used to indicate starting of a period of time. It is used 01. You must abstain from smoking.
for any form of tense. 02. He has run away from home.
01. He worked from morning to evening. 03. My father has come from Canada.
02. I am not your friend from today. 04. They prevented him from falling.
03. I shall join my job from the 1st of January. 05. Where do you come from?
04. She will read book from beginning to end. 06. Never deviate from the path of truth.
It is also used in the following ways: It is also used in the following ways:
01. Ice is scattered over the road. 01. The villagers draw water from a well in Thar.
02. Birds fly over hills and vales. 02. Boys over sixteen are debarred from competition.
03. The bridge is over the river. 03. He bought some gifts from the shop.
04. The old men has umbrella over his head. 04. The conditions are growing from bad to worse.
05. I have glanced over your letter. 05. Wine is made from grapes.
06. The cat jumped over the wall. SINCE:
07. He is over eighty years. It is used to denote some point of time. It comes after
08. Don’t cry over spilt milk. object/verb in the Present and Past perfect tenses:
09. River Indus is over seventeen hundred miles. 01. He has not met us since last night.
DURING: 02. I have been ill since Sunday.
It is used to indicate at some point a period of time: 03. The boss has been on leave since January.
01. He did not meet his friend during his visit to 04. The child has been sleeping since after noon.
Lahore. 05. They have not met since 1st January.
02. I do not talk during eating/taking meal. TO:
03. We did not greet each other during the meeting. It is used to denote preference/comparison:
04. We shall go to visit Lahore during summer 01. He is junior to me.
vacation. 02. This cloth is superior to that.
05. I fell asleep during the film. 03. He is like brother to me.
06. It must have rained during the night. 04. He prefers tea to coffee.
AFTER: 05. Your writing is similar to me.
It is used to denote the end of a period in the past: 06. Some people prefer wealth to health.
01. He came to his native place after twenty years. It is used to show any feeling/relation:
02. I met him after a long time. 1. My brother is very kind to me.
03. He went to see his ailing friend after a week. 2. I am graceful to you.
It is also used in the following ways: 3. We shall remain thankful to them.
01. The cat runs after the rats. 4. He is true to his words.
02. The parents looked after their children. 5. Smoking is dangerous to health.
03. A son takes after his father. 6. This road leads to Hyderabad.
04. It is poetry after Shah Lateef. 7. Let’s pray to God for rain.
05. I came after them. 8. What is he to you?
06. This building is after great Mughal architects. 9. She gave a birth to male child.
ABOUT: 10. He was admitted to hospital.
It is used in the following ways. 11. Mariam was married to Akram.
01. He is about to go now. 12. He invited us to tea.
02. The mother is worried/careful about her son’s 13. China is to North of Pakistan.
health. 14. Listen to me carefully.
03. Your father enquired about you. 15. Just listen to what I say.
04. Go about your business. 16. He spoke to us in English.
05. He is about seventeen now. 17. I agree/disagree to your proposal.
06. He complaints about pain in his stomach. 18. I can say this to his face.
UNDER: 19. Read the newspaper to me.
 11
OVER: 4. My mother has done a lot towards my comfort.
It is used to denote superiority in rank and authority: 5. The soldiers besieged the city towards morning.
1. Lady Diana was famous all over the world. DOWN:
2. The great Akbar ruled over a vast empire. It is used in the following ways:
3. He has no control over his son. 1. The boys climbed down the tree.
4. The chief guest presided over the function. 2. The water flowed down the drain.
5. The cost of this book is under fifty rupees. 3. She went down town.
6. He works under me. 4. My friend came down in the world.
7. My feet are under the table. 5. They were walking down the road towards the
8. She put her necklace under her pillow. station.
ABOVE: THROUGH:
It is used in the sense of a little over the surface of any It is used in the following ways:
other thing: 1. I have gotten through the examination.
1. The roof is above all of us. 2. We shall get through the repair now.
2. He lives above his means. 3. The driver drove through the red light and was
3. They are above all these things. caught.
4. Its price is above RS. 50. 4. I have gotten through money yesterday.
5. Aslam is above 50. 5. They stayed there through the day.
6. Who is above you in the class? 6. Did you see the sights through the window?
7. His work is above praise. 7. I sent a letter through a messenger.
AGAINST: 8. The tourists passed through Pakistan and Iran.
It is used in the sense of in opposition/contrary to:
1. Was he against me? CONJUNCTION
2. Have you any complaint against us?  It is derived from the Latin “Conjunctionem” means “A
3. The public is cautioned against thieves. joining together”.
4. The boy stood against the wall.  A conjunction is a word used to join words or groups
5. They spoke against me in the court. of words or sentences together.
6. I strongly advise you to save against rainy days. Examples:
TILL/UNTILL: 1. Two and two make four.
It is used in the sense of not earlier than: 2. I am young but wise.
1. He will stay till Sunday. 3. She is poor but honest.
2. Wait for me till I come. 4. Boys and girls go to school.
3. Stay here till they return. The conjunctions joins different parts of speech together,
4. My brother will be working until 10PM. as
5. He will be away until Monday.  Nouns: Aslam and Ali went away.
6. Let’s wait until it stops raining.  Nouns and Pronouns: Aslam and I work together.
7. She did not get up until half past ten.  Adjectives: A wise and clever man came here.
8. Let’s star now and work till/until dark.  Pronouns: He as well as I fell down.
BELOW:  Verbs: The man sat down and wept.
It is used in the sense of lower than:  Adverbs: The ship floated over and across the sea.
1. He stands below me in the class. Conjunctions merely join, they do no other work.
2. My father gave him a cheque below five hundred. Some Common conjunctions are as under.
3. They live below us in this building.
 And, As, Either, Hence, Likewise, Neither, Or, Also,
4. Today temperature is below 40C.
Accordingly, Further, However, Moreover, Nor, Since,
ACROSS:
As well as, Because, For, If, Oher wise, Before,
It is used in the sense of, from one side to another:
Therefore, So that, Still, Until, Both, unless and Yet etc.
1. The dog ran across the field.
Some Conjunctions are used in pairs, such conjunctions
2. He sailed across the river in thirty minutes.
are called Co-relative Conjunctions or Co-relatives.
3. The light must fall across the lane.
These are used as under,
4. When the signal was red, he ran across the road.
Either – or
BUT:
1. Either you or I must go. Either do it or go out.
It is used in the following ways:
2. Either he or you have stolen my purse.
1. No one but I could answer the question.
3. Either Aslam or his brother is criminal.
2. Who but my brother can guide me?
Neither – Nor
3. All but Iqra were present there.
1. Aslam is neither intelligent nor diligent.
4. She was the last but one to sing.
2. He is neither rich nor poor.
TOWARD/TOWARDS:
3. Neither does he come nor does he reply.
It is used in the following ways:
4. He can neither read nor write.
1. He was driving towards his home.
Both – And
2. What steps have you taken towards the solution of
1. He is both a poet and a philosopher.
your problem?
2. Both men and women are enlisted during census.
3. He has friendly relations towards me.
 12
3. Both the buffalo and the cow give milk. Co-ordinating Conjunctions are of four kinds.
4. Both you and I were friends. 01. Cumulative or Copulative Conjunction:
Though/Although/Even though – Yet  Which merely add one statement to another, as;
1. Though Aslam is ill, yet performs his duties. i. We carved not a line.
2. Though he has abused me, yet he is intelligent. ii. We raised not a stone.
3. Even though he hates me, yet I pray for him. 02. Adversative Conjunction:
4. Though your father is old, yet he is strong.  Which express opposition or contrast between two
5. Although he is poor, yet he is generous. statements. As,
6. Although he is rich, he is miserly. I. He ran fast but missed the train.
Such –As II. You are not rich still, you could do something to
1. There is no such a person as you respect. help him.
2. There is no such a book as you referred. 03. Illative Conjunction:
3. There is no such a company as the students  These Conjunctions express an inference. Illative is
mention. derived from Latin word “Illatus” means “that which is
4. There is no such a task as he performs. inferred”.
So – That I. He was punished for he was guilty.
1. He was so tired that he could not walk. II. Aslam did not do well in the test, therefore he
2. He was so simple that he could not get bribe. failed.
3. I have become so tired that I can work no longer. 04. Disjunctive or Alternative Conjunction:
Not only – But also  Which express a choice between two alternatives; as
1. Shah Abdul Latif was not only a saint but also a I. She must weep, or she will die.
poet. II. Either he is mad, or he feigns madness.
Hardly/Scarcely – When Subordinating Conjunctions:
No sooner – Than  These are the Conjunctions, which join the
2. No sooner did the bell ring, than the boys left the Main/Principal Clause to Sub-ordinate Clause.
class.  Sub ordinate Conjunctions are those which join sub
3. No sooner does she return home than she begins ordinate Clause to any other clause on which it
to work. depends for its full meaning.
4. No sooner did they leave the home than it began Subordinating conjunctions are classified into 8 kinds.
to rain. Temporal or Time:
Such – That  When: I shall go, when my father comes back.
1. His character is such that you can believe upon  Before: Reach home, before it rains.
him.  Till/Until: Wait till/until he returns.
2. His behavior is such that everyone admires him.
 So long As: The name of martyr will live so long as
Whether – Or
the world lasts.
1. I cannot say, whether he will come or not.
 As soon as: I will leave the home as soon as you
2. I do not care, whether you go or stay.
come.
Would – Rather
 As: The teacher entered into the class as the clock
1. The thief would rather agree than refuse.
struck 9 O’ clock.
2. The boy would rather work than go to bed.
 While: While there is life, there is hope.
Other – Than
Final or Purpose:
1. She was no other women than your mother.
2. He was no other boy than Aslam.  Lest: Work hard lest you should fail.
Indeed – But  So that: We read the books, so that we may gain
1. The thief was indeed caught red handed but knowledge.
escaped.  That: We eat that we may live.
2. They are indeed friends but no body trusts. Causal or Reason/Cause:
CLAUSES AND KINDS OF CONJUNCTION  Because: Aslam went to a doctor because he was
 Conjunctions are divided into two classes. ill.
1. Coordinating  For: Kapil Dev deserved to succeed, for he worked
2. Subordinating. hard.
Coordinating Conjunctions:  Since: Since you already know, I will not tell a lie.
 The sentence contains two independent statements or  As: As I am ill, I cannot come.
two statements of equal rank or importance. Conditional or Condition:
 Hence the Conjunction joining together these two  If: She will achieve her target, if works hard.
statements or clauses of equal rank is called Co-  Unless: He will not attend the party, unless he is
coordinating Conjunction. (Co-coordinating means “of invited.
equal rank”.  Provided that: You can take the camera, provided
 A Co-ordinating conjunction joins together clauses of that you will return in time.
equal rank.  On the condition that: I forgave my younger
 The chief co-ordinating conjunctions are; And, But, brother on the condition that he will give up bad
For, Nor, Or, Also, Either-or, Neither-nor. habits.
 13
 Whether: Nobody can say whether he will pass or  An action in the Perfect Continuous Tense denoted
not. in a perfect or complete condition after the
Comparison or Contrast: continuous action.
 Than: Your brother is clever than you. 01. PRESENT INDEFINITE/SIMPLE/INCOMPLETE
 As: Thari Ashok is an intelligent as I. TENSE
 As-so: As you work, so you will be paid.  An assertion (‫ )بيان‬made as of present time is said to
 So-as: As for as I know he is an honest man. be in Present Tense.
Concession or supposition:  It denotes an action that is done just now.
 Though: Though he is un well, he is doing well.  It can be used in the following ways.
 Al though: A book is a book although there is 1. I am a student.
nothing in it. 2. We are boys.
 However: However fast you run, you cannot win. 3. He is a doctor.
 If: If he is there, I shall see him. 4. This is book.
Local or Place: 5. These are tables.
 Where: He injured, where he fell. 6. Those are pictures.
 Where ever: I shall sleep, where ever I like. 7. This is a museum.
 Whence: He returned whence I came. 8. She is a nurse.
Consequent or Result:  When there are three persons in the sentence,
So-that: second person, Third person and then First Person
I. He was so weak that he could not run fast. are taken respectively with to be verb.
II. The police man ran so fast that he caught the 1. You, he and I are good players.
thief. 2. You, she and I are free now.
III. Water is so hot that I cannot bath with it.  For making Negative sentence only “Not” is place
INTERJECTION after “To be verb”.
1. I am not a student.
 An interjection is a word which expresses some sudden
2. They are not tailors.
feeling or emotion.
3. My brother is not a clerk.
Interjection may express
 For making Interrogative sentence mainly “To be”
 Joy: Hurrah! Huzza!
verb is used before the sentence ending with
 Grief: Alas!
“Question Mark”.
 Surprise: Ha! What!
1. Am I a student?
 Approval: Bravo! 2. Are they tailors?
Examples: 3. Is my brother a clerk?
01. Hellow! What are you doing there?
 To express possession or ownership of something
02. Hurrah! We have won the game.
or person in current time. “Has” is used after
03. Alas! He is dead.
singular and “Have” for plural in numbers, only
04. Ah! Have they gone?
“Have” can be used with “I” and “You”.
05. Oh! I got such a fright.
1. I have a pen.
06. Hush! Don’t make a noise.
2. We have new uniforms.
Certain groups of words are also used to express some
3. He has a motor bike.
sudden feeling or emotion; as,
 For making Negative sentences only “Not” or “No”
 Ah me! For shame! Well done! Good gracious!
is used after “To have” verb.
TENSE 1. I have no pen/I have not a pen.
 Tense is derived through French from Latin 2. My friend has not his own bike.
“Tempus” means time. 3. Aslam has not a son/Aslam has no son.
 Tense is a change in the verb to express the time.  For making Interrogative sentences only “To have”
Tense marks the time of an action whether it is verb is used before the sentence.
completed at that time or not. 1. Have I a pen?
 There are three divisions of time (Tense); Present, 2. Has his brother his own bike?
Past and Future. 3. Have those students’ new bags?
 The difference between Present and Past Tenses is  To express any general matter and permanent
shown y conjugation whereas to express the Future truth.
Tense we have to use Auxiliary Verbs, Will and Shall. 1. Babies weep.
 An action in the Present, Past and Future may be 2. Birds fly.
considered without reference to its completeness or 3. Dogs bark.
incompleteness. 4. Milk is white.
 An action in the Continuous Tenses, carry the 5. Unity is strength.
Auxiliary Verb “To be”. 6. The Sun rises in the east.
 An action in the Perfect Tense may be considered in 7. The Earth revolves around the Sun.
a perfect or complete condition. All the Perfect 8. The soul is immortal. We all are mortal.
Tenses as a rule contain Auxiliary verb “To have”.  Also express the following conditions.
 14
1. We go there daily (Habit). 7. I know what you mean (Present action).
2. This horse walks slowly (Habit). 8. Look! How it thunders (Present action).
3. The school opens at eight (Habit). 9. Look! How pretty it seems (Presentaction).
4. He gets up early in the morning (Habit). 10. Pakistan comes into existence on 14th August,
5. I take tea twice a day (Habit). 1947 (Past action).
6. Nurse looks after the patient (Habit). 11. Babar defeats his opponents (Past action).
STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE OF PRESENT INDEFINIT TENSE
Sentence Assertive/Affirmative/Descriptive sentences

Case (1) I, We, You, They & C.Noun Plural

Structure Subject + Verb(First form) + Object

Example I write a letter.

Case (2) He, She, It, proper nouns, Singular

Structure Subject + Verb(First form) + S,Es, Ies + Object

Example Aslam catches the ball.

Sentence Changing the Affirmative into Negative Sentences

Case (1) I, We, You, They & C.Noun Plural

Structure Subject + do not/don’t + Verb(First form) + Object

Example (1) I don’t tell a lie. (2) We do not invite our friends. (3) They don’t ask the question.

Case (2) He, She, It, proper nouns, Singular

Structure Subject + does not/doesn’t + Verb(First form) + Object

Example (1) He does not/doesn’t do his homework. (2) She doesn’t prepare the breakfast.

Sentence Changing the Affirmative into Interrogative Sentences

Case (1) I, We, You, They & C.Noun Plural

Structure Do + Subject + Verb (First form) + Object?

(1) Do I decorate my room? (2)Do we obtain the good marks? (3) Do they achieve their targets?
Example
(4) Do your friends go for a walk? (5) Do you follow my principles?

Case (2) He, She, It, proper nouns, Singular

Structure Does + Subject + Verb (First form) + Object?

Example (1) Does he do his homework? (2) Does it blow fast outside?

Sentence Making Interrogative – Negative sentences

Case (1) I, We, You, They & C.Noun Plural

Structure Do/Does + Subject +Not + Verb (First form) + Object?

Examples (1) Do I not do my homework? (2) Does he not wait for his friend?

“WH” family are also used before the interrogative sentences for making Double Interrogative sentences.

“WH” family; What, When, Where, Which, Who, How, Whom, Whose, Why, With and In which.

(1) What is his age? (2) When does he inform you? (3) Where is your boss? (4) Which is your book?

(5) Who are you? (6) How are you? (7) Whom do you serve now? (8) Whose son are you? (9) Why is he late today?
(10) With what do you write? (11) In which class do you read?
 15
02. PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE 4. Aslam is writing a letter.
 It denotes an action going on at the time of  To denote an action that will happen in near future.
speaking. It is used when we talk about things 1. My father is leaving for Islamabad tomorrow.
happening in a period around now. 2. He is going to appear in the next examination.
 To point out an action going on at the time of
speaking.  To point out the repeated action
1. We are laughing. 1. He is always working.
2. You are running fast. 2. She is always asking the question.
3. It is raining 3. Aslam is always losing his keys.
STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE OF PRESENT INDEFINIT TENSE
Sentence Assertive/Affirmative/Descriptive sentences

Case (1) Am is used with “I”, “is” singular and “Are” for plural and You.

Structure Subject + To be Verb (Present) + Present Participle + Object

Example (1) I am reading a new lesson. (2) We are telling a lie. (3) You are taking the meal.

Sentence Changing the Affirmative into Negative Sentences

Case (1) Am is used with “I”, “is” singular and “Are” for plural and You.

Structure Subject + to be verb + Not + Present participle + object

Example (1) I am not flying the kites. (2) It is not hailing. (3) The phone is not ringing now.

Sentence Changing the Affirmative into Interrogative Sentences

Case (1) Am is used with “I”, “is” singular and “Are” for plural and You.

Structure To be verb + subject + Present participle + object?

Example (1) Am I calling them with bad names? (2) Is it getting dark now?

Sentence Making Interrogative – Negative sentences

Case (1) Am is used with “I”, “is” singular and “Are” for plural and You.

Structure To be verb + subject + Not + Present participle + object?

Examples (1) Am I not waiting for you? (2) Is the teacher not teaching them properly?

“WH” family are also used before the interrogative sentences for making Double Interrogative sentences.

“WH” family; What, When, Where, Which, Who, How, Whom, Whose, Why

What is he buying from this shop? Where are they singing the national songs? Where is she making the speech?
Which dish are you testing? How is she spelling these words? Who is knocking at the door? Whom are you telling
the truth? Whose books are you looking for? Why is Aslam waiting for us?

03. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 2. He has lived here all his life.
 It is used to express an action that is completed at 3. He has been in the army.
the time of speaking or writing or whose time is not  To denote an action whose time is not definite.
given.it always implies a strong connection with the 1. I have read “Shah Jo Risalo”.
present and is mainly used in conversation, letters, 2. The government has issued the notification.
newspapers, televisions and radio reports, it is said  To denote an action completed in past may occur
to be a sort of mixture of present and past. again.
 It is used to denote that an action has just now 1. I have seen Makli Graveyard.
been completed. 2. Our class has visited Moen Jo Daro.
1. I have finished my letter.  To denote habitual action.
2. The sun has set. 1. He has always disturbed me during my study.
3. He has left for Karachi. 2. I have never been late for work.
4. She has just gone out.  To denote an action finishes at the time of
 02. To denote an action commenced in the past and speaking.
going on to the present. 1. I haven’t seen you, Aslam.
1. I have studied in this school for four years. 2. This room hasn’t been cleaned for month.
 16
 It is often used in newspapers and letters.  It can also be used with so far, Till, Now, Yet, Today,
1. Some people have been killed in road Already, This week, never and ever.
accident. 1. Has the postman not come yet?
2. I am sorry, I haven’t written you letter before. 2. Have you seen him this month?
STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE OF PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
Sentence Assertive/Affirmative/Descriptive sentences

Case (1) “Has” is used with singular subject, “Have” for plural , “I” and “You”

Structure Subject + Has/Have + Third form of verb + Object

Example (1) I have learnt by heart a new poem. (2) He has told me a lie. (3) He has done his work.

Sentence Changing the Affirmative into Negative Sentences

Case (1) “Has” is used with singular subject, “Have” for plural , “I” and “You”

Structure Subject + Has/Have + Not + Third form of verb + Object

(1) He has not gone to sleep yet. (2) You have not solved this question. (3) They have not came
Example
here.

Sentence Changing the Affirmative into Interrogative Sentences

Case (1) “Has” is used with singular subject, “Have” for plural , “I” and “You”

Structure Has/Have + subject + Third form of verb + object?

Example (1) Has Almas abused you? (2) Have you solved this mock test?

Sentence Making Interrogative – Negative sentences

Case (1) “Has” is used with singular subject, “Have” for plural , “I” and “You”

Structure Has/Have + subject + Not + Third form of verb + object?

Examples (1) Has the girl not learnt this lesson? (2) Have they not attended classes?

“WH” family are placed before any interrogative sentences for making Double Interrogative sentences.

What has he sent to you? Which toy has she chosen? Who has made such a speech? Who have identified the
thieves? When has he informed me? How has he known me? Whom has the teacher allowed to go out?

04. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

 It is used for an action which began at some point in the past but is still going on/continuing up to the present time.
 Present Perfect Continues Tense is formed by adding “Has been/have been” before present participle.
 It is used to denote “point of time as: 9:30 PM morning, 2002, after noon, evening, night, yesterday, today, day
after tomorrow, childhood, Sunday, Friday, January, May, December, Spring, 10th June and since.
 For denoting “Period of time” as: an hour, a day, half an hour, six months, three minutes and for is used.

STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE OF PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

Sentence Assertive/Affirmative/Descriptive sentences

Case (1) “Has” is used with singular subject, “Have” for plural , “I” and “You”

Structure Subject + Has/Have been + Present participle (ing form) + Object

(1) Aslam has been reading this newspaper for an hour. (2) I have been reading this book since
Example
July. (3) It has been blowing fast outside since midnight.

Sentence Changing the Affirmative into Negative Sentences

Case (1) “Has” is used with singular subject, “Have” for plural , “I” and “You”

Structure Subject + Has/Have + Not + Been + Present participle (ing form) + Object

(1) I have not been thinking over it. (2) We have not been running for 2 hours. (3) It has not been
Example
feeling cold since the end of February,
 17
Sentence Changing the Affirmative into Interrogative Sentences

Case (1) “Has” is used with singular subject, “Have” for plural , “I” and “You”

Structure Has/Have + subject + been + Present participle (ing form) + object?

Example (1) Has she been cooking since morning? (2) Has it been raining for two hours?

Sentence Making Interrogative – Negative sentences

Case (1) “Has” is used with singular subject, “Have” for plural , “I” and “You”

Structure Has/Have + subject + not + been + Present participle (ing form) + object?

Examples (1) Has he not been taking bath? (2) Has your brother not been taking part in the games?

“WH” family can be used before the subject of any interrogative sentences for making Double Interrogative sentences.

Why have you been making a noise for two hours? How has your team been winning since last year? Where has he
been living since 2001? Who has been beating the drum?

01. PAST INDEFINITE/SIMPLE/INCOMPLETE TENSE

 The term “Past” is used with reference to the time of the action in the past without any reference to the present
time.
 It denotes the state or existence of something in previous time.
1. I was a worker.
2. We were the innocents.
3. He was a defaulter.
4. This was my home.
 “Was” is used for singular Number and “Were” for plural number and you (both singular and plural).
STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE OF PAST INDEFINIT TENSE
Sentence Assertive/Affirmative/Descriptive sentences

Structure Subject + Verb(2nd form) + Object

Example I sent him some gifts. Our team won the match. The birds mad the nests.

Sentence Changing the Affirmative into Negative Sentences

Structure Subject + Did not + Verb(1st form) + Object

Example We did not attend the class. It did not blow fast outside. Almas did not read lesson.

Sentence Changing the Affirmative into Interrogative Sentences

Structure Did + Subject + Verb (1st form) + Object?

Example Did you take the breakfast? Did he do his homework? Did Aslam attend the class?

Sentence Making Interrogative – Negative sentences

Structure Did + Subject + Not + Verb (1st form) + Object?

Examples Did Almas not come here? Did I not supervise you work? Did he not do homework?

“WH” family are also used before the interrogative sentences for making Double Interrogative sentences.

“WH” family; What, When, Where, Which, Who, How, Whom, Whose, Why, With and In which.

What were they? What was its color? What did you buy? When did she attend the class? Where was the guest?
Where did they arrange the party? Who was in the office? Which songs did he sing? Who took part in the game?
How was the patient? How did fight with them? Whom did you guide? Whom did he send a letter? Whose purse
was this? Why was she angry? Why did you fail in the test? With what did he paint? With what did he lift that box?

02. PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE

 It points out that the action was still going on in the past time referred to.
 It is used to show an action that was continue at some point in the past.
1. When I called her, she was singing.
2. Some boys were playing in the ground.
 18
3. Almas was reading.
 It is used to point out any repeated action.
1. He was always ringing me up.
2. I was always losing my keys.
3. My mother was always working.
 To point out any already started action but still not finished.
1. Last year in these days, we were living in Karachi.
2. When the guests arrived, we were having lunch.
Actually this tense points out an idea that the action began before that time and probably continued after it.
STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE OF PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE
Sentence Assertive/Affirmative/Descriptive sentences

Structure Subject + To be verb (Past) + Present participle (Ing form) + Object

Example I was attending the function. Almas was playing PUBG. They were running.

Sentence Changing the Affirmative into Negative Sentences

Structure Subject + To be verb (Past) + Not + Present participle (Ing form) + Object

Example We were not waiting for them. They were not coming. He was not listening.

Sentence Changing the Affirmative into Interrogative Sentences

Structure To be verb (Past) + Subject + Present participle (Ing form) + Object?

Example Was he going with his father? Was she going to Karachi? Were they dancing?

Sentence Making Interrogative – Negative sentences

Structure To be verb (Past) + Subject + Not + Present participle (Ing form) + Object?

Examples Was he not going to Mithi? Were they not attending the class?

“WH” family are also used before the interrogative sentences for making Double Interrogative sentences.

“WH” family; What, When, Where, Which, Who, How, Whom, Whose, Why, With and In which.

What were you doing there? When was I gambling? Where was he sending letter? Why were you coming?

03. PAST PERFECT TENSE

 It is used to denote an action which had been completed at some point in the past time before another action took
place.
 It is used to denote the action completed before another action.
1. I had already taken the breakfast by the time the guests got into home.
2. I did not know who she was, I had never seen her before.
3. The train had left before they reached the station.
 To denote an action which began in the past and completed at the time of speaking.
1. My brother had served in the army for ten years then retired and lived there.
 It is also used after “Would” and “If only”
1. Would that he had come. If only he had been alive.
 It is used in simple sentences with “Already, till, until and before”.
2. I had already met/seen this guest.
3. He had kept quiet till the departure of the train.
STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE OF PAST PERFECT TENSE
Sentence Assertive/Affirmative/Descriptive sentences

Structure Subject + To have verb (Past tense) + 3rd Form of Verb + Object

Example I had applied for the job. He had waited for the guests. The teacher had called the roll numbers.

Sentence Changing the Affirmative into Negative Sentences

Structure Subject + Hadn’t/Had not + 3rd Form of Verb + Object

Example They had not reached home yet. Your brother had not celebrated his birthday.
 19
Sentence Changing the Affirmative into Interrogative Sentences

Structure Had + Subject + 3rd Form of Verb + Object?

Example Had you ever seen a lion? Had you committed such a mistake?

Sentence Making Interrogative – Negative sentences

Structure Had + Subject + Not + 3rd Form of Verb + Object?

Examples Had Almas not gone to Karachi? Had you not attended the class?

“WH” family are also used before the interrogative sentences for making Double Interrogative sentences.

“WH” family; What, When, Where, Which, Who, How, Whom, Whose, Why, With and In which.

What had he offered them? Who had won the first prize? Where had he favored us? Whom had you sold your car?

04. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

 It is used to denote an action which began in the past and still continuing at some point in the past.
 It is informed by adding “Had been” before present participle (Ing form).
STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE OF PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
Sentence Assertive/Affirmative/Descriptive sentences

Structure Subject + Had been + Present participle (Ing form) + Object + Since/For

Example She had been working for two hours. Ali had been playing since morning.

Sentence Changing the Affirmative into Negative Sentences

Structure Subject + Hadn’t been + Present participle (Ing form) + Object + Since/For

Example Aslam had not been studying since 2019. They had not been listening me since last hour.

Sentence Changing the Affirmative into Interrogative Sentences

Structure Had + Subject + Been + Present participle (Ing form) + Object + Since/For?

Example Had Aslam been writing for 2 hours? Had you been doing job in this office since last year?

Sentence Making Interrogative – Negative sentences

Structure Had + Subject + Not + Been + Present participle (Ing form) + Object + Since/For?

Examples Had Zakaullah not been understanding this lesson? Had they not been taking tea since 5 years?

“WH” family are also used before the interrogative sentences for making Double Interrogative sentences.

“WH” family; What, When, Where, Which, Who, How, Whom, Whose, Why, With and In which.

Why had she been waiting for you since morning? How had you been running this shop for five years?

01. FUTURE INDEFINITE/SIMPLE/INCOMPLETE TENSE

 The future tense denotes that an action is yet to take place, so it is still incomplete.
 It is formed by means of the verb shall or will followed by the first form of the verb.
 It denotes a single action that is to take place in the coming time.
 An assertion made as of future or coming time is said to be in Future indefinite Tense.
 To talk about things which we cannot control, so it expresses the future as fact.
1. He will be 25 next week.
2. The Eid will come in this month.
3. We shall know our results in July.
 To talk about that will happen in future.
1. We think our team will win the match.
2. I am sure, my brother will stand first in the class.
 To denote state or existence of something.
1. Aslam will be my partner.
2. He will be my neighbourer.
3. She will be your life partner.
 To denote possession or owner ship of the subject in future.
 20
1. I shall have my personal car.
2. They will have their own home.
3. The beggar will have no property.
 Shall is only used with first person pronoun in general.
STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE OF FUTURE INDEFINITE TENSE
Sentence Assertive/Affirmative/Descriptive sentences

Structure Subject + Shall/Will + 1st form of Verb + Object.

Example I shall celebrate my birthday. You will keep your promise. It will blow fast outside.

Sentence Changing the Affirmative into Negative Sentences

Structure Subject + Shall/Will + Not + 1st form of Verb + Object.

Example Aslam will not iron her clothes. It will not hail today. She will not tell you a lie.

Sentence Changing the Affirmative into Interrogative Sentences

Structure Shall/Will + Subject + 1st form of Verb + Object?

Example Shall I do your homework? Will you speak the truth?

Sentence Making Interrogative – Negative sentences

Structure Shall/Will + Subject + Not + 1st form of Verb + Object?

Examples Shall I not love my country? Will you not perform your duties?

“WH” family are also used before the interrogative sentences for making Double Interrogative sentences.

“WH” family; What, When, Where, Which, Who, How, Whom, Whose, Why, With and In which.

What will you drink? What shall we learn? When will he finish his homework? Which dress will suit you?

02. FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE

 It expresses an action which starts before that time and probably continuous after it.
 Like other continuous tenses it is normally used with a point in time.
1. I shall be reading a book.
2. When Aslam reaches, then it will be raining.
3. She will be dancing
 It can be used without an indefinite time.
1. I shall be meeting them.
2. Someone will be doing wrong.
3. The pain will be growing worse.
 It is used to express future without intention.
4. I shall be sending him his watch tomorrow.
Almass will be preparing for the commission next year.
STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE OF FUTURE CONTINUOOUS TENSE
Sentence Assertive/Affirmative/Descriptive sentences

Structure Subject + Shall/Will (Future Tense) +Be + Present Participle + Object.

Example I shall be planning for my future. We shall be inviting our friends.

Sentence Changing the Affirmative into Negative Sentences

Structure Subject + Shall/Will + Not + Be + Present Participle + Object.

Example I shall not be doing my homework. You will not be attending the class.

Sentence Changing the Affirmative into Interrogative Sentences

Structure Shall/Will + Subject + Be + Present Participle + Object?

Example Will Ghulam Nabi be speaking truth? Will peon be ringing the bell?

Sentence Making Interrogative – Negative sentences

 21
Structure Shall/Will + Subject + Not + Be + Present Participle + Object?

Examples Will be the sweeper not be removing filth? Shall I not be guiding your brother?

“WH” family are also used before the interrogative sentences for making Double Interrogative sentences.

“WH” family; What, When, Where, Which, Who, How, Whose, Why.

What will you be bringing for us? When shall I be inviting them? Where shall I be hiding your books?

03. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

 This form of future tense is used to denote an action that will be completed at some point in future.
 It denotes an action completed before another in future.
1. I shall have done my work before you come.
2. By the time he comes, the food will have finished.
 It is normally used with time expression beginning with “By” “IN”.
1. Aslam will have taken his examinations by then, so he will be able to enjoy himself.
 To express an assumptions.
2. You will have heard this news.
3. You will have seen that tragic accident.
4. He will have faced such a situation.
Sentence Assertive/Affirmative/Descriptive sentences

Structure Subject + Shall/Will + Have + 3rd Form of Verb + Object

Example We shall have revised our course. She will have helped them many times.

Sentence Changing the Affirmative into Negative Sentences

Structure Subject + Shall/Will + Not + Have + 3rd Form of Verb + Object

Example She will not have slept by now. We shall not have taken the examination.

Sentence Changing the Affirmative into Interrogative Sentences

Structure Shall/Will + Subject + Have + 3rd form of Verb + Object?

Example Will the peon have rung the bell? Shall I have understood your problems?

Sentence Making Interrogative – Negative sentences

Structure Shall/Will + Subject + Not + Have + 3rd form of Verb + Object?

Examples Will he not have offered his prayers? Shall we not have explained this topic?

“WH” family are also used before the interrogative sentences for making Double Interrogative sentences.

“WH” family; What, When, Where, Which, Who, Whom How, Whose, Why.

What will mother have cooked for you? Which film will they have seen? Who will have failed in the test?

STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE OF FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

04. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
 It is used to denote an action, a part of which will be completed at some point or event in future and the rest will be
continued.
 It emphasize the duration of an activity that will be continued before another time in future.
 It is formed by adding “Shall have been” before present participle with “I” and “We”, and “Will have been “ with all
other subjects.
STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE OF FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
Sentence Assertive/Affirmative/Descriptive sentences

Structure Subject + Shall/Will + Have been + Present Participle + Object + Since/For

Example I shall have been doing this work for three days from tomorrow.

Sentence Changing the Affirmative into Negative Sentences

Structure Subject + Shall/Will + Not + Have been + Present Participle + Object + Since/For
 22
Example I shall not have been going to their home to meet them since Sunday.

Sentence Changing the Affirmative into Interrogative Sentences

Structure Shall/Will + Subject + Have been + Present Participle + Object + Since/For?

Example Shall I have been applying for the leave? Will Aslam have been brushing his teeth for 10 minutes?

Sentence Making Interrogative – Negative sentences

Structure Shall/Will + Subject + Not + Have been + Present Participle + Object + Since/For?

Examples Shall we not have been keeping fasts since childhood?

“WH” family are also used before the interrogative sentences for making Double Interrogative sentences.

“WH” family; Where, Who, Why, Whose.

Where will the shopkeeper have been dealing in sugar for ten years? Who will have been bringing the luggage for
you since noon? Whose clothes will the tailor have been mending since night?

Articles - a, an, the 1. Give me the book on the table. (Identifies a

specific book)
 The articles a, an, and the help your readers
2. The sun rose at seven o'clock. (Identifies
understand whether you are using a noun in an
something that is one of a kind)
indefinite (general) or definite (specific) way.
Is the noun general? If the noun is general, use “a” or  Use a or an to introduce a noun the first time it is
“an.” mentioned, and then the is usedafterwards
whenever the noun is mentioned.
 a and an are indefinite articles and are used to indicate
1 . I bought a sandwich for lunch.
a single item.
2. I shared the sandwich with my friend.
1. Take a pencil. (Take one pencil.)
Most proper nouns do not use an article. However, some
2. I won a hundred dollars. (I won one hundred
do.
dollars.)
 A proper noun names unique person, place, or
 Do not use a or an with a plural noun.
thing
Example:
Examples:
 Incorrect: They talked about a good restaurants.
New York City, Walt Disney,The United States of America
 Correct, Unspecific reference: They talked about a
 Correct: “I went to New York City.”
good restaurant to visit.
 Incorrect: “I went to the New York City.”
 Use a as an unspecific reference before a consonant.
An exception is the proper nouns with “of” as part of the
1. He likes to read a book. (She likes to read any
name:
book, not a specific one.)
 the Fourth of July
2. That was a funny story. (That was one of many
funny stories.)  the University of Virginia
 Use a when the word following it starts with a  the United States of America
consonant sound.  the President of Mexico
Examples:  the Statue of Liberty
a book, a hospital, a leg, a one-inch pipe, a youth Plural proper nouns use “the”:
 Use an as an unspecific reference before a vowel  the Chicago Bulls
sound (a, e, i, o, u).  the Johnsons
Examples: an apple, an opera, an eagle, an idea, an SOS  the Blue Ridge Mountains
(the s here is an es sound) A proper noun that names a group (a collective noun) also
 Words that begin with u or h can have either a uses “the”:
vowel or a consonant sound. Make the choice  the Commonwealth of Virginia
based on the sound of the first word after the  the United Arab Emirates
article, even if that word isnot the noun.  the Society of Friends
Examples: Some geographical features use “the”:
a union, a uniform (use a when the u sounds like the y in  the Gobi Desert
you), an unbelievable event, an umbrella, a unique  the Atlantic Ocean
umbrella, an honor, an hour, an honest person, a hotel, a  the Pyramids
history book, a historian, an historian, an historic event  the Amazon
NOTE: words like historic can take either a or an But other geographical features do not use “the”:
Is the noun specific? If the noun is specific, use “the.”  Lake Superior
 Use the as a specific reference to a common noun or  Albemarle County
something that is one of a kind.  Route 29
 23
THE PASSIVE VOICE  Interrogative: Have/Has + Subject + been + 3rd form of
 The passive of an active tense is formed by putting the Verb?
verb to be into the same tense as the active verb and Past Simple:
adding the past participle of the active verb.  Affirmative: Subject + was/were + 3rd form of
 The subject of the active verb becomes the ‘agent’ of Verb.
the passive verb.  Negative: Subject + was/were + Not + 3rd form of
 The agent is very often not mentioned. Verb.
 When it is mentioned it is preceded by by and placed  Interrogative: Was/were + Subject + 3rd form of
at the end of the clause. Verb?
 Active: My grandfather planted this tree. Past Continuous:
 Passive: This tree was planted by my grandfather.  Affirmative: Subject + was/were + being + 3rd form of
Examples: Verb.
Present Simple:  Negative: Subject + was/were + Not + being + 3rd
 Active: He delivers the letters. form of Verb
 Passive: The letters are delivered.  Interrogative: Was/were + Subject + being + 3rd
Past Simple: form of Verb?
 Active: He delivered the letters. Past Perfect:
 Passive: The letters were delivered.  Affirmative: Subject + had + been + 3rd form of
Future Simple: Verb.
 Active: He will deliver the letters.  Negative: Subject + had + Not + been + 3rd form of
Verb
 Passive: The letters will be delivered.
Present Continuous:  Interrogative: Had + Subject + been + 3rd form of
Verb?
 Active: He is delivering the letters.
Future Simple:
 Passive: The letters are being delivered.
 Affirmative: Subject + will + be + 3rd form of Verb.
Past Continuous:
 Negative: Subject + will + Not + be + 3rd form of
 Active: He was delivering the letters.
Verb.
 Passive: The letters were being delivered.
 Interrogative: Will + Subject + be + 3rd form of
Going to:
Verb?
 Active: He is going to deliver the letters.
Going To:
 Passive: The letters are going to be delivered.
 Affirmative: Subject + is/am/are + going to + be + 3rd form of
Present Perfect:
Verb.
 Active: He has delivered the letters.
 Negative: Subject + is/am/are + Not + going to + be + 3rd
 Passive: The letters have been delivered.
form of Verb.
Past Perfect:
 Interrogative: Is/am/are + Subject + Going to + be + 3rd
 Active: He had delivered the letters.
form of Verb.
 Passive: The letters had been delivered.
 We use the verb to be (am/is/are/was/were) for
Infinitive:
Present Simple, Past Simple, PresentContinuous, Past
 Active: He has to deliver the letters.
Continuous and Going To questions.
 Passive: The letters have to be delivered.
 We use the verb have (have/has/had) for Present
Modals:
Perfect and Past Perfect questions.
 Active: He must deliver the letters.
 We use will for Future Simple questions.
 Passive: The letters must be delivered. The Passive is used:
Structure of Sentences:
 When the agent (the person who does the action) is
Present Simple:
unknown, unimportant or obvious from thecontext.
 Affirmative: Subject + am/is/are + 3rd form of Verb.
 Jane was shot. (We do not know who shot her.)
 Negative: Subject + am/is/are + Not + 3rd form of Verb.
 This church was built in 1815. (Unimportant agent)
 Interrogative: am/is/are +Subject + 3rd form of
 He has been arrested. (Obviously by the police)
Verb?
 To make more polite or formal statements.
Present Continues:
 The car has not been cleaned. (More polite).
 Affirmative: Subject + am/is/are + being + 3rd form of
 You have not yet cleaned the car (less polite).
Verb.
 To put emphasis on the agent.
 Negative: Subject + am/is/are + Not + being + 3rd form of
 The new library will be opened by the Queen.
Verb.
 Interrogative: am/is/are + Subject + being + 3rd form of
Verb? NARRATIONS
Present Perfect: Direct Narration:
 Affirmative: Subject + Have/Has + been + 3rd form of  The actual words of the speaker are reported within
Verb. Inverted commas in the method.
 Negative: Subject + Have/Has + Not + been + 3rd form of For Example:
Verb 1. Akbar says, “he is my friend”.
 24
2. Rakesh said, “he is going”.  Direct: He said to Rakesh,”Do you know his name”.
Indirect Narration:  Indirect: He asked Rakesh whether he knew his
It is the method in which the substance or idea of the name.
speaker’s words is reported without using his actual words.  Direct: Rakesh said to him,”Does Suresh Go to
The sentences given above are converted into Indirect School”.
Narration.  Indirect: Rakesh asked him whether Suresh goes
For Example: to School.
1. Akbar says that he is my friend. 5. If the Reported Speech begins with the Auxiliary
2. Rakesh said that he is going. Verb did then did is removed and the Past
Reporting Speech: Perfect form of the main verb is used.
 The part of the whole sentence outside the Inverted For Example:
Commas in Direct Narration is called Reporting Speech,  Direct: I said to him, “Did you go to School
and the verb used in this part is called Reporting Verb. yesterday”.
Reported Speech:  Indirect: I asked him whether he had gone to
 The part of the whole sentence in which the actual school the previous day.
words of the speaker are written within the Inverted (B) Assertive Sentence:
Commas is called the Reported Speech, and the verb  If the reported speech is in the form of assertive
used in this part is called Reported Verb. sentence, then the connective that is used to join two
Rules for Changing Direct Narration into Indirect sentence.
Narration: For Example:
 The rules for changing the direct narration into indirect  Direct: He said, “He is going to home”.
narration are divided into four parts.  Indirect: He said that he was going to home.
1. Rules for Connectives (C) Imperative Sentence:
2. Rules for change in Sentence  If the reported speech is in the form of Imperative
3. Rules for change of Persons sentence, then the no connective is used to join two
4. Other rules for Miscellaneous Changes sentence but the main verb of the Imperative sentence
01. Rules for Connectives: is converted into an Infinite Verb.
 When the entire sentence is required to be change For Example:
from Direct Narration into Indirect Narration.  Direct: He said to the servant, “Close the door.”
 The two parts of the sentence is likely to be joined by  Indirect: He asked the servant to close the door.
some connectives.  Direct: He said, “Please give me a glass of water.”
The following are these rules:  Indirect: He requested to give him a glass of
(A) Interrogative Sentence: water.
 If the Reported speech is in the form of an (D) Exclamatory Sentence:
Interrogative sentence, it can be connected in two  If the Reported Speech is in the form of Exclamatory
ways according to the structure of the Sentence ( indicating surprise, fear, wish or contempt
Interrogative sentence. etc. ), it is changed into an assertive sentence in the
1. If the interrogative sentence begins with Indirect Narration form and connective that is used to
an Interrogative Adverb( What, Why, Where, join it with the Reporting speech.
How, When etc ) or with an Interrogative For Example:
Adjective / Pronoun ( Who, Whose, Whom,
 Direct: He said,” What a horrible scene?
What, Which etc. ) no connectives is required to
 Indirect: He said that it was a horrible scene.
join it.
(E) Exclamatory sentence:
It is a mistake to use that to connect such a
 The sentences, which carry the sense of sudden joy,
sentence.
sorrow, Wonder, disappointment are called
For Example:
exclamatory sentence.
 Direct: He said, “Where are you going”?
 These sentences generally begins with word Alas, Oh,
 Indirect: He asked me where I was going?
Hurrah, Bravo, How, What a, etc.
2. If the Interrogative sentence begins with the
 In place of the Reporting Verb ‘Said’ some other verbs
Auxiliary Verb / Helping Verb, the
as Exclaimed, Wished and prayed are used according
connective Whether or if is used to join it.
to the sentence.
For Example:
 Connective ‘that’ is used.
 Direct: He said, “Is he doctor?
 After the Reporting Verb, we use such expressions
 Indirect: He said whether he was doctor.
as Joyfully, Sorrowfully, With Sorrow, With Joy, In
 Direct: I said, “Do you smoke”?
astonishment, according to the sense.
 Indirect: I asked whether you smoke.
 Exclamatory sentence is changed into assertive
3. If the reported speech begins with the do or
sentence.
does, then do and does is removed from the
 The rules for change for Tense and Pronoun are the
4. reported speech, and in their place the Past
same as used in assertive sentence.
Indefinite Tense of the main verb is used.
 Direct: He said, “Alas, I am ruined”.
For Example:
 Indirect: He exclaimed that he was ruined.
 25
 Direct: He said, “O, what a chance!  Indirect: He said that the horse had died last night.
 Indirect: He exclaimed that it was a fine chance. Past Continuous Tense is converted into Past Perfect
Rules for Change in Tense: Continuous Tense.
Rule 1 For Example:
 It should first be remembered that no change is ever  Direct: He said, “My brother was working in this
made in the Tense of the Reporting Verb. But of factory”.
course, without changing the tense, the verb can be  Indirect: He said that his brother had been
changed according to the sense of the Reported working
Speech. No change is made in the Past Perfect and Past Perfect
 For Example, In place of say or said , we can use tell or Continuous Tense.
told , or we can use replied, remarked, asked, For Example:
observed, declared etc. according to the sense.  Direct: He said, “I had finished my work long ago”.
However, in no case there should be a change in the  Indirect: He said that he had finished his work long
tense of the Reporting Speech. ago.
Rule 2  Direct: Rakesh said, “I had been doing that work
 If the Reporting Verb is in the Present or Future for several years”.
Tense, no change is made in the tense of  Indirect: Rakesh said that he had been doing these
the Reported Verb, but of course, the form of the work for several years.
auxiliary verb will change according to the change in Rule 4
the person of the Subject in the Indirect Narration Will and Shall of the future tense are changed
Form. into Would and Should.
 For Example am can be changed For Example:
into is or are; or do and have can be changed  Direct: He said, “Rakesh will go to the market”.
into does or has, but no change can be made in the  Indirect: He said that Rakesh would go to the
tense in the process of this change. market.
For Example:  Direct: He said, “I shall definitely do this work”.
 Direct: He says,” I am not feeling well today”.  Indirect: He said that he should definitely do this
 Indirect: He says that he is not feeling well today. work.
 Direct: He will say to me, “you are not kind to me.” Rule 5
 Indirect: He will tell me that I am not kind to him. May is changed into Might and Can is changed into Could.
Rule 3 For Example:
 If the reported speech is in the Past Tense, the tense of  Direct: He said, “I can do this work”.
the reported speech is changed according to the  Indirect: He said that he could do this work.
following rules.  Direct: The teacher said, “He may be allowed to
Present Indefinite is changed into Past Indefinite tense. go”.
For Example:  Indirect: The teacher said that he might be
 Direct: He said, “I am unwell”. allowed to go.
 Indirect: He said that he was unwell. Rule 6
Present Continuous is converted into Past Continuous Tense. No change is made in the Must.
For Example: For Example:
 Direct: He said, “My father is reading a book”.  Direct: He said, “I must go at once”.
 Indirect: He said that his father was reading a  Indirect: He said that he must go at once.
book. Rule 7
Present Perfect is changed into Past Perfect Continuous Tense. If the reported speech refers to some universal
For Example: truth or habitual action, no change is made in the tense of
 Direct: He said, “I have passed the examination”. the reported verb, even if the reporting verb in the past
 Indirect: He said that he had pass the examination. tense.
Present Perfect Continuous Tense is converted into Past For Example:
Perfect Continuous Tense.  Direct: The teacher said in the class, “the sun rises
For Example: in the east”.
 Direct: Almas said, “I have been working hard  Indirect: The teacher said in the class that the sun
since July”. rises in the east.
 Indirect: Almas said that he had been working  Direct: He said, “Man lives by beard”.
hard since July.  Indirect: He said that man lives by beard.
Ordinarily no change is made in the Past Indefinite Rule 8
Tense, but sometimes it is changed into Past Perfect When words like sir, your Honour, Your majesty, Please,
Tense. Kindly etc. are used in the reported speech, their sense is
For Example: expressed by using the following expressions with the
 Direct: Rakesh said, “He visited Delhi last year”. reporting Verb, and these are dropped.
 Indirect: Rakesh said that he visited Delhi last year. For Example:
 Direct: He said, “The horse died last night”.
 26
 Direct: The student said to the teacher, “Sir, mark  Indirect: The boy wished that he should go out to
me present”. play.
 Indirect: The student respectfully requested the COMPREHENSION
teacher to mark present. Basic Rules to follow before attempting Comprehension
Rules for change in Person passage:
 All pronouns (I, We, You, He, she, they) used in the 1. Do not over-emphasize trivialities
reported speech are changed according to the  Details are important but do not be obsessed with
following rules. examples, illustrations and so on.
Rule 1  You just need to get a hang of the main point and not
Every First Person Pronoun used in the reported speech is the examples. Comprehending the overall flow and
changed according to the person of the Subject of the structure will help you analyze and answer the
Reporting Speech. questions.
For Example: 2. Do not memorize
 Direct: He said, “I am doing my work”.  You do not need to memorize every word present in
 Indirect: He said that he was doing his work. the passage.
Rule 2  Understanding the flow, structure and the main points
Every second person in the reported speech is changed in the passage should be your priority.
according to the person of the Object of the reporting  For factual or specific point questions, you can always
speech. re-read the passage.
For Example: 3. Do not read the passage first
 Direct: Mohan said to you, “you are not  Always go through the questions first and then the
doing your work seriously”. passage. This will prepare you to focus on the things
 Indirect: Mohan told you that you were not doing you need to look in the passage.
your work seriously.  Focus only on the questions, and not on a particular
 Direct: Ramesh said to me, “You are not doing answer option.
your work seriously”.  A quick overview of the questions is sufficient.
 Indirect: Ramesh told me that i was not doing my 4. Do not over-emphasize on vocabulary skills for RCs
work seriously.  Having a strong vocabulary is great however having
Rule 3 Shakespearean vocabulary will not prevent you from
No change is made in the third person pronoun. understanding the passage.
Some words used in the reported speech are changed as  So do not put yourself under stress in this area, and
listed given below while reading the passage, make sure that you
Words Changed From understand the gist of the passage and do not get
Now Then stuck on particular words.
This or These That or Those 5. Do not spend time on RCs that you cannot comprehend
Hither Thither at first
Here There
 At times we come across a passage that we are not
Hence Thence
able to comprehend.
Thus So
 If you are struggling with one such passage in the
Come Go
exam, make sure you have the patience to avoid such a
Tomorrow Next day
passage. Focus on the ones that you can manage
Today That Day
easily.
Yesterday The Previous Day
 Go back to the tricky passage in case of absolute
Last Night The Previous Night
necessity.
Ago Before
6. Do not think the correct option would come from
Sentence Beginning With ‘Let’
outside the passage
 Sentences beginning with ‘Let’ express the sense
 Any of the options that is out of scope is never the
of Order, Wish, Proposal, Imagining, Condition etc.
correct answer.
 They are converted into Indirect Narration according to
 The right answer is always based on the information
the sense.
given within the passage.
 The Reporting Verb is changed into Ordered,
 Do not focus on any of the options that distract you
Requested, Proposed, Wished, support etc. according
from the passage.
to the sense.In all such sentences, ‘Let’ is removed and
7. Do not rely on 'trigger words'
connective ‘That’ is used.
 You might get trapped in the web of 'trigger words' if
 In Place of ‘Let’ we use should.
you don’t read attentively through the passage.
For Example:
 A passage may focus on one point for quite a bit of
 Direct: The Principal said,”Let no student stand
sentences and then change it towards the end with
here”.
trigger words like 'but' or 'however'.
 Indirect: The Principal ordered that no student
 This will usually confuse readers who skim through the
should stand there.
passage or rush through it in haste.
 Direct: The boy said,” Let me go out to play”.
 27
Read the passages and choose the correct options a) It was cheaper than going to the mountains
according to the readings. b) The travel agent said that it was the cheapest
Passage 1 c) Of the hot weather in the mountains
One of my favorite vacation places is Mexico. I really like d) We wanted to spend time at the beach
the weather there because it never gets cold. The people Q. No. 02.
are very nice too. They never laugh at my bad Spanish. The The bus was the______________way to travel.
food is good. Mexico City is a very interesting place to visit. a) Best
It has some great museums and lots of fascinating old b) Easiest
buildings. The hotels are too expensive to stay but there c) Cheapest
are more affordable options. For example, you can stay at d) Slowest
one of the beach resorts like Acapulco. If you are planning Q. No. 03.
to visit Mexico, you should definitely see the Mayan Traveling by plane was______than by bus.
temples near Merida. a) More fun
Q. No. 01 b) Cheaper
a) Sam likes warm weather c) Expensive
b) Sam does not like warm weather at all d) Faster
c) Sam hates warm weather. Q. No. 04.
d) Sam likes Cold weather We ___________our vacation.
Q. No. 02 a) Hated
a) His Spanish is very good b) Did not like
b) He speaks Spanish very well c) Enjoyed
c) He is Spanish d) Regretted
d) He does not speak Spanish very well Q. No. 05.
Q. No. 03 We had very __________weather during our vacation.
a) There is a lot to see and do in Mexico a) Good
b) There are not a lot of beautiful places in Mexico b) Freezing
c) Mexico is a dirty place c) Terrible
d) Tourists never come to Mexico d) Cold
Q. No. 04 Answer Key
a) Hotels are very cheap in Mexico Passage 1
b) Hotels are not comfortable there Q. Nos Correct Answer
c) Hotels are all poor in Mexico 01 A
d) Hotels in Mexico are expensive. 02 D
Passage 2 03 A
Last summer, we decided to spend our vacation at the 04 D
beach because the weather was very hot in the mountains. Passage 2
The travel agent said that traveling by bus was the cheapest 01 C
way, but we went by plane because it was faster. We 02 C
wanted to have more time to spend at the beach. The 03 D
weather was beautiful and we had a great time. 04 C
Q. No. 01. 05 A
We decided to go to the beach because_________
SYNONYMS
Words Meaning Pedestrians Walking by foot

Trash Garbage Stunts Foolishly Actions

Heap Pile Walking in and out of

Dogging
moving traffic
High Spirit Cheerful Behavior
A person whom you
Chatting Talking Associate work with or spend time
Piece of paper that with
Wrapper
covers something Transformation Complete change
Realize Understand Something that cannot
Insurmountable
Take away from be overcome
Distract
attention Challenging Difficult
Undisciplined Break rules
 28

The way one looks at A book in which one

Outlook
something Scrap book sticks pictures or
newspaper articles
Integrity Honesty
Intolerable Unacceptable
Ability to think about the
Vision future in an intelligent Fair, generous and polite
Sports man ship
way behavior

Not to give importance Scope Range of choices

Regardless
to something
Opportunities Chances
A burial with honour
State funeral given to the head of Stories that many people
Myth
state believe but are not true

Kind to someone who is Reflects Shows

Sympathetic
sad or hurt Increasing the number of
Breeding
Nature lovers Those who enjoy nature animals through birth

Curious Wanted to know Wanting to know about

Curiosity
everything
Walk around without
Wandered Shown what something is
any purpose Exposed
like
Dense Thick
Global At the world level
Leave someone because
In vain Fondly In a loving way
it is dangerous to stay

Abandon Leave Think back about

Recalls
something
Paralyzed Unable to move
Context satisfied
Apologising Saying sorry
Surplus Extra things
Whisper Speaking very softly
Disputes Disagreements
Embarrassed Uncomfortable
Level of right and wrong
Moral stand
Valuable Useful or important behavior

Rapidly Quickly Always expecting good

Optimist
thing to be happen
Get in touch with or talk
Communicate
to Conflict Fights

Dramatic Sudden and great Wok that helps in making

Humanitarian
people’s lives better
Animated Picture that move
Humble Low
Backbone The most important part
Operate All by himself
Currently At present
Work done by people who
Amazing Pleasurable Voluntary
are not paid
Try and make someone Helping people who are
Convince Charitable
accept something poor or in need
Dental Related to teeth A group of organization
Network
A feeling that good working together
Optimism
things will happen Single-handed Work in a particular way
Tricks played on People who regularly use
Pranks Drug addicted
someone as a joke harmful drugs
 29

Not able to use their mind Collapsed Fell down

Mentally challenged
properly
Fractured Broken a bone
Arrogance Selfish
Bruised Has marks of injury
Humility Proud behavior
Cooperative Being helpful
Curb Control
Give comfort or
Console
Appreciated Recognize something good sympathy

Something that takes away Expenses Money spent

Distraction
your attention
Amount of money
Not able to use a particular Budget available and how it will
Handicapped
part of the body be spent

Considering oneself as Exceed Go beyond a set limit

Mean
someone very small
Slaughter Killing an animal for food
Nation building Developing the country
Bother Cause trouble
Work that is done to earn
Economic activity Thrived Grew and developed
some money

Weave Make cloth with thread Abandoned Left forever

Stand or move about near Preserved Kept in its original shape

Hovering someone without any City like places where
purpose Urban settlements
people live
To share information and Before the time since
Discussion Prehistoric
thoughts history was recorded
A field in which progress Mound A small hill
Development sector and improvement is
studied Surrounded by high walls
Fortified
to defend against enemy
A thing done for
Past time
enjoyment Buildings in the shape of
Stupas dom, built as place of
Doing two or two things worship for Buddhists
Multi-tasking
at same time
Thingking deeply in
Community Meditation silence, often or religious
Simultaneously At the same time purposes

Chores Every day work Remaining parts of a

Ruins
destroyed buildings
Ensured Made sure
Unharmed Not hurt in any way
Idly Doing nothing
Gushing Moving with great force
Nurtured Developed
Clung Hold on
Not having things that
Disadvantaged one needs for a proper Bumping Hitting
living Numb Without feeling
Admit having something Exhausted Very, very tired
Confessed
wrong
Yelled Shouted
Fortunate Lucky
A place where people
Something that is who have lost their
Priority Relief camp
important than the other homes get food and
Downhearted Sad, in low spirits shelter
 30

Leave when there is Pounced Attacked suddenly

Evacuate
danger
Denied Said it was not ture
A bad and frightening
Nightmare Make people
dream Awareness
understand
Glittered Shone
Threat Danger
Energetic Active
Everyone doing
Collective
Very excited or something together
Enthusiastic
interested
Participated Took part
Activities to make
Social campaigns people aware about Insects that have just
Larva
something come out of the egg

Involved Made them take part Vehicles Cars, buses , lorries etc.

Honked Blew the horn Engulfed Surrounded

Dangerous smoke Occupants Persons in a given space

Fumes
having a strong smell Got away from the
Escaped
Emitted Produced danger

Without any purpose or Upset Makes unhappy

Purposeless
reason Say things in a rough
Harsh
Assign Give manner

The date by which Irritated Angry /annoyed

Deadlines something will be Mock Make fun of
completed
A person given a special
Work that has to be Honoured
Tasks award
done
Make a loud noise with
Check something to see Slurp the lips while eating or
Reviewed
if any change is needed drinking
People who attend the Making a noise while
Attendees
program/meeting letting out air from the
Burp
Accompanying Going with someone stomach through the
mouth
Rescued Out of the danger
Diversity Variety
Survivors Those who lived
Actions done at a fixed
Rituals
Stable Saved time in a fixed way

Things passed down by Beleifs/practices passed

Heritage Traditions
people before us down from elders

Significant Important Complexion Natural color of the skin

Literary Related to literature Fairer Lighter in color

A room with theatre Say bad things about

Amphitheatre
like seating backbite people when they are
not present.
Unusually Different from normal
Heed Pay attention to
A person with a natural
Talented
ability Persevere Keep on trying

Critical Serious Conquer Fight and win

Beef Cow/buffalo meat Prevail Win

 31

Strive Try hard Deaf Cannot hear

Something to be Dumb Cannot speak

Disgrace
ashamed of
Export Send to another country
Famous Well known
Begins Starts
Largest Biggest
Public Private
Favorite Most liked
Humid Warm/damp
 32

BIOLOGY CLASS – 9th

CHAPTER - 01
INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY
BIOLOGY: Biology is a branch of natural sciences which deals with the study ofliving beings.
 The word biology comes from Greek language “Bios” meaning “live” and “Logos” meaning
“thought or reasoning”.
 There are three major divisions of biology; zoology, Botany and Microbiology.
 ZOOLOGY: The word Zoology is derived from Greek language, “Zoon” meaning animals and Logos
meaning “study or knowledge”. It deals with the studyof animals.
 BOTANY: The word Botany is taken from Greek language, “Butane” meaning plants and Logus
meaning “study or knowledge”. It deals with the study of plants.
 MICROBIOLOGY: It deals with the study of microscopic organisms such as Bacteria etc.,which
can be seen only with the help of microscope.
BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY:
1. MORPHOLOGY (Gr. morph; form, logos; discourse): The study of external form and structure of
organisms.
2. ANATOMY (Gr. ana; part/up, tome; cutting): The study of internal parts of body of living
organisms by cutting them open.
3. CELL BIOLOGY (L. cells, compartment, Gk. Bios= life; logos; discourse): The study of cell and its
organelle.
4. HISTOLOGY (Gr. histos: tissue; logos, discourse): The study of structure of tissues of plant and
animals.
5. PHYSIOLOGY (Gr. physis; nature, logos, discourse): The study aboutfunctions of living organisms.
6. TAXONOMY (Gr. taxis, arrangement, nomos: name): The study of the rules, principles,
grouping and naming the living organisms.
7. GENETICS (Gr. genesis; descent, origin): The study of heredity, that is transferring of characters
from parents to offspring.
8. DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY (Gr. embryon; embryo, logos, discourse): The study of formation and
development of embryo.
9. ENVIRONMENTAL BIOLOGY: The study of relationship between living organisms and non-living
factors of environment and their effectson each other.
10. PALEONTOLOGY (Gr. palaios; ancient, ontos; being, logos: discourse): The study of remote
past organic life, with the help of fossils.
11. BIOTECHNOLOGY: The study about techniques for manipulination of gene to bring the
changes in structure and location of genes to achieve desireable characters is called
biotechnology.
12. SOCIO-BIOLOGY (L. sociare; to associate,): The study of social behavior of living organisms.
i.e interaction between themselves.
13. PARASITOLOGY (Gr. para; up): The study of parasites.
14. PHARMACOLOGY (Gr. pharmakon, drug;). The study about actionof drugs.
15. MOLECULAR BIOLOGY: The study of organic molecules which constitute cell and its
organelles.
16. BIOPHYSICS: It is a branch of physics, in which laws and techniques of physics are applied
to explain the processes of life.
17. RADIOPHYSICS: The radio physics branch where radioactive isotopes are used to trace
the translocation of different materials within the organisms.
18. BIOMETHEMATICS/BIOMETRY: The branch of mathematics which collects data of living
organisms. Itplays very important role in research.
19. BIOCHEMISTRY: It is branch of biology which deals with the study of molecules which
form living organisms or cell.
20. BIOGEOGRAPHY: It deals with the distribution of different living organisms in different
geographical regions of the world.
21. BIO-ECONOMICS: This deals with the economically important organisms involved in
production.
22. MEDICINE AND SURGERY: Medicine deals with diagnosis and treatment of diseases and
 33

surgery deals with repair, replacement or removal the affected organ.

23. AGRICULTURE: This deals with production of varieties of crops, fruit, vegetables, dairy
products.
24. HORTICULTURE: This is also part of agriculture, in which work is carried out for the
development of new varieties of plants and their products.
25. FORESTRY: Forests are the source of biodiversity of plants and animals of many kinds which
live there.
26. FARMING: In this profession, the development of different kinds of farms takes place, such
as fish farm, cattle farm, poultry farm, etc.
27. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY: This profession is part of agriculture science. It deals with the care
and breeding of animals which are beneficial for man.
28. FISHRIES: This profession deals with the increased quantity and quality of fishproduction.
29. BIOTECHNOLOGY: It deals withmanipulation of gene to produce valuable chemical
products, such as insulin, growth hormones, interferon, etc from bacteria as well as others.
CONTRIBUTION OF MUSLIM SCIENTISTS:
JABIR BIN HAYAN (722-817 A.D):
 He was born in Iran. “Al-Nabatiat” and “Al- Haywan” are his two famous books on plants and
animals, respectively.
ABDUL MALIK ASMAI (741-828 A.D):
 He was great zoologist and wrote many books on animals like “Al- Kheil” on horse, “Al-
Ibil” on camels, “Al-Shat” on sheep, “Al-Wahoosh” onwild animals and “Khalqul Insan” on
the different parts of human body and their functions.
BU ALI SINA (980-1037 A.D):
 He is considered as founder of medicine.
 He is called as Avicenna in the west.
 He identified many diseases like tuberculosis, meningitis and other such
inflammations.
 He also worked in the field of mathematics, astronomy, physics, paleontology and music.
 He wrote book like “Al-Qanoon” and “FilTib Al-Shafa”.
THE LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION
 The levels of organization in the living world arebased on a chemical foundation.
ATOMIC-LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION:
 All the matter is made up of elements, which is composed of atom.
 Each atom is made up of sub-atomic particles, such as electrons, protons, and neutrons.
 In nature, there are more than 100 kinds of elements and among these 16 elements are
called as bio-elements, which are vital for life.
 Only six elements such as C, H, O, N, S, and P are called basic elements of life.
MOLECULAR LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION:
 Molecules are formed by the binding of atoms.
 These organic molecules of cells are called as bio-molecules.
 They are classified as micro-molecules and macro- molecules.
 Glucose, amino acid and fatty acids are micro-molecules, whereas carbohydrates, proteins
and lipids are macro-molecules.
CELLULAR LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION:
 The biomolecules when work together in the form of suspension,
 It iscalled Protoplasm.
 When protoplasm work in the form of a unit, this iscalled Cell.
 When similar type of cells organize together in a group, called tissues.
 The different types of tissues arranged in a particular manner to work together are called
Organs.
 Organs of different types work in a co-ordinated manner to perform a function is called Organ-
system.
 When different organ-system function in co-ordination in as a unit, they form a body or Multicellular
Organism.
TAXONOMIC LEVEL:
 The Species is the smallest unit of taxonomic level of organization, which includes
morphologically similar living organisms which inter-breed and produce fertile offspring.
POPULATION LEVEL:
 All the members of a species, living in specific habitat are called Population. A group of parrots living on tree, is
called parrot population.
 34

COMMUNITY LEVEL:
 The members of different species living in specific habitat are called as Community.
 A group of different kind of birds, living on tree, is called asbird community.
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM:
 Communities always depends upon their non-living environment in a reciprocal
interaction for their survival.
 For example oxygen for respiration is obtained from environment and in turn given out
CO2.
 This interaction is called Ecosystem or Ecological system.
BIOSPHERE LEVEL:
 The part of earth where life exists is called biosphere. It consists of different kinds of eco
systems.
UNICELLULAR ORGANIZATIONS:
 All single cell organisms carry out all activities of life.
 Bacteria, Amoeba, Paramecium and Euglena are common examples of unicellular organisms.
COLONIAL ORGANIZATION:
 In colonial type of cellular organization, each unicellular organism lives its own life, they are
not dependent on each other and never form any multicellular structure.
 Volvox is a green alga, is an example of colonialform of organization.
MULTICELLULAR ORGANIZATION:
 The organism formed by many cells is called as multicellular organism. Frog and mustard
plant are examples of multicellular organization.
MUSTARD PLANT:
 Brassica campestris is commonly known as mustard plant and locally it is called “Sarsoon”.
 It is multicellular and cultivated in the winter season.
 The length of this plant is 1 to 1.5 meter.
FROG:
 Rana tigrina is the scientific name of spotted frog found commonly in our region.
 It is multicellular animal. It lives in both water as well as on land.
 Its body is divided into head and trunk. There is no neck.
Different organs with the relative organ system.
ORGANS ORGAN SYSTEM
Mouth, buccal cavity, Pharynx, Esophagus, stomach, Digestive system
Small intestine, large intestine, cloaca, liver, gall
bladder,pancreas.
Heart, atria ventricle, Aortae, Vena cavae Circulatory system
Lungs, trachea, nostrils Respiratory system

Kidneys, Ureter, Urinary Bladder Excretory system

Testes, vasa efferentia, Ovaries, Oviduct, Ovisac Reproductive system

Brain, Spinal Cord, Nerves Nervous system

AMOEBA:
 Amoeba is a unicellular organism found in the mud of shallow pond, pools and at any
stagnant water.
 Its size is about 0.25mm. Amoeba has a irregular shape.
 It has a cell membrane which helps in movement of molecules and protects cytoplasm.
 The outer part of cytoplasm is clear and transparent, called ectoplasm (gel) and inner part is
called endoplasm (sol).
 The cytoplasm contains nucleus, food vacuoles, mitochondria etc. Amoeba moves by false
foot, called pseudopodia.
VOLVOX:
 Volvox is a polyphyletic (many ancestors) genus of chlorophyte greenalgae in the family
Volvocaceae.
 It forms spherical colonies of upto 50,000 cells.
 They live in a variety of fresh water habitats and were first reported by Antonie Van
Leeuwen Hoek in 1700.
 35

 Each Volvox cell has two flagella.

 The flagella beat together to roll the body in water.
 Volvox cells have chlorophyll and make their own food by photosynthesis.
CHAPTER - 02
SOLVING A BIOLOGICAL PROBLEM
BIOLOGICAL METHOD
 The system of advancing knowledgeby formulating a question, collecting data about it through
observation and experiment, and testing a hypothetical answer about living things is called
biological method.
BIOLOGICAL PROBLEM, HYPOTHESIS, DEDUCTION AND EXPERIMENTS:
 Biological problem is a set of questions to be solved, about the natural world.
 An observation is a statement of knowledge gained through the senses (qualitative) or through
the use of scientific equipment (quantitative).
 In 1880, a French physician, Laveran, studied the blood sample of malaria patient under
microscope and observed tiny creatures in it and named as Plasmodium.
 Hypothesis is a key component of the scientific process. It is defined as “the intelligent guess
made by a scientist in the form of statement”.
 Biologists collect information about the problem and formulate the hypothesis by using a
reasoning process i.e. 'inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning'
 Inductive reasoning moves from specific to general e.g. Shark is a fish. All fishes have scales
therefore sharks also have scales.
 Deductive reasoning moves from general to specific. It is based on “if- then” statement. Deductive
reasoning can be tested and verified by experiments.
 Experiment is a practical performance of a scientist to identify the real cause of a problem based
on inductive and or deductive reasoning.
 The results are where you report what happened in the experiment.That includes detailing
all observations and data made during yourexperiment.
 The final step of the scientific method is developing conclusion.
 This iswhere all the results from the experiment are analyzed and a determination is reached
about the hypothesis
 Scientific theories, on the other hand, are well-tested and highly reliable scientific explanations of
natural phenomena.
 A scientific law is a uniform or constant fact of nature, it is virtually anirrefutable theory.
CHAPTER - 03
BIODIVERSITY
INTRODUCTION
Biodiversity is the combination of two words; Bio (life), diversity (variation)
“The biodiversity or biological diversity isthe degree of variation within or among the species
exist on different regions of the earth”.
CLASSIFICATION
To study such a diverse pack of organisms exist on earth, biologists classified the organisms into
groups and sub groups. This grouping of organisms is called biological classification.
PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION
Some organisms share similar fundamental characteristics orfunctions.
It is further explained by means of Morphology (externalfeatures of an organism) in which we study the
organisms on the basis of their Homologous (similar in structure and have different functions) and
Analogous (different in structure and have same functions).
Cytology and genetics in which organisms are classified on the basis of cellular study, genetic
constitution and their development pattern.
TAXONOMIC HIERARCHY
The groups into which organisms are classified are known as taxonomic categories or taxa (singular
taxon).
The taxa are arranged in ascending order and form a ladder, called taxonomic hierarchy.
All organismsare classified into five kingdoms.
The kingdom is the highesttaxonof classification.
On the basis of similarities, each kingdom is further divided into smaller taxa.
UNITS OF CLASSIFICATION:
The smallest and basic unit of classification is species.
 36

All the members of the particular species share the similar characteristics and can naturally
interbreed to produce a fertile offspring.
Closely related species are grouped together into genera(singular-genus).
Similar genera are grouped together into families, families into orders, orders into classes, classes
into phyla or division and phyla or division into kingdoms.
The science of classification is called Taxonomy.
SIMPLE CLASSIFICATION OF TWO ORGANISMS
Taxa Human Pea
Kingdom Animalia Plantae
Phylum Chordate Magnoliophyta
Class Mammalia Magnoliopside
Order Primates Fabales
Family Moninidae Fabaceae
Genus Homo Pisum
Species Sapiens Sativum
Scientific name Homo sapiens Pisum sativum

HISTORY OF CLASSIFICATION
 Taxonomy's firstfather was the philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BC), sometimes called the
"father of science."
 It was Aristotle who first introduced the two key concepts of taxonomy as we practice
it today: classification of organismsby type and binomial definition.
 Aristotle was the first to attempt to classify all the kinds of animals in his book on Animals
(Historia Animalium in Latin).
 He grouped the typesof creatures according to their similarities: animals with blood and
animals without blood, animals that live on water and animals that live onland.
 Abu Usman Umer Aljahiz was the first eminent Arab zoologist of theMuslim world.
 He used to slaughter animals for studying the internal organs of their bodies.
 He also opened the abdomen of pregnant animals to find out the number of embryos and
the location of each one of them in the body.
 His Encyclopedic work in seven big volumes Kitab al-Haywan (Book of Animals) is the most
famous work on zoology.
 Carolus Linnaeus is considered as the father of Taxonomy.
TWO KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION
 All the organisms possess cell wall were placed in plant kingdom and all the organisms do
not possess cell wall were placed in animal kingdom.

THREE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION

 Ernst Hackle in 1866, introduced a new Kingdom named as Protistato accommodate the
organisms exhibiting characters either common to bothplants and animals, or unique to
their own such as Euglena, Bacteria were also placed under this kingdom.
 In 1937, Édouard Chatton clarified the concept of procariotique andEucariotique to describe the
cellular characteristics of organisms.
 In 1930s, electron microscopy revealed, two distinct patterns amongsingle celled
organisms.
FOUR KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION
 Copeland (1959) came forward with a four kingdom system to classify the living
beings.
 He designed a new kingdom named as Monera to place all the lower protists which
include prokaryotic unicellular organisms and remaining single celled eukaryotic
organisms were included in Protista.
FIVE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION
Robert Whittaker in 1969 classified the organisms into five kingdoms which clearly categorized
fungi into a separate kingdom.
This system of classification was based on;
 Cellular structure and body organization; unicellular Prokaryote,
 37

Unicellular and multicellular eukaryotes.

 Mode of nutrition; autotrophs (plants), Ingestive heterotrophs
(animals) and absorptive heterotrophs (fungi).
KINGDOM MONERA
 It includes all the prokaryotes i-e Bacteria and cyanobacteria.
KINGDOM PROTISTA
 It is the place for all the eukaryotic unicellular organisms, except yeast.
 It includes protozoa and unicellular algae.
KINGDOM FUNGI
 It includes all the multicellular eukaryotic fungi.
 They are Achlorophyllous, absorptive heterotrophs.
 They have cell wall made up of mainly chitin.
 They have a body called Mycelium which is made up of a thread like structure called hyphae.
KINGDOM PLANTAE:
 It includes all the multicellular, eukaryotic, photosynthetic organisms.
 They have cell wall mainly made up of cellulose.
 It includes multicellular Algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperm and angiosperms.
KINGDOM ANIMALIA
 All animals are multicellular, eukaryotic which are ingestive heterotrophs without
cell wall.
 It includes all vertebrates and invertebrates except protozoa.
STRUCTURE OF VIRUS
 Virus is non cellular obligate endoparasite (lives inside host cell).
 It doesnot have cellular organization but do have nuclear material either DNA orRNA.
 It has protein coat called capsid that encloses the nucleic acid.
 It reproduces only inside the host cell.
 Due to its non-cellular nature it cannot be placed in any of the five kingdoms.
 It causes number of diseasesin plant like tobacco Mosaic Disease etc. and animals like,
cold, flue, dengue, polio, hepatitis, AIDS etc.
 Prions and viroids are also non-cellular particles so cannot be placed infive kingdom
classification system.
BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE
 Carolus Linnaeus Swedish naturalist and explorer who was the firstto frame principles for
defining natural genera and species of organisms and to create a uniform system for naming
them.
 The scientific name of Onion is known as Allium cepa.
BIOLOGICAL NAME OF SOME COMMON PLANTS AND ANIMALS
COMMON NAME BIOLOGICAL NAME
Onion Plant Allium Cepa
Mango Plant Mangifera Indica L
Neem Plant Azadirachta indica
Frog Rana Tigrina
Cat Felis Catus
Housefly Musca domestica
 Through a system of nomenclature in which each species of animal,plant or others receives
a name of two terms of which the first identifies the genus to which it belongs and the
second the species itself or its specific names.
PRINCIPLES FOR BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE
Some of the rules which are universally adopted for writing scientific name of a species are:
 Scientific name of any organisms should be italicized when printed, such as Homo sapiens and
when handwritten these are underlined.
 The first word of the name is generic always started with capital letter, while second term is
species which is never capitalized.
 When the scientific name is written first time, it is written full but whenit is repeated several
times, it is abbreviated. For example; the scientific name of the red rose is Rosa indica, it is
abbreviated as R.indica.
 Sometimes the author name appears after species name which means the species was
described by Him. For example; (mango plant) Mangifera indica L. It means Mangifera indica
 38

was first described byLinnaeus.

CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
 “Conservation simply is the way of caring, saving the species, inhabit on earth fromdangers”.
CHAPTER - 04
CELLS AND TISSUES
MICROSCOPE AND EMERGENCE OF CELL THEORY
 Zacharias Janssen is generally believed to be the first investigator to invent the compound
microscope in the 1590.
 It was simply a tube with lenses at each end and its magnification ranged from 3X to 9X.
 Robert Hooke had improved his version of the compound microscope to observe organisms.
 Microscopes are instruments designed to produce magnified visual orphotographic images
of objects too small to be seen with the naked eye.
 There are two parameters especially important in microscopy; magnification and
resolution.
 Magnification: The enlargement of an image is called magnification.
 Resolution: The resolution of a microscope is defined as the smallest distance between two
points on a specimen that can still be distinguished as two separate objects
LIGHT MICROSCOPE AND ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
There are two microscopes are used in microscopy i.e. light microscope (LM) and electron
microscope (EM).
(a) LIGHT MICROSCOPE:
 In a light microscope, visible light passes through the specimen.
 A photograph of an image taken through a microscope is called micrograph.
(a) ELECTRON MICROSCOPE:
 Electron microscopes differ from light microscopes, that they produce an image of a
specimen by using a beam of electrons rather than a beam of light.
 Electrons have amuch shorter wavelength than visible light, and this allows electron
microscopes to produce higher-resolution images than standard light microscopes.
 A live cell cannot be imaged by electron microscope.
 Electron microscope has a resolution as small as 0.2 nanometer (nm) and magnification
up to 250,000 times.
There are two major types of electron microscopes.
1. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
2. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
 In scanning electron microscopy, a beam of electrons moves back and forth across the
surface of a cell or tissue, creating a detailed image of the 3D surface.
 In transmission electron microscopy, in contrast, the sample is cut into extremely thin
slices before imaging, and the electron beam passes through the slice rather than
skimming over its surface.
 TEM is often usedto obtain detailed images of the internal structures of cells.
HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF CELL THEORY
 Ancient Greeks were the first to make comprehensive attempts to organize the data of
the natural world.
 Aristotle presented an organized observation to support the idea that all animals and
plants are somehow related.

1665 Cell was first observed by Robert Hooke, an English scientist, discovered a
honeycomb-like structure in a cork slice using a primitive compound
microscope. He only saw cell walls as this was dead tissue. He coined the
term "cell" for these individualcompartments he saw.

1670 First living cells were seen by Anton van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch
biologist, from pond water with a microscope.
 39

1683 Miniature animals:

Anton van Leeuwenhoek made several more discoveries on amicroscopic
level, eventually publishing a letter to the Royal Societyin which he included
detailed drawings of what he saw. Among these was the rst protozoa and
bacteria discovered.

1833 The center of the cell was seen by Robert Brown, an Englishbotanist,
discovered the nucleus in plant cells.

1839 Cell theory:

Theodor Schwann, a German botanist reached the conclusion thatnot only
plants, but animal tissue as well is composed of cells.

1839 This ended debates that plants and animals were fundamentally
different in structure. He also pulled together and organized previous
statement on cells into one theory, which states:
1- Cells are organisms and all organisms consist of one or more cells.
2 - The cell is the basic structure unit for all organisms.

1840 Where does life come from Albrecht von Roelliker discovered thatsperm
and eggs are also cells.

1845 Carl Heinrich Braun reworked the cell theory, calling cells thebasic unit
of life.

1855 3rd part to the cell theory added by Rudolf Virchow, a German
physiologist/physician/pathologist. Added that cell is not Denovo
structure. This translates mean that all cells develop only from existing
cells.

1862 Louis Pasteur was a French biologist; microbiologist and chemist provided
the experimental proof of this idea.

CELL THEORY
 Cell is a basicstructural and functional unit of living organism.
 This is known as a cell theory and was proposed jointly by two scientists in 1839.
 A Belgian Botanist called Schleiden and the German zoologist called Schwan.
 In 1855 Rudolf Virchow, a German physicians proposed an importantextension of cell theory-
that all living cells arise from pre-existing.
The postulates of cell theory are:
1. All Living organisms are made of one or more cells.
2. The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in all livingorganisms.
3. The new cell is derived from pre-existing cells dividing into two by celldivision.
4. The cell contains the hereditary material which is passed fromgeneration to
generation.
SUB-CELLULAR OR ACELLULAR PARTICLES
 According to the first principle of the cell theory all organisms are composed of one or more
cells.
 Viruses, prions and viroids are not composed of cells rather they are sub-cellular or acellular
particles but do not run any metabolic activity inside them.
 They can increase in number and can transmit their characteristics to the next
generations.
CELL
 Cells are the basic units of organisms and all tissues and organs are composed of cells.
 There are different types of cells.
 40

 Cells can either be prokaryotic or eukaryotic.

 Eukaryotic cells have a proper nucleus and membrane bound organelles.
 Plant and animal cells are eukaryotes.
 Plantcells are generally a cubical shape.
 Animal cells are usually spherical.
 Plant cells and animal cells have evolved different organelles toperform specific functions.
 Energy flow occurs in cells through the breakdown of carbohydrates by respiration.
 Cells contain the information necessary for the creation of new cells. This information is
known as 'hereditary information' and is contained within DNA.
 The contents of cells from similar species are basically the same.
 DNA (the hereditary information of cells) is passed from 'parent' cells to 'daughter' cells during
cell division.
 Cells are the smallest form of life; the functional and structural unitsof all living things. Your
body contains several billion cells, organized into over 200 major types, with hundreds of cell-
specific functions.
 Some functions performed by cells are so vital to the existence of lifethat all cells perform
them (e.g. cellular respiration). Others are highly specialized (e.g. photosynthesis).
COMPARISON BETWEEN PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES
 Organisms whose cells have a membrane bounded nucleus are called eukaryotes (from the
Greek words ‘Eu’ means well or truly and ‘karyon’ means kernel or nucleus.
 Organisms whose cells do not have a membrane bounded nucleus are called prokaryotes (
‘pro’ means before).

Cellular Structures Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

Example; Bacteria and Cyanobacteria Animals and plants
Nucleus Without membrane Membrane bounded
Number of One but not true More than One
chromosomes chromosomes:

Number of cells Unicellular Unicellular and Multicellular

True membrane Absent Present
bound orgenelles

Lysosomes and Abscent Present

Peroxisome

Microtubules Absent or rare Present

Endoplasmic reticulum Absent Present
Mitochondria Absent Present
Ribosomes Smaller 70S Larger 80S
Vesicles Present Present
Golgi Apparatus Absent Present
Chloroplasts Absent Present (in plants)
Plasma membrane Usually no Yes
with steroid

Permeability of Not present Selective

nuclear membrane

Vacuoles Absent Present

Cell Size 1-10 µm 1-1000 µm
Flagella Submicroscopic in size, Microscopic in size;
composed of only one fiber membrane bound
 41

CELLULAR STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS

ANIMAL CELL
 Do not contain plastids.
 No cell wall.
 Animals do not have plasmodesmata or pits.
 Few vacuoles (if any).
 Nucleus is generally found at the centre of the cytoplasm.
 A n i m a l c e l l s p o s s e s s lysosomes which contain enzymes that digest cellular
macromolecules.
 Animal cells contain these cylindrical structures that organize the assembly of microtubules during
cell division.
PLANT CELL
 Almost all plants cells containplastids such chloroplasts,chromoplasts and leucoplasts.
 Have a rigid cellulose cell wall inaddition to the cell membrane.
 Contain plasmodesmata and pits.
 Large central vacuole filled withcell sap in mature cells.
 Nucleus is found near the edgeor periphery of the mature cell.
 Plant cells rarely contain lysosomes as the plant vacuole handles molecule
degradation.
 Plant cells do not typically containcentrioles.
CELL WALL
 A cell wall is a tough, rigid non-living and permeable protective layerin some cell types.
 This outer covering is positioned next to the cell membrane (plasma membrane) in plant
cells, fungi, algae and bacteria.
 The cell wall has many important functions in a cell including protection, structure, and
support.
 Cell wall composition varies depending on the organism.
 In plants, thecell wall is composed mainly of strong fibers of cellulose.
 Bacterial cell walls are composed of a sugar and amino acid called peptidoglycan.
 The main components of fungal cell walls are chitin, glucans, and proteins.
 In plants, the wall is composed of cellulose.
 It may consist up to threelayers that help to support the plant.
 These layers include the middle lamella, the primary cell wall and the secondary cell wall.
 Middle lamella: It separates one cell from another.
 It is a thin membranous layer on the outer side of the cell and is made of a sticky substance
called pectin and cellulose.
 Primary cell wall: It lies on the inside of the middle lamella and is mainlycomposed of cellulose.
 Secondary cell wall: It lies along side the cell membrane.
 It is made up ofa thick and tough material of cellulose which is held together by a hard, water
proof substance called lignin.
 It is only found in cells which provide mechanical support in plants, i.e., Some cells of xylem like
tracheid and vessels.
 The main function of the wall is to protect the inner parts of the plant cell, it gives plant
cells a more uniform and regular shape and providessupport for the plant body.
 The cell wall is completely permeable to water and mineral salts which allows
distribution of nutrients throughout the plant.
CELL MEMBRANE
 The cell membrane is the outer most living boundary of all cells.
 The cell membrane, also called the plasma membrane, physically separates the
intracellular space (inside the cell) from the extracellular environment(outside the cell).
 The cell membrane surrounds and protects the cytoplasm.
 The cell membrane is composed of a double layer (bilayer) of special lipidscalled phospholipids.
STRUCTURE OF THE CELL MEMBRANE - THE FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
 S.J. Singer and G.L. Nicolson proposed the Fluid Mosaic Model of the cell membrane in 1972.
 This model describes that phospholipid acting like matrix and conjugated glycoproteins
(glucose and protein together) may float freely in this matrix.
 This model describes the structure of the cell membrane as a fluid structure with various
protein and carbohydrate components floating freely in the membrane.
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MOVEMENT ACROSS THE MEMBRANES

 This movement occurs across the membranes by diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion and
active transport.
1. Diffusion:
 Diffusion is the movement of substances from a region of high concentration to low
concentration.
 It is therefore said to occur down a concentration gradient.
 Diffusion is a passive process which means it does not require any energy input.
2. Osmosis:
 Movement of water always occurs down a concentration gradient, i.e., from dilute
solution to concentrated solution.
 Osmosis is also a passiveprocess and does not require any input of energy.
 Cell membranes allow molecules of water to pass through, but they do not allow
molecules ofmost dissolved substances, e.g. salt and sugar, to pass through it.
 In biological systems, osmosis is vital to plant and animal cell survival.
 Plant cells use osmosis to absorb water from the soil and transport it to the leaves.
 In hypertonic conditions a plant cell loses water and cytoplasm shrinks and shrinkage of
cytoplasm is called plasmolysis.
 Osmosis in the kidneys keeps the water and salt levels in the body and blood at the correct
levels.
3. Facilitated diffusion:
 Facilitated diffusion is a special form of diffusion which allows rapid exchange of specific
substances
4. Active transport:
 Active transport is the movement of substances against a concentration gradient, from
a region of low concentration to high concentration using an input of energy.
 In biological systems, the form inwhich this energy occurs is adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
 ATP and ADP are molecules involved with moving energy within cells.
CELL ORGANELLES
CYTOPLASM:
The cytoplasm is the jelly-like substance that fills the cell.
Itconsists of up to 90% water.
It also contains dissolved nutrients and wasteproducts.
Its main function is to hold together the organelles which make up the cytoplasm.
It also nourishes the cell by supplying it with salts and sugars and provides a medium for
metabolic reactions to occur.
CYTOSKELETON:
 A microscopic network of protein consists of microtubules and various f i laments that
spread out through the cytoplasm, providing both structural support and means of
transport within the cell.
 Microtubules are made of tubulin while laments made up of active protein.
NUCLEUS:
 The nucleus is the largest organelle in the cell and contains the entire cell's genetic
information in the form of DNA.
 The presence of a nucleus is the primary factor that distinguishes eukaryotes from
prokaryotes.
 Nucleus is covered by two phospholipids membranes known as nuclear envelope that
separates the nucleus and its contents from the cytoplasm.
 Nuclear pores are found in the nuclear envelope and help to regulate the exchange of
materials (such as RNA and proteins) between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
 Inside nuclear envelope, a granular uidis present called nucleoplasm.
 In nucleus an aggregation of RNA is also present called nucleolus.
 In non-dividing cell the genetic material is found in the form of net work in the nucleus
called chromatin net work.
MITOCHONDRIA (SINGULAR; MITOCHORION):
 A mitochondrion is a membrane bound organelle found in eukaryoticcells.
 Mitochondria contain two phospholipid bilayers: there is an outer membrane, and an inner
membrane.
 The inner membrane contains many folds called cristae which contain specialized
membrane proteins that enable the mitochondria to synthesize ATP.
 Inside the inner membrane isa jelly-like matrix.
 43

 Mitochondria is the site of aerobic respiration. During aerobic respiration energy is

produced in the form of ATP.
 Therefore the Mitochondria is also called ‘Power house’ of cell.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM:
 The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells only.
 The ER has a double membrane consisting of a network of hollow tubes, flattened sheets, and round sacs.
 These flattened, hollow folds and sacs are called cisternae.
 The ER is located in the cytoplasm and is connected to the nuclear envelope.
 There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum: smooth and rough ER.
SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM:
 Does not have any ribosomes attached.
 It is involved in the synthesis of lipids, including oils, phospholipids and steroids.
 It is also responsible for metabolism of carbohydrates, regulation of calcium
concentration and detoxification.
ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM:
 It is covered with ribosomes giving the endoplasmic reticulum its rough appearance.
 It is responsible for protein synthesis and plays a role in membrane production.
 The folds present in the membrane increase the surface area allowing more ribosomes
to be present on the ER, thereby allowing greater protein production.
RIBOSOMES:
 Ribosomes are composed of RNA and protein.
 They occur in the cytoplasm and are the sites where protein synthesis occurs.
 Ribosomes may occur singly in the cytoplasm or in groups or may be attached to the endoplasmic reticulum
thus forming the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
GOLGI BODY:
 The Golgi body was discovered by the Italian physician Camillo Golgi.
 It was one of the first organelles to be discovered and described in detail because its large
size made it easier toobserve.
 It is important for proteins tobe transported through Golgi body from where they are
synthesized to where they are required in the cell.
 The Golgi body is the sorting organelleof the cell.
 The Golgi body consists of a stackof flat membrane-bound sacs called cisternae.
 The cisternae within the Golgi body consist of enzymes which modify the packaged products
of theGolgi body.
 Proteins are transported from the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)to the Golgi.
 In the Golgi, proteins are modified and packaged into vesicle.
 The Golgi body therefore receives proteins made in one location in the celland transfers these
to another location within the cell where they are required.
 For this reason the Golgi body can be considered to be the 'post office' of the cell.
VESICLES:
 Vesicles are small, membrane-bound spherical sacs which facilitate the metabolism,
transport and storage of molecules.
 Many vesicles are made in the Golgi body and the endoplasmic reticulum, or are made from
parts of the cell membrane.
 Vesicles can be classified according to their contents and function. Transport vesicles
transport molecules within the cell.
LYSOSOMES:
 Lysosomes are formed by the Golgi body and contain powerful digestive enzymes that can
potentially digest the cell.
 These powerful enzymes can digest cell structures and food molecules such as
carbohydrates and proteins.
 Lysosomes are abundant in animal cells that ingest food through food vacuoles.
 When a cell dies, the lysosome releasesits enzymes and digests the cell.
VACUOLES:
 Vacuoles are fluid-filled spaces that occur in the cytoplasm of plant cells, but are very small or completely
absent in animal cells. Plant cells generally have one large vacuole that takes up most of the cell's volume in
mature cell.
 A selectively permeable boundary called the tonoplast, surround the vacuole.
 The vacuole contains cell sap which is a liquid consisting of water, mineral salts, sugars and amino acids.
 The vacuole plays an important role in hydrolysis, excretion of cellular waste, storage of water, organic and
inorganic substances.
 44

CENTRIOLES:
 Animal cells contain a special organelle called a centriole.
 The centriole is a cylindrical tube-like structure that is composed of 27 microtubules
arranged in a very particular pattern of triplets in rows. The site where two centrioles
arranged perpendicular to each other are referred to as a centrosome.
 The centrosome plays a very important role incell division.
 The centrioles are responsible for organizing the microtubules that position the
chromosomes in the correct location during cell division.
PLASTIDS
 Plastids are large cytoplasmic and major organelles found in the cells of plants and
algae.
 Plastids are the site of manufacture and storage of important chemical compounds
used by the cell.
 Plastids often contain pigments used in photosynthesis, and the types of pigments
present canchange or determine the cell's colour.
 There are three different types of plastids:
 Chloroplasts: Green-coloured plastids found in plants and algae.
 Chromoplasts: Contain red, orange or yellow pigments and are commonin ripening fruit,
flowers or autumn leaves.
 Leucoplasts: Colour less plastids.
CHLOROPLAST:
 The c h l o r o p l a s t is a do u bl e - membraned organelle.
 Within the double membrane is a gel-like substancecalled stroma.
 Stroma contains enzymes for photosynthesis.
 Suspended in the stroma are stack-like structures called grana (singular = granum).
 Each granum is a stack of thylakoid discs.
 Thechlorophyll molecules (green pigments) are found on the surface of the thylakoid discs.
 Chlorophyll absorbs energy fromthe sun for photosynthesis.
CELL SIZE AND SHAPE AS THEY RELATE TO SURFACE AREA TO VOLUME RATIO
 The smallest cells are bacteria called mycoplasmas, with diameter between 0.1 μm to 1.0
μm.
 The bulkiest cells are bird eggs, and the longestcells are some muscle cells and nerve cells.
 Cell size and shape are related to cell function.
 Bird eggs are bulky because they contain a large amount of nutrient for the developing
young.
 Long muscle cells are efficient in pulling different body parts together. Lengthy nerve cells
can transmit messages between different parts of body.
 Small cell size also has many benefits. For example human red blood cells are only 8
μm in diameter andtherefore can move through our tiniest blood vessels i.e. capillaries.
ANIMAL AND PLANT TISSUES

ANIMAL TISSUES
 Humans and other large multicellular animals are made up of four basic types tissue: epithelial
tissue, connective tissue, muscular tissue and nervous tissue.
EPITHELIAL TISSUE:
 Epithelial tissue covers the surface of the body, lines the spaces inside the body and forms
glands.
 For instance, the outer layer of your skin is anepithelial tissue and the lining of small intestine
are made up of epithelialtissues.
 Epithelial cells are polarized, means that they have a top and a bottom side.
 There are different types of epithelial tissue depending on their function in a particular
location.
 The simplest classification of these tissues is based on the number of cell layers.
 When the epithelium is composed of a single layer of cells, it is called simple epithelial tissue and
those containing two or more layers of cells are called stratified epithelial tissues.
 Simple squamous epithelium is found in the alveoli of lungs, and itsstructure is important
for the exchange of gases between the blood and lungs.
 Simple cuboidal epithelia line the lumen of collecting ducts in the kidney and are present in
the thyroid gland around the follicles that secrete thyroid hormones.
 Simple columnar epithelia are found in the female reproductive system and in the digestive
 45

tract.
 Stratified epithelia consist of more than one layer of cells and only one layer is in direct contact
with the basement membrane.
 Stratified squamous epithelia are found in skin, with many dead, keratinized cells providing
protection against water and nutrient loss. Stratified cuboidal epithelia are found surrounding
the ducts of manyglands, including mammary glands in the breast and salivary glands in
the mouth.
 Stratified columnar epithelia are rare, found predominantly in some organs of the reproductive
system.
 Transitional epithelia are aspecial subset of stratified epithelia. They are exclusively found in
the excretory system.
CONNECTIVE TISSUE:
 This tissue which connects or bind the different types of cells called connective tissues.
 They also bind other tissues of the body with each other.
 Connective tissue holds structures in the body together, such as tendons.
 Cartilage is a type of supporting connective tissue.
 It is a dense connective tissue. Cartilage has limited ground substance and can range from
semisolid to a flexible matrix.
 Bone is another type of supporting connective tissue.
 Bone can either be compact (dense) or spongy (cancellous), and contains the osteoblasts
or osteocytes cells.
 Adipose is another type of supporting connective tissue that providescushions and stores
excess energy and fat.
 Blood referred to as connective tissue. It is a type of fluid connectivetissue.
MUSCLE TISSUES:
 Muscle tissue contains the cells that are responsible for the contraction of muscles.
 There are three types of muscular tissues i.e. cardiac, smooth, and skeletal.
 Skeletal muscle, which is also called striated (striped) muscle, is what we refer to as muscle in
everyday life.
 Skeletal muscle is attached to bones bytendons.
 For instance, the muscles in your legs and your arms are skeletalmuscle.
 Cardiac muscle is found only in the walls of the heart.
 Like skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle is striated, or striped.
 But it's not under voluntary control.
 Smooth muscle is found in the walls of blood vessels, as well as in thewalls of the digestive
tract, the uterus, the urinary bladder, and various other internal structures.
 Smooth muscle is un-striped, (unstriated), it is involuntary, not under conscious control.
 That means you don't have to think about moving food through your digestive tract!
NERVOUS TISSUES:
 Nervous tissue is composed of neurons, which transmit information to other cells.
 Nervous tissue is found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
 It is responsible for coordinating and controlling many body activities.
 It stimulates muscle contraction, creates an awareness of the environment, and plays a major
role in emotions, memory, and reasoning.
PLANT TISSUES
 There aretwo major categories of tissues in plants i.e. Meristematic tissues and
Permanent tissues.
MERISTEMATIC TISSUES:
 These tissues are composed of cells, which have the ability to divide.
 The cells are thin walled, have large nucleus and number of small vacuoles.
Two main types of meristematic tissues are recognized in plants.
(i) Apical meristems tissues are present at the apex of roots and stems. According to their
position they are Apical meristems.
Stem and rootincrease in length by the division of cells of these tissues.
This type ofgrowth is called primary growth.
(ii) Lateral meristems are located on the lateral sides of roots and shoot.By dividing, they are
responsible for increase in grith of plant parts. This growth is called secondary growth.
PERMANENT TISSUES:
 Permanent tissues originate from meristematic tissue.
 The cells of these tissues do not have the ability to divide and may have intercellular
spaces in between cells.
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 There are two types of permanent tissues i.e. (a) Simple permanent tissue (b) Compound
or complex tissue.
SIMPLE PERMANENT TISSUE:
 Simple permanent tissues are made up of only one type of cell.
EPIDERMAL TISSUES:
 Epidermal tissues are composed of a single layer of cells and they cover plant body.
 They act as a barrier between environment and internal plant tissues.
 In roots, they are also responsible for the absorption of water and minerals.
 On stem and leaves they secrete cutin (the coating ofcutin is called cuticle) which
prevents evaporation.
 Epidermal tissues also have some specialized structure that perform specific functions;
for example root hairs and stomata.
GROUND TISSUES:
 Ground tissues are simple tissues made up of parenchyma cells.Parenchyma cells are
the most abundant cells in plants.
 Overall they are spherical but flat at point of contact.
 They have thin primary cell walls andhave large vacuoles for storage of food.
 In leaves, they are called mesophyll and are the sites of photosynthesis. In other parts,
they are thesites of respiration and protein synthesis.
SUPPORTING TISSUES:
 These tissues provide strength and flexibility to plants.
 They are further of two types.
COLLENCHYMA TISSUES:
 They are found in cortex (beneath epidermis) of young stems and in the midribs of leaves
and in petals of flowers.
 They are made of elongatedcells with unevenly thickened primary cell walls. They are flexible
and function to support the organs in which they are found.
SCLERENCHYMA TISSUES:
 They are composed of cells with rigid secondary cell walls.
 Their cellwalls are hardened with lignin, which is the main chemical component ofwood.
 Mature sclerenchyma cells cannot elongate and most of them are dead.
COMPOUND (COMPLEX) TISSUES:
 A plant tissue composed of more than one type of cell is called a compound or complex
tissue.
 Xylem and phloem tissues, found only in vascular plants, are examples of compound tissues.
 Xylem tissue is responsible for the transport of water and dissolved substances from
roots to the aerial parts.
 Two main types of cell are found in xylem tissue i.e. vessel and tracheids.
 Vessels have thick secondary cell walls.
 Tracheids are made up of slender cells with overlapping ends.
PHLOEM TISSUE:
 Phloem tissue is responsible for the conduction of dissolved organic matter (food)
between different parts of plant body.
 Phloem tissue mainlycontains sieve tube cells and companion cells. Sieve tube cells are long
and their end walls have small pores.
 Cells are parenchymatous, narrow,elongated cells, and are closely associated with the
sieve tube.
CHAPTER 05
CELL CYCLE
CHROMOSOMES
 The term Chromosomes is given by German embryologist Walter Fleming in 1882
 He observed thatchromosomes colour is much darker than the rest of organelles.
 The term chromosomes is misnomer because its means coloured body later it wasfound
that chromosomes are colourless bodies
 Chromosomes are thread like structure appear at the time of cell division includes found
in specific numbers, made up of chromatin material in eukaryotic cell.
 They contain heredity units called Genes.
 Chromosomes are made up of DNA and basic protein, Histones,appear during the cell
division in the shape of rod.
 It has two parts armsand centromere.
 47

 The chromosomes are of different types, depending upon position of centromere. These types
are:
 Metacentric: Chromosomes with equal arms.
 Sub-meta centric: Chromosomes with un equal arms
 Acrocentric or sub-telocentric: Rod like chromosomes with one armvery small and other very long.
 The centromere is subterminal.
 Telocentric: Location of centromere at the end of chromosomes.
FORMATION OF CHROMOSOME
 Each chromosomes in eukaryotes are composed of chromatin fiber, which is made of
nucleosomes.
 Chromatin fibers are packaged by proteins into a condensed structure called chromatin.
 During cell division chromatin condenses further to form microscopically visible chromosomes.
 The structure of chromosomes varies through the cell cycle.
 During cell cycle chromatin material replicate, divide and passed successfully to their daughter
cells for survival of their progeny.
 Sometime cell-division is also responsible for genetic diversity
CELL CYCLE
 The sequence of changes which occurs between one cell division and the next is called Cell
Cycle.”
 It has two phases, Interphase, which is the period of non-division and M-phase, which is a
period of cell division.
 The cell cycle undergoes a sequence of changes, which involve period of growth, replication of
DNA followed by cell division.
 This sequence of changes is called cell cycle.
INTERPHASE:
The period of cell cycle between two consecutive divisions is called Interphase.
It is a period of growth and synthesis of DNA.
 During this period the cell prepares itself for the M- phase.
 The Interphase is divided further into three sub-phase, G1- phase, S-phase and G2-phase.
G1-(GAP ONE) PHASE:
 It is the period of extensive metabolic activity in which Cell grows in size, specific enzymes are
synthesized and DNA base units are accumulated for the DNA synthesis.
 At a point in G1, the cell may enter into a phase called G0 (G-knot) where cell cycle stop.
 It remains for days, weeks or in some cases even for the life time of the organism.
S-(SYNTHESIS) PHASE:
 During this phase, replication of DNA occurs.
 As aresult of it chromatin material is duplicated.
G2– (GAP TWO) PHASE:
 (Pre-Mitotic Phase): The following changes occur during this phase:
 Cell grows in size, cell organelles are replicate in numbers as well as enzyme require for cell-
division also synthesized during this phase.
MITOSIS
 In this type of cell division a parent cell divides into two daughter cells in a way that the number
of chromosomes in the daughter cells remainsthe same as in the parent cell.
 Although mitosis is a continuous process, but for the study point of view we can divide it into
two phases;
(a) Karyokinesis - nuclear division
(b) Cytokinesis - cytoplasmic division.
 The karyokinesis can be divided further for convenience into four phases which are Prophase,
Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase.
PROPHASE:
 During early prophase chromatin material condenses and becomevisible as thick coiled, thread
like structures called chromosomes.
 Each chromosome at this stage is already double, consists of two chromatids.
 The chromatids are attached to each other at centromere.
 The nuclear membrane gradually disappears and at the same time centrosome divides to form two
centrioles, each moves towards the opposite pole of the animalcell and forms the spindle fibres.
 The centrioles are absent in plant cells.
METAPHASE:
 During this phase each chromosome arranges itself on the equatorof the spindle.
 48

 Each chromosome is attached to separate spindle fibre byits centromere.

ANAPHASE:
 In this phase the spindle fibre contract, centromere of a chromosome divides and the chromatides
of each chromosome separates from each other and begin to move towards the other poles.
 In this way oneset of the chromatids (each chromatid is now an independent chromosome) move
towards one pole while the other set towards the otherpole.
TELOPHASE:
 This is a stage when the chromatids (now called chromosomes) reach at the respective
poles and their movement ceases.
 Each pole receives the same number of chromosomes as were present in the parent cell.
 The nuclear membrane is reformed around each set of chromosomes.
 In this way two daughter nuclei formed in each cell.
 Cytokinesis; soon the cytoplasm of the cell also divides and two daughter cells are formed.
 In animal cell cytokinesis takes place bydeveloping a constriction.
 This constriction become deep to divide cytoplasm in two equal halves and two daughter
cells are formed.
 In plant cells it occurs by developing cell plate. In this way the daughter cells become the
exact copies of their parent cell.
APOPTOSIS AND NECROSIS (TWO WAYS OF CELL DEATH)
TWO WAYS OF CELL DEATH IN MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS:
APOPTOSIS OR SELF - DESTRUCTION (AUTOPHAGY):
 “Programed change which lead to sequence of physiological changes in cell by which cells commit
suicide collectively called Apoptosis”.
NECROSIS:
 This type of cell death which is caused by external factors i.e infection, toxin and tumor i.e
accidental cell death.
MEIOSIS (REDUCTION DIVISION)
 Meiosis is a type of cell division in which single cell divides into four daughter cells and number of
chromosomes becomes half in each daughter cell.
 In animal meiosis takes place in germ cell to produce gametes i.e. Sperms and Eggs
 In plants it takes place in spore mother cells (S.M.C) to produce spores.
EVENTS OF MEIOSIS:
 Meiosis is a series of two divisions, MEIOSIS I and MEIOSIS II which result in the
formation of four haploid cells.
MEIOSIS I (FIRST MEIOTIC DIVISION)
 First meiotic division is the reduction division during which the chromosomes number is
reduced to half.
 Meiosis I consists of Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I and TelophaseI.
PROPHASE I:
 It consists of the longest phase of meiosis.
 It can be subdivided intofollowing sub stages:
1. Leptotene
2. Zygotene
3. Pachytene
4. Diplotene
5. Diakinesi
(1) LEPTOTENE
 During this sub stage following changes occur; The chromatin network break into specific number
of long thin beaded thread called leptotene.
 Each thread has two morphologically similar leptene in eachcell called homologous structure.
(2) ZYGOTENE:
 During this sub stage the Homologous (Similar structure) chromosomes, which comes from the
mother (by ovum) and father (by sperm) are attracted towards each other and their length wise
pairing takes place.
 The pairing of homologous chromosomes is known as synapsis, while the paired homologous
chromosomes are known as bivalent.
(3) PACHYTENE:
 The synaptic forces of attraction between each bivalent decreaseand the chromosomes uncoil
and separate.
 49

 The separation is however incomplete and paired chromosomes are in contact with each other at
one or more points, called Chiasmata. Each homologous chromosome split longitudinally
except in the centromere region.
 Now each bivalent is composed of four chromatids and therefore is known as bivalent tetrad.
(4) DIPLOTENE:
 The homologous chromosomes exchange their parts of chromatid at Chiasmata.
 This exchange of segments of chromatids at chiasmata between the homologous chromosomes is
called Crossing Over.
(5) DIAKINESIS:
 During this sub stage; nucleoli and nuclear membrane are disappeared, whereas Mitotic
Apparatus (spindle) is completed. Chiasmata moves from the centromere towards the ends
of the chromosomes like a zipper.
 This type of movement of chiasmata is known as Terminalization. At the end of Diakinesis
chromatids still remain compacted at their ends.
METAPHASE I:
 Following changes occur in this phase:
 The bivalent line up at the equatorial plane.
 The centromere of each chromosome attaches with same Fibers of spindle.
ANAPHASE I:
 At this stage one chromosome from each member of homologous pair (bivalent) begins to
separate and move towards its respective pole by the contraction of spindle fibers.
 The actual reduction occurs at this stage because half the number of chromosomes moves to
each pole.
TELOPHASE I:
 The nuclear membrane form around the chromosomes at each poleand chromosomes
become uncoil.
 The nucleolus reappears and thus two daughter nuclei formed.
CYTOKINESIS:
Telophase may or may not be accompanied by cytokinesis and daughter cells formation.
INTERPHASE:
 Following Telophase I (If this stage occurs), there is a short period called Interphase before
meiosis II.
 It is similar to Interphase between Mitotic divisions except that DNA replication does not
occur.
 Replication of DNA is unnecessary because each chromosome already has two chromatids.
SECOND MEIOTIC DIVISION (MEIOSIS II):
 The second meiotic division is actually the mitotic division which divideseach haploid cell
formed during meiosis I into two daughter haploid cells.
 The second meiotic division includes:
(1) Prophase II (2) Metaphase II (3) Anaphase II (4) Telophase II
PROPHASE II:
 The spindle fibers are formed.
 The nuclear membrane and the nucleolus disappear.
METAPHASE II:
 The chromosomes are attached to half spindle fibers by their centromere and get arranged at
equatorial plane.
 Each chromosome attach with separate fiber of spindle.
ANAPHASE II:
 The spindle fibers attached to the centromeres shorten and the chromatids of chromosomes are
pulled away from one another.
 This movement continues until one complete set of chromosomes is positioned at each pole of the
cell.
TELOPHASE II:
 The spindle fibers disappear completely and chromosomes begin to uncoil.
 They become longer and indistinct and form group at each pole. Around each group nuclear
envelope is formed.
 After the kayrokinesis in each haploid meiotic cell the cytokinesis i.e. division of cytoplasm occurs
and thus four haploid cells are formed.
 50

CHAPTER 06
ENZYMES
DEFINITION
 The enzyme are defined as the biocatalyst which facilitate chemical reaction by lowering activation
energy.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ENZYMES
 Enzymes are biocatalyst, made up of mostly proteins and therefore three dimensionally folded
chains of amino acids with a specific shape.
 Their presence does not affect the nature or properties of end products.
 Reactants of enzyme are called substrate.
 They are very specific in their action; a single enzyme catalyzes only a single chemical
reaction or a group of related reactions.
 A small portion of enzyme where substrate attaches with enzyme is called active site.
 The shape of active site is complementary to shape ofthe substrate.
 They are sensitive to even a minor change in pH, temperature and substrate
concentration.
 Some enzymes require cofactor for their functioning; a cofactor is a non-protein substance
which may be organic or inorganic.
+2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +1 +1
 Zn , Mg , Mn , Fe , Cu , K and Na the organic cofactors are NADP, NAD and
FAD are used in enzymes as cofactors.
 Many enzymes work in a sequential manner to produce a specific product. This pathway is
called metabolic pathway.
 Activity of enzymes can be enhanced by activator and can be decreased by inhibitors.
 An enzyme inhibitor is a molecule that binds to an enzyme and decreases its activity.
 Since blocking an enzyme's activity can kill a pathogen.
USES OF ENZYMES:
 Many enzymes are used commercially in industries.
 Paper industry- To get cellulose for paper making.
 Food industry- For making bakery products and pizza.
 Brewing industry- For conversion of sugar into alcohol.
 Bio-detergents- Use to remove different type of stains.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE ACTIVITY OF AN ENZYMES:
 Substrate Concentration
 Temperature
 pH
MECHANISM OF ENZYME ACTION
 Enzyme catalyzes the reaction by attaching to substrate which endsto the product formation.
 Enzyme exposes its active site to attract specific substrate, makes enzyme substrate complex (ESC)
after which the product is formed and enzyme is detached from it and used again for thesame
reaction.
ACTION OF ENZYME:
 In order to understand the mechanism of enzyme action two theoriesare proposed; Lock and key
model and Induced fit model.
THE LOCK AND KEY MODEL:
 This theory was first postulated by Emil Fischer in1894 shows thehigh specificity of enzymes.
 This theory explains that the enzyme and the substrate possess specific complementary
geometric shapes that fit exactly into one another like a key into a lock.
INDUCED FIT MODEL:
 The induced fit model suggested by Daniel Koshland in 1958,
 It explains that active site continuously changes its shape until the substratebind to it.
 It also says that active site of enzyme is flexible (lock and key theory does not explain it).

CHAPTER 07
BIOENERGETICS
BIOENERGETIC AND ROLE OF ATP
 The study of this conversion of free energy into different forms by living organisms is called
Bioenergetics.
 It is the part of biology, Physics and chemistry concerned with the energy involved in making and
 51

breaking of chemical bonds found in the molecules of organisms.

 Bioenergetics can also be defined as the study of energy relationships, energy transformation
and transmission in living organisms.
CHEMICAL PROCESS OF ENERGY TRANSMISSION:
 In living organisms the energy is transferred through gain or loss of electrons during formation and
breaking of chemical bonds.
 There are two chemical processes where it occurs, known with the name of oxidationand
reduction.
 The oxidation reactions are those reactions in which loss of electron (e-) and proton occurs.
 The reduction, where gain of e- and H+ occur.
 This gainof e- also brings energy which is stored in it.
 In living organisms these oxidation - reduction (Redox) reactions occur continuously to
transfer energy from one molecule to other molecule, without these reactions energy
transfer becomes impossible in living system.
ENERGY CURRENCY IN LIVING ORGANISM:
 Living organisms have a type of system to store energy.
 This energy is stored in a special molecule called Adenosine Tri-Phosphate (ATP).
 In organisms, energy is liberated during any oxidation reaction, this energy is utilized by
molecules called Adenosine Di-Phosphate (ADP) to form a bond with phosphate (P).
 As a result the ADP become ATP, energy of oxidation is now stored in ATP.
 The amount of energy stored is 7.3 Kcal / mole, this stored energy inATP will be utilized by
living organism for performing any type of work e.g. transport of molecules against the
concentration gradient.
 So the formation of ATP is endergonic (energy intake) process and breakdown of ATP is
exergonic (energy liberating) process.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 Photosynthesis is the fundamental process in which basic organic molecules and O2 are
produced for all bio-molecules and living organisms. This process is carried out by
chlorophyll containing organisms like plants, algae, some protozons and some bacteria.
 Word photo means light and synthesis means to prepare. Plants utilize simple inorganic
molecules carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) which react by using light energy in the
presence of pigments like Chlorophyll to form glucose andoxygen.
 Chlorophyll is the green pigments found in the chloroplast of plant cell.
 The fundamental molecule produced during photosynthesis is simple sugar i.e. Glucose.
Glucose utilizes in most of the metabolism of plant to produce secondary products like
starch and other polysaccharides.
 Plants also use carbohydrates to form fats, proteins and other chemical like Nucleic Acids.
 This glucose is also used in respiration as reactant to produce energy for the metabolism of
living organisms.
CHLOROPLAST AS LIGHT TRAPPING AND STORAGE ORGANELLE:
 Green part of plants and algae contain special cell which contain special organelle called
chloroplast.
 Chloroplast is a double membrane bounded organelle, have semi-fluid proteins containing
medium called Stroma.
 Another network of membrane is also embedded in it called Thylakoid membrane,
somewhere this thylakoid are piled at one anotherin stack called Grana (Singular - Granum).
TWO PHASES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS:
Processes of Photosynthesis is mainly divided into phases or reactions.
1. Light Reaction or Light Dependent reaction.
2. Dark Reaction or Light Independent reaction
LIGHT REACTION OR LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTION
 The term light reaction or light dependent reaction is used due to the reason that during this
phase of photosynthesis light energy is captured and converted into chemical energy.
 Some of the light is utilized to split water into oxygen and H + with e- (electrons), this splitting of
water is called Photolysis.
 Oxygen which is produced during photolysis is released in the environment where as H + together
with CO2 are used in building Glucose.
DARK REACTION OR LIGHT INDEPENDENT REACTION:
 This phase of photosynthesis does not require energy of photon butalso takes place in day
simultaneously with the light reaction.
 52

 The ATP and N A D P H 2 synthesized d u r i n g the light dependent reaction are

 dissolved in stroma there, they provide energy to power the synthesis of
 Glucose from CO2 and H2O (i.e. H + and e -of water). This Phase occurs
 independently, without light as long as ATP and NADPH2 are available.
 This phase of photosynthesis is cyclic phase.
 It occurs in set of reactions also called Calvin – Benson Cycle due to it's discover or the C 3 (three
Carbon Containing Compounds formed initially) Cycle.
LIMITING FACTOR
 Rate of biochemical reaction dependent on some factors which affect the rate are called limiting
factor.
RESPIRATION
 The breakdown of food molecules to release energy is called respiration.
 Usually cells use oxygen to oxide food.
 It results CO2 and water as waste products.
 The main food oxidized is the sugar i.e. Glucose. Theoverall equation for this chemical
reaction is:
Glucose + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + water + Energy
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
TYPE OF RESPIRATION
 There are two types of respiration found in living organisms for theproduction of energy.
i) Anaerobic Respiration or Fermentation ii) Aerobic Respiration
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION:
 The primitive type of respiration which takes place in the absence of O2 or without O2 is called
anaerobic respiration or fermentation.
 There are two types of anaerobic respiration.
ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION:
 During this process glucose breaks down into a substance called lactic acid.

Glucose Ethanol + CO2 + Some energy

C6H12O6
AEROBIC RESPIRATION:
 Type of respiration where food breakdown occurs in the presence of oxygen to produce energy.
 It is a method of respiration found in majority oforganisms.
 It takes place in the presence of free oxygen, oxidizing the food and releasing the maximum
amount of energy i.e. 2827 kj / mole of glucose or 36 ATP molecules/glucose.
 The end products of aerobic respiration are CO2 and H2O
Glucose + oxygen Carbon dioxide + water + Energy (36 ATP)
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36 ATP
MECHANISM OF AEROBIC RESPIRATION:
 Aerobic Respiration takes place in 3 steps at different places in the cell.
GLYCOLYSIS (GR. GLYCO = SUGAR, LYSIS = BREAK DOWN):
 First stage is that stage where a molecule of glucose (Six carbon sugar) is broken down into two
molecules of pyruvic acid (three carbon acid).
 Itdoes not require oxygen.
 It takes place in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
 This splitting of glucose releases small amount of energy of glucose which is enough to
generate 2 molecules of ATP.
 Glycolysis is a complex sequence of reaction all occur in cytosol.
KREB'S OR CITRIC ACID CYCLE:
 The second stage of aerobic respiration in which pyruvic acid produced
 during glycolysis enters the mitochondria where O2 available.
 Cellular respiration uses this O2 to break pyruvic acid completely into CO2 and H2O in a cyclic
manner.
 During Kreb's Cycle some ATP produce and some co-enzymes like NAD and FAD are reduced to
NADH2 and FADH2.
 It takes place in matrix of mitochondria.
ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN:
 The last stage of aerobic respiration in which NADH2 (Nicotinamide Adenosine Di-nucleotide)
and FADH2 (Flavinamide Adenosine Di- nucleotide) are oxidized to produce ATP and H2O.
 53

 It takes place at thecristae of mitochondria.

USAGE OF RESPIRATION ENERGY IN THE BODY OF ORGANISMS:
 Synthesis of molecules - Formation of different molecules as well as large molecules from small
molecules requires energy.
 Cell division - During cell division formation of large molecules like DNA and protein takes place
which require energy as well as movement of chromosome also require energy.
 Growth without cell division - enlargement growth is not possible and both require formation of
molecules which require energy.
 Active transport - movement of ions and molecules from low concentration to high concentration
requires energy.
 Muscle Contraction - Movement of muscle requires energy which is produced from chemical
energy, chemical energy converted into kinetic energy.
 Passage of Nerve impulse - Nerve Impulse (message of Neuron) is basically electrical signals moving
long nerve fiber by active transport requires energy.
 Maintenance of Body temperature - In higher animal's body temperature is maintained at
constant level, this temperaturemaintenance requires energy of respiration.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS RESPIRATION
 Photosynthesis is the process  Respiration is the process where chemical
where light energy converted in energy converted into energyof ATP.
chemical energy.  It occurs in all organisms.
 It occurs only in chlorophyll  It does not requires light source so
containing organisms. occurs throughout the life.
 It requires light sources i.e occur  It occurs in mitochondria.
only in the presence oflight.  Reactants are carbohydrates and
 It occurs in chloroplast. oxygen usually.
 The reactants are Carbon  Products are carbon dioxide and
dioxide and water. water in the case of aerobic
 Products are glucose and

CHAPTER 08
NUTRITION
INTRODUCTION
 Process by which organisms obtain and use the nutrients required for maintaining life is called
nutrition.
 Essential substances that our body needs in order to grow and stay healthy are known as
nutrients.
 There are two processes by which food is obtained or prepared such as:
 Autotrophic nutrition - it is the mode of nutrition in which an organism makes its own food
from the simple inorganic materials. The processes are photosynthesis or either
chemosynthesis.
 Heterotrophic nutrition - it is the mode of nutrition in which an organism can't make its own
organic material but depends on other organisms for its food and use it for growth and energy.
 Nutrition is the study of nutrients in food, how the body uses nutrients,and the
relationship between diet, health, and diseases.
NUTRITION IN PLANTS
 There are two main modes of nutrition: autotrophic and heterotrophic.
AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION:
 The term 'autotroph' is derivedfrom two Greek words-autos (self) and trophe (nutrition).
 In autotrophicnutrition, an organism makes its own food from simple raw materials.
HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION:
 The word 'heterotroph' is derived from two Greek words-heteros (other) and trophe (nutrition).
 Heterotrophic organisms obtain food from other organisms. As heterotrophs depend on other
organisms for their food, they are also called consumers.
 All animals, non-green plants like and fungi come under this category.
 Consumers which consume herbs and other plants are called herbivores.
 Those which consume animals are called carnivores.
 Depending upon the mode of living and the mode of intake of food, heterotrophs may be parasitic,
saprotrophic or holozoic.
 54

PARASITIC NUTRITION:
 Parasitic organisms, or parasites, live on or inside other living organisms, called hosts, and
obtain their food from them.
 The host doesnot get any benefit from the parasite.
 This mode of nutrition is called parasitic nutrition.
 Different parasites, like Cuscuta (akash-bel), hookworms, tapeworms, leeches, etc., have
different modes of feeding, depending upon habit, habitat and modifications.
SAPROTROPHIC NUTRITION:(GR: SAPROS=ROTTEN, TROPHIC=NUTRITION)
 Saprotrophic organisms, or saprotrophes, derive their food from dead and decaying organic
material.
 This mode of nutrition is calledsaprotrophic nutrition.
 Common examples of saprotrophes are fungi (moulds, mushrooms, yeasts) and many
bacteria.
HOLOZOIC NUTRITION: (GR:HOLO=WHOLE, ZOIKOS=OF ANIMAL)
 In holozoic nutrition complex organic substances are ingested (taken in) without their being
degraded or decomposed.
 This kind of nutrition is found mainly in non-parasitic animals-simple ones like Amoeba and
complex ones like human beings.
HOW ORGANISMS OBTAIN NUTRITION?
 Nutrition in unicellular organisms like Amoeba, involves ingestion by the cell surface,digestion
and egestion.
 Amoeba takes in complex organic matter as food.
 These pseudopodia enclose the food particle and prevent it from escaping.
 The food enclosedin the cell membrane forms a food vacuole.
 In Paramecium, a unicellular organism with a specific shape, food isingested through a special
opening, the cytostome (cell mouth).
 Food is brought to this opening by the lashing movement of cilia that cover the entire surface of
the cell.
MINERAL NUTRITION IN PLANTS
 The process involving the absorption, distribution and utilization ofmineral substances by
the plants for their growth and development is called mineral nutrition.
ROLE OF NITROGEN AND MAGNESIUM:
NITROGEN
 Nitrogen is essential for plants to synthesize amino acids.
SYMPTOMS OF NITROGEN DEFICIENCY:
 Nitrogen-deficient plants exhibit stunted growth, reduced yields and their foliage pale green.
MAGNESIUM
 Many enzymes in plant cells require magnesium in order to performproperly and is a constituent
of the chlorophyll molecule, which is the driving force of photosynthesis.
SYMPTOMS OF MAGNESIUM DEFICIENCY:
 The predominant symptom is interveinal chlorosis (dark greenveins with yellow areas between the
veins).
 The bottom leaves are always affected first.
IMPORTANCE OF FERTILIZERS
 Fertilizers are substances containing chemical elements such asmanure or mixture of
nitrates that improves the growth of plants.
 They give nutrition to the crops and produce more fruit, faster growth, more attractive
flowers.
ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS RELATED TO CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS:
 Soil nutrient holding capacity
 Eutrophication
 Emission of greenhouse gas
 Soil acidity
Pest problemsCOMPONENTS OF HUMAN FOOD:
 There are seven major classes of nutrients: carbohydrates, protein, fats, minerals, fiber,
vitamins, andwater.
CARBOHYDRATES:
 Carbohydrates are necessary for your body specially glucose, whichis primary source of energy.
 They are generally divided in two categories: simple carbohydrates such as sucrose, which digest
quickly and complexcarbohydrates such as starch etc, which digest slowly.
 55

 Sources of simplecarbohydrates include fruits, sugars and processed grains, such as whiterice or
flour.
 The complex carbohydrates found in green or starchy vegetables, potatoes, whole grains,
beans and lentils.
 The most commonand abundant forms are sugars, fibers, and starches.
PROTEINS
 Proteins consist of units called amino acids, attach together in complex formations.
 Proteins are complex molecules, the body takes longer to break them down.
 As a result, they are much slower and long lasting source of energy than carbohydrates.
 There are 20 amino acids.
 The body synthesizes some of them from components within the body, but it cannot synthesize
9 of the amino acids called essential amino acids.
 They must be consumed in the diet.
 The body needs protein to maintain and replace tissues and theirfunction.
 Protein is not usually used for energy. However, if the body is not getting enough calories from
other nutrients or from the fat stored in the body, protein is used for energy.
 The energy obtained from carbohydrates, proteins, and fats is measured in units called
calories.
FATS
 Fats are complex molecules composed of fatty acids and glycerol.
 The body needs fats for growth and energy.
 It also uses them to synthesize hormones and other substances needed for the body's activities.
 Fats are the slowest source of energy but the most energy-efficient form of food.
 The body deposits excess fat in the abdomen (omental fat) and under the skin (sub cutaneous fat) to
use when it needs more energy.
 The body may also deposit excess fat in blood vessels and within organs,.
 Some typical sources of saturated fats include:
o Fatty cuts of beef and lamb.
o High fat dairy foods (whole milk, butter, cheese, sour cream, ice cream)
o Tropical oils (coconut oil, palm oil, cocoa butter)
o Poultry skin.
VITAMINS
 A vitamin is an organic molecule (or related set of molecules).
 They are for maintaining normal health and development.
 Lack of vitamins can cause several diseases.
 They are divided into two types:
Fat-soluble Vitamins:
 Vitamin which can soluble in organic solvent are called Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K).
Water soluble Vitamins:
 Vitamin which are soluble in H2O.
 These are vitamins B and C.
 Cooking or heating destroys the water soluble vitamins more readily than the fat-soluble vitamins.
Vitamin generic Deficiency diseases
name
Vitamin K Bleeding disorder
Vitamin D Rickets and osteomalacia
Vitamin C Scurvey
Vitamin B Beriberi
Vitamin A Night blindness, eye-infection, rough skin,
respiratory infections
MINERALS
 A class of naturally occurring solid inorganic substances with a characteristic crystalline form.
 Minerals are vital for proper human health.
 Essential minerals include calcium, iron, zinc, iodine and chromium.
 Deficiencies can result in serious health conditions such as brittle bones and poor blood
oxygenation.
 Minerals are found in a varietyof foods including dairy and meat products.
 56

METABOLIC FUNCTION OF CALCIUM

+2
 Calcium metabolism refers to the movements and regulation of calcium ions (Ca ) in and out of
various body compartments.
 Good calcium nutrition, along with low salt and high potassium intake, prevents from
hypertension and kidney stones.
SOURCES OF CALCIUM INCLUDE:
 Milk, cheese and other dairy foods
 Bread
 Green leafy vegetablesSoya
 Beans Nuts
 Fish
DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS OF CALCIUM.
 Fainting
 Heart failure
 Numbness and tingling sensations around the mouthor in the fingers and toes
 Difficulty swallowing
 Voice changes due to spasmof the larynx
 Chest pains
 Wheezing
 Muscle cramps, particularly inthe back and legs; may progress to muscle spasm
(tetany)
METABOLIC FUNCTION OF IRON
 Iron plays a major role in oxygen transport and storage.
 It is a componentof hemoglobin in red blood cells and myoglobin in muscle cells.
Some of the best plant and animal sources of iron:
 Beans and lentils
 Tofu
 Dark green leafy vegetables such as spinach
DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS OF IRON
 Extreme fatigue
 Pale skin
 Chest pain, fast heart beat orshortness of breath
 Brittle nails
 Weakness
 Headache
 Dizziness
 Inflammation or soreness of tongue
 Poor appetite in infants
METABOLIC FUNCTION OF WATER AND DIETARY FIBRES
 Water is the medium for various enzymatic and chemical reactions in the body.
 It moves nutrients, hormones, antibodies and oxygen through the blood stream and
lymphatic system.
 Water maintains the body temperature through evaporation as in sweating.
 Severe dehydration causes cardio-vascular problems.
 Dietary fiber is the edible part of plants, or similar carbohydrates, that can't be digested and
absorbed in the small intestine.
 Fiber plays very important role to prevent from constipation.
 Soluble fiberhelps in lowering the blood cholesterol and blood sugar level.
A BALANCED DIET IS RELATED TO AGE, SEX ANDACTIVITY
 Different factors affect the nutritional requirement during the periods of body growth &
development.
 Energy requirements change through life and depend on many factors, such as: Age; Sex and Level of
activity.
 The key stages in life include:
 Childhood; the energy requirements of children increase rapidly because they grow quickly and
become more active.
 Young children do nothave large stomachs to cope with big meals. Therefore, to achieve therelatively
high energy intake for their age, foods should be eaten as part of small and frequent meals.
 Adolescence; is a period of rapid growth and development and is when puberty occurs.
 57

 The demand for energy and most nutrients are relatively high.
 Boys need more protein and energy than girls for growth.
 Adulthood; a good supply of protein, calcium, iron, vitamin A and D, as part of a healthy,
balanced diet, are important.
 Calcium is needed for healthy tooth development, and together with vitamin D, can help
develop strong bones.
 Men are more active than women so they need more energy than women of same age group.
 Muscular tissues are more in men, their body size is larger, and therefore, boys of growing age need
more body building nutrients (Proteins, Calcium) as compared to girls of same age.
PROBLEMS RELATED TO NUTRITION (MALNUTRITION)
 Problems related to nutrition are grouped as malnutrition.
 Themalnutrition is a condition that occurs when a body does not get enoughnutrients.
 Malnutrition results from a poor diet or a lack of food.
 It happens when the intake of nutrients or energy is too high, too low, or poorly balanced.
 Consuming less than 2100 calories a day, one is considered to be under-nourished and suffering
from hunger.
 There are two types of malnutrition:
 Chronic malnutrition: characterized by delayed growth in the children.
 Acute malnutrition: Characterized by insufficient weight in relation to the child's height
(emaciation).
 Acute malnutrition can be moderate or severe according to the child's weight.
 Worldwide, three nutrient deficiencies are of particular concern:
o Vitamin A deficiency is the world's most common cause of preventablechild
blindness and vision impairment.
o Iron deficiency is associated with decreased cognitive abilities andresistance to
disease.
o Iodine deficiency is the major preventable cause of mental retardationworldwide.
PROTEIN DEFICIENCY DISORDERS
 Protein energy malnutrition (PEM) refers to inadequate availability or absorption of energy and
proteins in the body.
 It is the leading cause of death in children in developing countries. PEM may lead to diseases
suchas;
KWASHIORKOR:
 Kwashiorkor is a severe form of malnutrition, caused by a deficiencyin dietary protein.
 The extreme lack of protein causes an osmotic imbalance in the gastro-intestinal system
causing swelling of the gut diagnosed as an edema or retention of water .
MARASMUS:
 Marasmus is a form of severe malnutrition characterized by energy deficiency.
 It can occur in anyone with severe malnutrition but usually occurs in children.
 A child with marasmus looks emaciated.
 Body weight is reduced to less than 62% of the normal (expected) body weight for the age.
MINERAL DEFICIENCY DISEASE
GOITER:
 Goiter is a condition in which thyroid gland becomes enlarged and itresults in swelling in neck.
 Goiter is caused by an insufficient amount of “Iodine” in diet.
 Iodine is used by thyroid gland to produce hormones that control the body's normal functioning and
growth.
ANEMIA (MOST COMMON OF ALL MINERAL DEFICIENCY DISEASES):
 The term anemia literally means “a lack of blood”.
 The condition is caused when number of red blood cells reduced to a level lower thannormal.
OVER INTAKE OF NUTRIENTS:
 It is a form of malnutrition in which more nutrients are taken than the amount required for
normal growth, development and metabolism.
 The effects of over-intake of nutrients are usually intensified when there is reduction in daily
physical activity (decline in energy expenditure).
 High intake of carbohydrates and fats leads to obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular problems.
 Similarly, high dose of vitamin A causes loss of appetite and liver problems.
 Excess dose of vitamin D can lead to deposition of calcium in various tissues.
THE EFFECTS OF MALNUTRITION
 Starvation
 58

 Heart diseases
 Constipation
 Obesity
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF HUMAN
 Digestion is important for breaking down food into nutrients, whichthe body uses for energy,
growth, and cell repair.
 Digestion is the process in which large and non-diffusible molecules of food are converted into smaller
and diffusible molecules that can cross the membranes.
 After absorption of the digestible material, indigestible material expelled out of the body through the
process of egestion.
ALIMENTARY CANAL OF HUMAN:
 The digestive system is made up of the alimentary canal and the otherabdominal organs that play
a part in digestion, such as the liver and pancreas.
 The alimentary canal (also called the digestive tract) is the long tube of organs - including the
esophagus, stomach, and intestines - that runs from the mouth to the anus.
 An adult's digestive tract is about 30 feet (about 9 meters) long.
 The digestion consists of following steps:
 Ingestion: Intake of food.
 Propulsion: Peristalsis-alternate waves of muscular contraction and relaxation in the primary
digestive organs.
 The end result is to squeeze food from one part of the system to the next.
 Mechanical Digestion: Physical preparation of food for digestion. Segmentation: Mixing of food in
the intestines with digestive juices. Chemical Digestion: Carbohydrates, Fat, and Proteins are
broken downby enzymes.
 Absorption: Transfer of the digested portion of food into the blood fromthe digestive canal.
 Egestion (Defecation): Removal/elimination of the waste products fromthe body.
FUNCTIONS OF ORAL CAVITY:
 Digestion begins in the oral cavity, well before food reaches the stomach.
 Oral cavity is the space behind mouth in-betweenupper and lower jaw and has many important
functions:
 Food Selection:
 When food enters the oral cavity it is tasted and felt.
 Here food is selected or rejected due to the taste, hard object or dirt. Smell and vision also help in
selection.
GRINDING OF FOOD:
 The second function of oral cavity is the grinding of food by teeth.
 It is known as chewing or mastication.
 It is useful because oesophagus can pass only small pieces through it as well as enzymes cannot
act on large pieces of food.
LUBRICATION OF FOOD:
 The third function of the oral cavity is lubrication of food by mixing saliva secreted by saliva.
 It has two main functions. (i) Addswater and mucus to the food. (ii) Partial digestion of starch by saliva
whichcontains an enzyme salivary amylase.
CHEMICAL DIGESTION:
 Saliva contains an enzyme salivary amylase which helps in the digestion of starch partially.
 Than the pieces of food are rolled up by the tongue into small, slippery, spherical mass called bolus.
SWALLOWING OF THE BOLUS:
 Swallowing is accomplished by muscle movements by the tongue and mouth, food moves into the
throat, or pharynx.
FUNCTIONS OF PHARYNX AND OESOPHAGUS
 The pharynx, a passageway for food and air, is about 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) long.
 A flexible flap of tissue called the epiglottis reflexively closes over the wind pipe when we swallow to
prevent choking.
 From the throat, bolus travels down a muscular tube in the chest called the esophagus.
 Waves of rhythmic movements ofmuscle contractions and relaxation called peristalsis force
down food through the oesophagus to the stomach.
 At the end of the oesophagus, a muscular ring called a sphincter allows food to enter the stomach
and then squeezes shut to keep food or fluid fromflowing back up into the oesophagus.
FUNCTIONS OF STOMACH:
 Stomach is j-shaped thick walled, expandable bag, located in the left of abdomen just
beneath the diaphragm.
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 The stomach has three regions: cardiac, just after the oesophagus, fundus, the largest part
of stomachand pyloric, part located at the other end of stomach and opens into small intestine
 The stomach muscles churn and mix the food with acids andenzymes, breaking it into much
smaller, digestible pieces.
 An acidic environment is needed for the digestion that takes place in the stomach.
 Glands in the stomach lining produce about 3 quarts (2.8 liters) of these digestive juices each
day.
 When food enters into the stomach the gastric juice is secreted by gastric glands found in the
stomach wall.
 It is composed of mucous, hydrochloricacid and protein digesting enzyme pe ps i n o ge n .
 H y dro c hl o ri c acid c o n v e r t s t he i n a c t i v e e nz y m e pepsinogen into active form called
pepsin.
 HCI al so ki ll s m i c r o - organisms present in food.
 Stomachis protected against the action of acid by mucus.
 Stomach has two sphincters (opening which are guarded by muscles).
 The cardiac sphincter is between stomach and oesophagus.
 Pyloric sphincter is between stomach and small intestine.
 Pepsin partially digests the protein portion of the food into polypeptides and shorter peptide
chains.
 In stomach food is further broken apart through a process called churning.
 The walls of stomachcontract and relax and these movements help in mixing of the gastric juice
and food.
 The churning action also produces heat which helps to melt the lipid contents of the food.
 By the time food is ready to leave the stomach, it has been processed into a thick paste like
liquid called chyme.
 The pylorus keeps chyme in the stomach until it reaches the right consistency to pass into the small
intestine.
 Chyme is then squirted down into the small intestine, where digestion of food continues.
FUNCTIONS OF SMALL INTESTINE:
The small intestine is made up of three parts:
 The duodenum, about 25 cm (10 inches) long, C-shaped first part.
 The jejunum, the coiled mid section.
 The ileum, the final section that leads into the large intestine.
 The duodenum receives chyme from the stomach and it is a part of alimentary canal where most of
the digestive process occurs.
 Ducts that empty into the duodenum deliver pancreatic juice and bile from the pancreas and liver,
respectively.
 Bile salts have detergent action on particles of dietary fat which causes fat globules to break down or
be emulsified into minute, microscopicdroplets.
 Pancreatic juice is a liquid secreted by the pancreas, which contains a variety of enzymes, including
protease like trypsinogen, pancreatic lipase and amylase, which digest protein, lipids and
carbohydrates respectively.
 Intestinal juices produced from the small intestine contain enzymes andpancreatic juice break down
all four groups of molecules found in food (polysaccharides, proteins, fats, and nucleic acids) into
their componentmolecules.
 The inner wall of the small intestine is covered with millions of microscopic, fi ng er -li ke
proj e ctio ns called villi (singular, villus).
LARGE INTESTINE AND ITS FUNCTIONS:
 By the time food reaches the large intestine, the work of absorbing nutrients is nearly finished.
 The large intestine's main function is to remove water from the undigested matter and form solid
waste that can be egested.
The large intestine is made up of three parts:
 The caecum is a pouch at the beginning of the large intestine that joins the small intestine to the
large intestine.
 This transition area expands in diameter, allowing food to travel from the small intestine to the
large.
 The appendix, a small, hollow, finger-like pouch, hangs at the end of the cecum.
 It no longer appears to be useful to the digestive process.
 The colon extends from the caecum up the right side of the abdomen, across the upper
abdomen, and then down the left side of the abdomen, finally connecting to the rectum.
 The colon has three parts: the ascending colon and transverse colon, which absorb fluids and
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salts, and the descending colon, which holds the resulting waste (faeces).
 Faeces mainly consist of undigested material, large number of bacteria, sloughed off
gastrointestinal cells, bile pigments and water.
 Bacteria in the colon help to digest the remaining food products.
 The rectum is where faeces are stored until they leave the digestive system through the anus as
a bowel movement.
LIVER AND ITS FUNCTIONS:
 The liver produces bile, which helps the body to digest and absorb fat.
 Bile is stored in the gallbladder until it is needed.
 Bile travels through special channel (bile duct) directly into the small intestine.
 The liver also plays a major role in the handling and processing of nutrients, whichare carried to the
liver in the blood from the small intestine.
 The liver is a metabolically active organ responsible for many vital lifefunctions.
DISORDERS OF GUT
DIARRHEA:
 It is a condition in which the sufferer has frequent watery, loose bowel movements due to fast
peristaltic movement.
 This condition may be accompanied by painful abdominal cramps, nausea, fever and
generalized weakness.
CONSTIPATION:
 Constipation is a condition, where a person experiences hard faecesthat are difficult to eliminate.
 The main causes of constipation are hardening of faeces due to excessive absorption of water
through colon, insufficient intake of dietary fibre, dehydration, use of medicine (e.g. those
containing iron, calcium and aluminum) and tumors in rectum or anus.
 To prevent Constipation is easier than treatment.
ULCER (PEPTIC ULCER):
 It is a sore in gut lining and can be different organs such as; ulcer of stomach is called “gastric
ulcer”, Ulcer of duodenum is called “duodenal ulcer”, ulcer of oesophagus is called “esophageal
ulcer” and breakdown of tissues by acidic gastric juice.
 It can be due to the long term use of anti- inflammatory medicine (e.g. aspirin), smoking, drinking
coffee, colas andeating spicy food.
 Few of the signs are as under; abdominal burning after meals, abdominal pain, rush of saliva after
an episode of regurgitation, nausea and loss of appetite and weight.
 Ulcer can be treated with medicine, containing (alkaline composition)
CHAPTER 09
TRANSPORT
TRANSPORT SYSTEM
 If the distance between source and required organ is small enough, organism does not
require any transport system but if the distance is too long then the organism require to
develop a system called transportsystem.
 The transport system requires at least two component.
(i) Transport of raw material from environment to organ where theyrequired for metabolism.
(ii) Transport of metabolites from cell to organs where they require.
TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
ROOT AS IMPORTANT ORGAN FOR WATER AND MINERAL TRANSPORT:
 Internally, we can study the root by taking transverse section (T.S.) ofroot.
 The T.S. of root shows that root is mainly consist of:
Epidermis (Epiblema) the outer layer of cells, some of these cellshave root hair.
The Cortex part of root between epidermis and endodermis,consist of number of cellular
layers.
WATER AND IONS UPTAKE:
 The root absorb water and minerals from soil through root hairs.
 There are two processes of transport:
(a) PASSIVE TRANSPORT:
The uptake of water and mineral by osmosis anddiffusion without using energy of ATP.
It is due to concentration gradient i.e. always takes place from high to low quantity of
substances.
(b) ACTIVE TRANSPORT:
Movement of substances from low quantity to high quantity i.e. against the gradient and it
requires energy of ATP.
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 This movement is called active transport.

UPTAKE OF WATER FROM SOIL:
 The root hair is long, thin and tubular structure.
 It increases the surface area which increases the rate of absorption of water and minerals.
 The process of water movement from a solution of high water potential to a solution of low
waterpotential is called Osmosis.
 In this way, water may pass from cell to cell and finally forced into xylem and ascend upto
the aerial part of plant.
 This upward movement of water with mineral is called ascent of sap.
 For absorption of water by root, it is necessary that the solute quantity in soil solution should
be low and solute quantity in sap shouldbe comparatively high, otherwise the direction of
water movement will be reversed and plant may die due to dehydration.
MINERAL TRANSPORT:
 Plant also require minerals i.e nitrates, sulphates, phosphates etc.
 These minerals are also taken up by root hair in two ways:
(a) By diffusion, when the concentration of certain ions in soil ishigher than that in root hair
cells i.e. passive transport.
(a) By active transport, plant requires some substance even they foundin soil in low quantity.
 The roots have to absorb these ions against aconcentration gradient by using energy of ATP,
which is active transport.
TRANSPIRATION
 Plants absorb water continuously from soil.
 Some water is removed in the form of vapours.
 This loss of internal water of plant in the form of vapours from aerial part of plant is called
transpiration.
 Transpiration mainly takes place through special pores guarded by specialized guard cells called
stomata (sing: stoma).
STOMATA AND ITS OPENING/CLOSING MECHANISM:
 Stomata are the pores usually found in the leaf epidermis surrounded by two kidney shaped guard
cells.
 These cells contain chloroplast while other epidermal cells do not. The guard cells control the
opening and closing of stomata.
 The inner wall of guard cells is thick and inelastic whereas the outer wall is thin, elastic and
permeable.
 The changes in theturgidity of guard cells controls the opening and closing of stomata.
 Stomata open when the guard cell become turgid and close when the guard cells become
flacid.
 The turgidity of guard cell is regulated by concentration of solutes present in it which mainly
depends upon the rate of photosynthesis. Opening and closing of stomata is one of the important
factor to control rate of transpiration.
 The stomata remain open during the sunny day, as a result rate of transpiration increases.
 But at night they are closed, hence transpiration also stops.
SIGNIFICANCE OF TRANSPIRATION:
 Transpiration maintains low concentration of water and high concentration of solutes in cell i.e.
high solute potential.
 The high solute potential of leaf cells attract more water and draw more water from xylem.
 This continuous withdrawl of water from xylem develops deficit of water inxylem which develops a
pull or tension called transpiration pull. As a result of this transpiration pull and water attraction
for other water molecule i.e cohesion of water, water is pulled upward in the xylem vessels
through a continuous column called transpiration stream, which helps in ascent of sap.
 By active transpiration, transpiration pull is created which helps in the ascent of sap.
 Transpiration also increases the rate of absorption because theloss at one end increases
demand on other end.
 Transpiration gets rid of the excess amount of water from plant.
 Transpiration helps in mantaining the temperature of plant for its metabolism and survival
because evaporation causes cooling.
 O p e n i n g a nd c l o s i n g of s t o m a t a is a l s o r e g u l a t e d by transpiration, which
indirectly influences upon the rate of photosynthesis and respiration.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION:
The rate of transpiration is also affected by some of the following environmental factors.
 Temperature
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 Humidity
 Wind
 Atmospheric Pressure
TRANSPORT OF WATER AND FOOD IN STEM
 Flowering plants have a system of vessels for transport of water, minerals and food.
 These vessels are called transport or vascular tissues.
 There are two types of transport tissues in plants.
XYLEM (WOOD):
 In flowering plants xylem is made up of four type of tissues but the main tissues are the xylem
vessels.
 A xylem vessel is a long, hollow, tubular structure from root to leaf. It is made up of many dead
cells arranged vertically.
 The walls of these vessels b e c o m e s t r o n g b y t h e d e p o s i t i o n o f c h e m i c a l
substance called lignin.
PHLOEM (BAST):
 Like xylem, phloem is also made up of four type of tissues but mainly consist of sieve
tubes and companion cells.
 Phloem conducts manufactured food (sucrose) from part of plant where it is synthesized in
high quantity to other parts of plant where it is required.
 The sieve tubes or sieve tube elements of phloem is made up of columns of elongated and
thin walled living cells.
 The transverse walls separating the cells have lots of minute pores. The cross walls look like a
sieve and therefore called sieve plates.
TRANSPORT OF ORGANIC MATERIALS (FOOD) IN PLANTS:
 The movement of organic materials (food) take place through phloem. Along with food, phloem
also conducts other substances such as vitamins, hormones etc.
 The movement of prepared food from leaves to different parts of plant through phloem elements
(sieve-tubes) is calledtranslocation.
 The excess water is released back into the xylem vessels.
TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS
 The system involved inthe transport of various substances within the body of an animal is
calledCirculatory System.
 The circulatory system transports gases like O2, CO 2 etc, nutrients, wastes, hormones and
defense proteins.
 There are two types of Blood Circulatory Systems found in animals
(i) Open circulatory system
(ii) Closed circulatory system
OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM:
 In this type of Circulatory System blood flows through the spaces among tissue so it directly
comes in contact with tissues.
 It remains filledin the open tissue spaces called Sinuses.
 After exchange of materials with tissues, blood enters the pumping organs or heart which
pumps it into blood vessels.
 These vessels again drain out blood into sinuses so it remains in Circulation.
 This type of circulatory system found in arthropods and molluscs.
CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM:
 This type of system allows blood to flow inside the closed tubular blood vessels and never comes
out in direct contact with tissues.
TRANSPORT IN MAN
 In man, closed type of circulatory system is found, which consists offollowing components.
(i) Blood: A fluid with cells and other dissolved substances.
(ii) Heart: A pumping, pulsatile organ.
(iii) Blood vessels: Tubes i.e. Arteries, veins and capillaries. This is much more
efficient and rapid system of transport.
BLOOD:
 Blood is a special type of tissue, found in the form of liquid which circulates in the body.
 It transports substances in the body of an organism. It consists of two parts:
(i) Plasma (ii) Corpuscles
PLASMA:
 Plasma is the liquid part of blood and constitutes about 55% by volumeof whole blood.
 63

 It is pale yellowish liquid.

 About 90% of plasma is water in which complex mixture of various substances are dissolved.
 There are dissolved mineral salts like bicarbonates, sulphates, chlorides and phosphates
of sodium (Na) and potassium (K).
 All these are found in theform of ions.
 Salts of calcium are also present in blood for clotting of blood.
 Soluble proteins are also present in plasma i.e. Serum albumin, Serum globulin, fibrinogen
and prothrombin.
 The last two play important part in clotting of blood.
 Antibodies are also present in plasma, which areinvolved in fighting diseases.
 Plasma contains digested food substances such as glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and
vitamins.
 It also contains excretory products such as Urea, Uric acid and creatinine.
 Carbondioxide (CO2) is also present asbicarbonate ions.
 It also contains hormones.
 Leucocytes or WBCs are colourless, irregular in shape, nucleated and lager sized cell than R.B.Cs.
They protect the body by killing germs thatenter the body. There are several types of
White bloodcells which perform different functions.

Types of Description Average Function

WBCs number
(A) Granulocytes

About twice the sizeof 62% of Destroys small particlesby

Neutrophils RBCs, nucleus 2 to 5 W.B.Cs Phagocytosis
lobed

2% of Inactivates inflammation
Eosinophils Nucleus bilobed W.B.Cs producing substances, attack
parasite

Less than Release heparin to prevent blood

Basophils Nucleus bilobed 1% of clots and histamine which causes
W.B.Cs inflammation

(B) Agranulocytes

3 to 4 times larger thanRBCs, 3% of Macrophages, destroyslarge

Monocytes nuclear shape from round to W.B.Cs particles by phagocytosis
lobed

Slightly larger than RBCs, 32% of Immune response byproducing

Lymphocytes nucleus nearlyoccupies W.B.Cs antibodies
cell

PLATELETS:
 Platelets are the fragments of cells which are formed from large precursor cells in the bone
marrow.
 On injury, exposure to the air stimulate the platelets at cut end to produce an enzyme in blood.
 This enzyme causes the soluble plasma protein fibrinogen to form insoluble
BLOOD DISORDERS:
LEUKEMIA:
 It is a type of cancer that affects the blood, bone marrow and lymphatic system.
 In this type of blood cancer, number of W.B.Cs increases and R.B.Cs decreases.
SYMPTOMS:
 Fever or chill
 Persistent fatigue, weaknessFrequent or severe infections
 Loss of weight without try Swollen lymph node
 Enlarge liver or spleen
 Easy bleeding or bruising
 Recurrent nose bleeding
 64

 Ting red spots on skin

 Sweating at night Bone pain or tenderness
THALASSEMIA:
 It is the name of a group of inherited conditions that affect the bloodhaemoglobin.
 Persons having thalassemia do not produce or produce little amount of haemoglobin,
which is used by red blood cells to carry oxygen around the body.
 Person having problems of thalassemia having folowingsymptoms.
SYMPTOMS:
 A pale and restless appearance
 Poor appetiteSlowed growth and delayed puberty
 Dark urine
 An enlarged spleen, liver or heart
 Jaundice
HEART
 Heart is the major organ of Circulatory system.
 It is a muscular pumpwhich keeps the blood circulating throughout the body.
 It is located in the thorax slightly at the left side.
 It is enclosed in a fibrous bag like protective cover called Pericardium.
 It is conical in shape externally.
 The space between pericardium and heart is pericardial cavity which is filled with afluid
called pericardial fluid.
 This fluid reduces friction and Pericardium protects the heart, prevent it from over extension.
 Internally, it consists of four chambers, the upper two are thin walled called atria (sing:
artrium) the lower two are thick walled called ventricles.
 Atria are completely separated from each other by a septum called inter-atrial septum.
 Similarly, the two ventricles are also separated from each other by a muscular partition
called inter-ventricle septum.
 Each atriumis connected with its ventricle by an auriculo- right atrium and right ventricle are
connected by Tricuspid Valve.
 Similarly, left atrium and left ventricle are connected by bicuspid valve. These valves prevent the
backward fow of blood from the ventricles to theatria.
 Two main blood vessels are arising from ventricles to carry blood from heart to all parts of the body.
 The blood from the right ventricle is pumped through pulmonary arch to the lungs for oxygenation
while the blood from the left ventricle ispumped through a systemic aorta to all the parts of the
body.
 The pulmonary arch and systemic aorta, both are guarded by semi-lunar valves to prevent
backward flow of blood.
 There is a difference in thickness of muscle wall of the left ventricle ascompared to right ventricle.
 The left ventricle is much thicker and narrow in space.
 The right ventricle only pumps blood to the lungs while the left ventricle pumps blood to all other
parts of the body.
 The function of atria is to stretch to receive blood as it returns to the heart and then contract
with enough force to push the blood through the atrioventricular valves into the ventricles.
 The circulation of blood in our body is called double circuit system because it circulates
blood in two separate circuits and enter twice in heart during complete circulation.
 These two circuits are:
1. Pulmonary Circuit; from heart to lungs and back from lungs to heart.
2. Systemic Circuit; from heart to different organs and from organs backto heart.
PULMONARY CIRCUIT:
 It transports blood from right ventricle to lungs through pulmonaryarteries and flow back
to heart in left atrium through pulmonary veins.
 The deoxygenated blood from all over the body except lungs received in right atrium and then
collected into right ventricle, upon contraction of ventricle this deoxygenated blood enters
into pulmonary arch which supply this blood to the lungs, where blood gives up its CO2
and receives O2 from air at capillary level.
 The deoxygenated blood now becomes oxygenated which flow back to the left atrium through
pulmonary veins.
 This oxygenated blood now circulates through the body by Systemic Circulation.
SYSTEMIC CIRCUIT:
 Circulation of oxygenated blood from left ventricle through systemic aorta to all organs of
body and back to heart by superior and inferior vena cava as deoxygenated blood is called
 65

systemic circulation or circuit.

HEART BEAT:
 The pumping of blood by the rhythmic pulsation of heart throughout the body is called heartbeat.
 The relaxation of heart muscle and allowing the chambers to fill with blood, this phase of
heartbeat is called diastole.
 The contraction of heart muscle and pumping the blood from the chambers into the arteries
named as systole.
HEART RATE:
 The number of heartbeats in a minute i.e. the heart rate can be measured by the beating of
heart.On average, a healthy heart beats 72 times in a minute.
 The normal range of heart rate is 60 – 100 beats in a minute.
 The slow or fast heart rate may cause severe heart diseases.
 The decreasing heart rate is a result of slow heartbeat, which leads to a condition called
bradycardia.
 In this condition, the heart rate is too slow (or below 60 beats per minute) due to very slow
heartbeat.
 This slow heart rate reduces amount of blood and oxygen to vital organs of body, and causes
shortness of breath, droppingof blood pressure, extreme fatigue etc.
 On the other hand, when a heart beats very fast (more than 100 beats per minute), this condition
is called tachycardia.
 The tachycardia is caused by the fever, dehydration, excessive caffeine or a reaction to
medication.
 Chest pain, dizziness and fainting are the symptoms of tachycardia.
 Causes of tachycardia can be:
o Sudden cardiac arrest
o Heart failure
o Weaken heart muscle
o Lung diseases
PULSE RATE:
 Contrary to the heart rate, the pulse rate is exactly equal to the heartbeat.
 If the heartbeat is faster so as the pulse rate and if the heartbeat is slower, the pulse rate
will be slower too.
 Taking a pulse is therefore a direct measure of heart rate.
BLOOD VESSELS:
 There are three types of blood vessels, which are;
(ii) Arteries, (ii) Veins and (iii) Capillaries.
ARTERIES:
 Blood vessels carry oxygenated blood (except pulmonary artery) away from the heart.
 Right ventricle of heart pumps blood into the pulmonary artery that goes to the lungs.
 Left ventricle of heart pumps blood into the aorta (largest artery in body).
 Every organ receives blood from arteries thatbranch off the aorta.
 The first branch called the coronary artery, carry blood to the walls of heart itself.
 Other branches carry blood to the brain, intestine and other organs.
 Arteries wall consist of three layers, the inner most layer, which is made up of epithelial
tissues.
 The middle layer consists mostly of smooth muscle and elastic fibers. The outer wall is made
up of flexible connective tissue. Because of layered structure arteries have both strength and
flexibility.
VEINS:
 Blood vessels carry deoxygenated blood (except pulmonary vein) frombody towards the heart.
 The walls of veins, like those of arteries have three layers, with muscle in the middle layer.
 However, the walls of vein are generally thinner than those of arteries. They have large lumen.
 Blood pressure in the veins is much lower than the blood pressure in the arteries.
 Semilunar valves in the veins prevent backflow of blood.
 Flow of blood along the veins is assisted by the action of skeletal muscles on the veins.
CAPILLARIES:
 Microscopic blood vessels are found in the cells of tissues.
 They have walls made up of single layer of flattened cells called endothelium.
 Capillary walls are partially permeable that enable substances diffuse readily through it.
 They are originated from arterioles and branches repeatedly to provide large surface area for the
exchange of substances between the blood and the tissue cells.
 66

MAIN ARTERIES OF THE BODY:

 The pulmonary artery which originates from the right ventricle carries deoxygenated blood towards
the lungs and aorta which originates from the left ventricle carries oxygenated blood towards the
body.
 Aorta terminates into arteries of the head, neck and arms.
 Aortic arch curls backward to the left side of the heart and continues downwards as the dorsal
aorta, which distributes blood to regions of the body below the heart.
MAIN VEINS OF THE BODY:
 Blood returned to the heart by the main veins as follows:
 Pulmonary veins bring oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart.
 Inferior vena cava runs upwards parallel to the dorsal aorta and brings deoxygenated blood
from the lower body.
 Ibn-al-nafees was the first Arab Physician to explain pulmonarycirculation.
 He believed that all the blood that reached the left ventricle passed through the lungs.
 William Harvey was an English Physician to explain systemic circulation in detail.
 He believed that blood being pumped to the brain and body by the heart.
CARDIOVASCULAR DISORDERS (CVD):
 Cardiovascular disorders related to cardiovascular system i.e. heart and blood vessels.
 Atherosclerosis (ATH): Most common among cardiovascular disease is atherosclerosis (ATH).
 ATH is a disorder in which bad fats (i.e. low density lipoprotein or LDL and cholesterol) get
deposited in blood vessels internal layer.
 Arteriosclerosis: It is a process in which arteries loss their elasticity dueto some pathological process
(e.g. ATH) or simply by aging.
 Loss of elasticity leads to high blood pressure which may eventually be able tolead to vascular
hemorrhage.
CAUSES OF MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION:
 Causes of myocardial infarction can be divided in to non-modifiable factors (which we cannot
change) and modifiable factors (which we can change).
VASCULAR SURGERY:
 Vascular surgery is a prominent field of surgery in which vessels i.e.arteries, veins and
lymphatic vessels are managed by vascular surgeons.

BIOLOGY CLASS 10
CHAPTER 01
GASEOUS EXCHANGE
INTRODUCTION:
 All living organisms exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide gases with their environment to carry out their vital
functions such as respiration.
 Plants do carry out gaseous exchange for the process of photosynthesis.
 Aquatic organisms exchange gases with water.
 Terrestrial ones with air.
GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN PLANTS
 Plants exchange gases for the processes of photosynthesis and respiration.
 During the process of photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is taken in while oxygen is given out.
 In respiration, oxygen is taken in and carbon dioxide is given out. During daytime, green parts of the plants
carry out the process of Photosynthesis.
 During this process, carbon dioxide gas is taken in while oxygen gas released as by-product is given out.
 Respiration takes place in all living cells.
 It is the process in which food is oxidized to release energy.
 In aerobic respiration, it involves taking in of oxygen and given out of carbon dioxide.
 The process of exchange of gases in plants takes place mainly through minute openings called stomata present
in leaves.
 The roots and stem do exchange gases for respiration.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
1. Anabolic process.
2. Synthesis of food from simple, inorganic substances.
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3. Requires light energy.

4. Occurs in plants.
5. Uses carbon dioxide gas.
6. Releases oxygen gas.
7. Takes place during day-time.
8. Chlorophyll is required.
RESPIRATION
1. Catabolic process.
2. Breaking down of food into inorganic substances.
3. Does not require light energy.
4. Occurs in all living organisms.
5. Uses oxygen gas.
6. Releases carbon dioxide gas.
7. Takes place all the times.
8. Chlorophyll not required.
GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN ANIMALS
 Animals do exchange gases with their environment for the respiration process.
 In order to obtain energy from food, they take in oxygen and give out carbon dioxide.
 So the process of gaseous exchange is ultimately linked with the respiration.
 The respiratory medium for aquatic animals is water.
 For terrestrial animals is air.
 The amount of molecular oxygen present in air is about 21% while in water it is about 5%.
 In order to exchange gases, animals have a respiratory surface.
 In unicellular organisms like Protozoa, the plasma membrane serves as the respiratory surface.
 In multicellular animals, their body surface or some internal surface could serve as the respiratory surface.
PROPERTIES OF RESPIRATORY SURFACE:
1) Thin, 2) Wet, 3) Permeable, 4) large in relation to the volume of the body.
RESPIRATORY SURFACES
LARGE SURFACE AREA:
 " An increase surface for gaseous exchange allows a faster rate of diffusion to supply oxygen and remove
carbon dioxide.
 It is also necessary to compensate for the small surface area to volume ration of the animal body
GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN HUMAN
 In human, the process of respiration involves breathing, gaseous exchange and cellular respiration.
 Human respiratory surface is located inside the body in the form of alveoli contained in paired organs, lungs.
HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM:
 Our respiratory system consists of paired lungs located inside the thoracic (chest) cavity and Air passage ways.
LUNGS
 Each lung is soft, spongy and pinkish in appearance.
 It is wrapped in two Pleural membranes.
 The space between pleural membranes is lled with uid that acts like a lubricant.
 Lungs are enclosed in a bony cage made up of a at sternum in front, 12 pairs of ribs.
 Ribs are attached with intercostals muscles.
 In the lower part of thorax, lies a sheet of muscles called Diaphragm which separates it from abdominal
cavity.
 Each lung is made up of millions of alveoli.
 Each alveolus is the respiratory surface.
 It's a pouch like microscopic structure made up of only one layer of cells.
 In each alveolus, exchange of gases takes place between air and blood.
 The Air passage ways consists of Nostrils, Trachea, Bronchi and Bronchioles.
 Air from outside enters into the nasal sacs through external nostrils.
 This entire passage through which air passes is lined by mucous secreting ciliated cells.
TRACHEA:
 The internal opening of nasal sacs opens into a long tube, Trachea.
 In its beginning, there is a box like larynx or sound box containing vocal cords to produce sound.
 The opening of larynx is known as glottis which has a lid like cover, epiglottis.
 During swallowing food or drink, the epiglottis closes the glottis to prevent any food to enter into the trachea.
 Trachea has C-shaped cartilaginous rings which prevent it from collapsing.
BRONCHI:
 Trachea in the center of the thorax bifurcates into two smaller ducts or Bronchi.
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 Each bronchus do have C-shaped cartilaginous rings.

 Bronchus of each side enters into the respective lung.
 As soon as it enters into the lung, it breaks up into many smaller ducts or Bronchioles.
BRONCHIOLE:
 Each bronchiole is very thin tube that opens into air sacs or alveoli.
PROCESS OF BREATHING
 The process of breathing consists of two phases, viz., Inspiration and expiration.
INSPIRATION:
 It is the process through which atmospheric air is directed through the air passage ways up to the alveoli in the
lungs.
 It involves contraction of intercostals muscles and diaphragm.
 As a result, the v o l u m e of t h o r a x ( c h e s t ) is increased thereby decreasing the pressure of air in lungs.
 So the external air rushes inside from high pressure to low pressure.
 The lungs get expanded in this way.
EXPIRATION:
 It is just reverse of inspiration.
 During this process the air moves out from the lungs.
 Both, intercostals muscles and diaphragm are relaxed.
 This moves the ribs inside and diaphragm becomes at.
 Both the activities depress the chest inside.
 The volume of thoracic cavity (chest) is decreased causing an increase upon the pressure on lungs.
 This forces the air present in lungs to outside through the body.
GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN ALVEOLI
 The gaseous exchange takes place at the level of alveoli.
 Oxygen brought in by air is taken up by the hemoglobin of RBCs of blood and vice versa the carbon dioxide brought
by the blood is given out to the air present in alveoli.
 This gaseous exchange involves diffusion which becomes possible at this level because both alveolus and blood
capillaries, are only one cell layered in thickness.
COMPOSITION OF INSPIRED AND EXPIRED AIR
Components (%) Inspired air (%) Expired air (%)
 Oxygen About 21 About 16
 Carbon dioxide About 0.03 About 4
 Nitrogen About 79 About 79 Water
Vapour Variable saturated
 Temperature atmospheric pressure 37 degree celcius
RATE OF BREATHING AT REST AND DURING EXERCISE:
 It is regulated by hypothalamus of our brain.
 The rate of breathing changes automatically according to the changes in internal or external conditions.
 For instance, if a person is doing exercise, its rate of breathing would increase.
 Thus gradually increase in concentration of carbon dioxide in his blood will cause an increase his breathing
rate.
 If the exercise condition persists, the muscle cells will start breaking down Glucose without oxygen.
 It is termed as “anaerobic respiration”.
 As a result of this, lactic acid is formed in the muscles rather than carbon dioxide.
 It causes pain and cramp in normal muscles.
 The breaking down of lactic acid requires additional amount of oxygen which is termed as “oxygen debt”.
 The extra amount of oxygen is obtained through deep breathes.
ARTIFICIAL VENTILATOR
 A machine that works like lungs when patient's natural breathing becomes difficult.
 Through this machine, the oxygen rich air is directly supplied to the trachea through a tube inserted the
mouth up to the wind pipe.
RESPIRATORYDISORDERS:
BRONCHITIS:
 The inflammation of the air passage ways is termed as Bronchitis.
 It is caused either by smoking or by some bacteria.
 It is characterized by cough, increased mucous secretion, shortness of breath and low fever.
EMPHYSEMA:
 It is related to the progressive destruction to the alveoli due to long term exposure usually to the industrial
pollutants.
 It is characterized by laborious breathing.
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 It causes cough with phlegm production.

PNEUMONIA:
 It is an infectious disease usually caused by special bacteria, viruses or fungi.
 In pneumonia, the alveoli are infected so they may be filled with uid or pus.
 The breathing becomes difficult.
 The patient suffers from fever, cough, chill and chest pain.
ASTHMA:
 It is an inflammatory condition of air-ways of lungs.
 It is characterized by shortness of breath, chest pain, fever, wheezing sound during expiration and cough.
 Asthma is actually an allergic response to pollens, dust, smoke, fur, feathers and number of other substances.
 It may obstruct the air-ways making it difficult to breath for its patient.
LUNG CANCER:
 Lung cancer usually associated with smoking.
 Due to smoke or air pollution, abnormal cells appear in lungs which may spread to other tissues.
 The major signs and symptoms are cough with blood, shortness of breath, repeated lung infections, weight loss,
bone ache, hoarseness, weakness, fatigue, etc.

CHAPTER 02
HOMOESTASIS
INTRODUCTION
 Homeostasis is set of metabolism which maintain internal environment of an organism within suitable limits.
ADAPTATION OF PLANT FOR DIFFERENT INTERNAL CONDITION
 There are three main aspect of homeostasis
OSMOREGULATION:
 It is the maintenance of internal water and salt conditions by osmosis.
THERMOREGULATION:
 The maintenance of temperature within suitable limits where enzymes can work optimally.
EXCRETION:
 The process where metabolic toxic waste or excess metabolic substances from body i.e NH3,urea or uric
acid, gums, latex etc.
EXCRETION OR STORAGE OF CO2
 At daytime plant perform photosynthesis in green cells and respiration in all living cells.
 The CO2 produced in respiration utilized in photosynthesis.
 When rate of photosynthesis will be higher than respiration the plant gets extra CO2 from air and release
extra O2 in air through stomata.
 At night plant only perform respiration only CO2 is produced which is removed by the process of
diffusion through body surface. The green parts perform these gases exchange through stomata while non
green parts perform this gaseous exchange through body surface.
REMOVAL OF EXTRA WATER
 The plant store large amount of water this water can be removed from plant in two ways i.e.
(a) Transpiration
(b) Guttation
 Transpiration is the removal of water in the form of vapors from aerial part of plant.
 It occurs only at day time.
 Guttation is the removal of water in the form of liquid from the margin of leaves through special pores,
hydathodes.
 It only occurs at night when water pressure is high in leaves and low temperature environment is present.
 Plants modify their leaves size, structure and structure of stomata to control the rate of transpiration.
 Plants produce some secondary products like latex, resin and gum. These secondary products are insoluble,
harmless compounds.
 Some plants produce special types of gums for example Neem or keeker etc.
 The extra amount of these are removed from special pores called lenticels.
 The coniferous plants produce resins like material while the rubber plants produce latex which remove from scare
like openings.
 Some of these carnivorous plants and okra produce mucilaginous material to capture insects.
OSMOTIC ADJUSTMENT IN PLANTS
 The plants grow in different conditions of water and salts, on the basis of water and salt quantity there are four
type of plants
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(a) Hydrophytes
(b) Halophytes
(c) Mesophytes
(d) Xerophytes
HYDROPHYTES (HYDRO = WATER; PHYTA = PLANTS)
 The plant which grow in fresh water; they live completely or partially in fresh water so called totally or partially
submerged plants.
 They adapt themselves for removal of excess water which can enter in this condition. These plants do not contain
roots or have poorly developed roots.
 They have broad leaves if partially submerged and have stomata at upper epidermis e.g water lilly.
 They may have thin and spongy tissues in leaves and stem in totally submerged plant e.g Hydrilla.
HALOPHYTES (HALOS= SALT)
 They grow in sea marshes or in saltish water.
 In salty condition water moves outside the cell which is not suitable for plants.
 To move water from outside to inside the plant develop following characters.
 Plants develop salt glands where plant store salts by taking it through active transport.
 Plants oppose salt to move outside from vacuole.
 Some salt accumulated at surface of leaf which attracts water from air
MESOPHYTES:
 The plant grow in moderate water containing soil they will develop following characters.
 They have developed root system which do not grow very deep.
 They have moderate sized leaves.
XEROPHYTES:
 Plants grow in soil of low water quantity.
 They grow in desert or steep slopes or at high altitude.
 To conserve water and absorb proper amount of H2O they develop following characters.
 They have vertically growing deep root system to absorb proper amount of water.
 They possess thick waxy cuticles over epidermis to conserve water.
 They have short sized leaves or leaves are modi ed into spines to reduce loss of water by reducing the
number of stomata.
 Some xerophytes has special parenchyma cells in stem, where they store water, this makes the stem soft,
wet and juicy called succulent organs e.g. cacti.
HOMEOSTASIS IN ANIMAL
OSMOREGULATION IN ANIMALS
 Animals also live in aquatic and terrestrial habitat.
 According to their environment their cells require more critical balance of water and solutes.
OSMOREGULATION IN AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT
 The aquatic conditions are classified on the basis of the concentration of salt present in it.
 The water which contains very low amount of salt called fresh water and the water contains high salt called
marine water.
 Animal osmoregulate differently in both waters.
OSMOREGULATION IN FRESH WATER
 Fresh water animals have hypertonic conditions inside their body or cells so they always facing the problem of
flooding of H2O and loss of salts.
 We can classify further these animals in two groups.
UNICELLULAR
 Pump out excess water by contractile vacuole e.g. Amoeba, Paramecium etc.
MULTICELLULAR
 Loss of salt is compensated by active uptake of salt by gills and skin as well as use of salt containing food.
 Pump out excess water by producing dilute urine.
OSMOREGULATION IN MARINE ANIMALS
 Usually marine animals have hypotonic conditions (low salt) inside the body but some marine animals develop
hypertonic (high salt) or isotonic (same salt condition) by metabolism.
BONY FISH
 Have low salt inside the body
 Actively get sea water and have salt glands to increase the salt and desalination
 Produce concentrated urine
CARTILAGINOUS FISH
 Have high salt by storing urea inside
 Eat food which contain nitrogenous compound i.e. meat
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OSMO CONFORMER
 Have equal amount of salt.
 These animals do not require any activity to adjust their internal osmotic condition. i.e. unicellular.
OSMOREGULATION IN TERRESTRIAL CONDITION
 Terrestrial conditions are harsh for living organism because the direct contact of heat to body causes loss
of water which leads to dehydration, major problem for terrestrial life.
 Only arthropods, some molluscs reptiles, birds and mammals can survive in this habitat because:
 Their bodies are covered by exoskeleton or thick skin, which prevent loss of water.
 They conserve water by reabsorption in kidneys and rectum.
 Some of them can produce water from fats catabolism with the help of peroxysomes i.e. camel, kangaroos.
 Continuously drinking of water or using liquid food.
EXCRETION
 These toxic compounds are mainly NH3 or urea or uric acid generally called nitrogenous waste.
 The removal of these nitrogenous metabolic waste is called excretion.
EXCRETION IN ANIMALS
 The animal cells produce their nitrogenous waste during metabolism and removed them either in tissue fluid
or in blood.
 So the animals develop some organs to filter the tissue fluid or blood. These organs are called excretory organs.
HOMEOSTASIS IN MAN
 Humans have well developed homeostasis systems.
 The main organs which involved in homeostasis are
(i) Skin
(ii) Lungs
(iii) Kidneys
SKIN:
 The skin is considered as the largest organ of the body, basically functions as a protective organ.
 It works as a homeostatic organ by maintaining temperature, water and salt.
LUNGS:
 They maintain levels of O2 and CO2 in the blood, body fluid and cells.
 Maintenance of O2 and CO2 level, maintain rate of respiration and continuous ow of energy.
KIDNEYS:
 Kidneys are called filters of the body liquids, they maintain internal water by removing excessive water,
also maintain urea, uric acids, creatinine and other waste by excreting them through urine
STRUCTURE OF HUMAN SKIN
 Human skin consists of three layers called epidermis, dermis and hypodermis.
 The outer layer of skin is epidermis, made up of fat, dead cells containing keratin protein.
 This layer does not contain blood vessels.
 It is impermeable to water and prevent water loss from the body as well as work as protective layer by
preventing entry to microorganisms.
 Dermis is the layer present between epidermis and hypodermis, it contains many different structures i.e.
nerves ending receptors to detect temperature change, pain, pressure etc.
 The dermis also contains sweat glands which secrete sweat on the surface to maintain temperature and
also secrete urea, water and salt.
 A network of arterioles are also present in the form of network, which are involved in temperature
regulation.
 The dermis also contain hair follicle and sebaceous glands which secrete oily sebum.
 Hypodermis is the inner most layer of skin containing fats which act as insulation against loss of heat.
 It also stores energy.
ROLE OF SKIN IN REGULATING BODY TEMPERATURE
 The skin is the organ which help in regulating body temperature.
IF BODY TEMPERATURE START RISE
Production of sweat:
 The sweat gland starts to produce and secrete sweat.
 The sweat accumulates at the surface of skin which evaporates with heat energy so the body feels cooling.
Laying down of hairs:
 In hot condition, muscles which are attached with hair relax.
 It allows the hair to lie at against surface of the skin
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Vasodilation:
 Arterioles found in the form of network in dermis, dilate (become wide) which increase the ow of blood, as
well as it brings the blood vessels near the surface of skin which allows more heat loss.
 This process of vessel dilation is called vasodilation.
IN COLD CONDITION WHEN BODY TEMPERATURE STARTS DECREASING
Erection of hairs:
 The muscles contract pulling the hairs upright and trapping a layer of insulating air next to skin.
 Now it is not very much effective in human.
Vasocontraction:
 Narrowing of blood arterioles of dermis occurs which reduces the blood ow in capillaries of skin so less heat is lost.
Decrease in sweat production:
 The sweat gland stops to produce and secrete sweat, so air prevent from energy loss.
Increase in metabolic rate:
 In cold conditions the rate of metabolism in the organs increases generating more heat which is distributed
around the body in the blood stream.
 It prevents loss through the adipose tissue in hypodermis which work as an insulation layer.
ROLE OF LUNGS TO KEEP THE CO2 CONCENTRATION LOW TO CERTAIN LEVEL
 Tissue/cells produce a large amount of CO2 during aerobic respiration.
 As blood passes through tissues via blood capillaries, this CO2 diffuses into the blood, where it reacts with water form
carbonic acid.
 This reaction takes place by an enzyme called carbonic anhydrase present in R.B.C.
 The level of H in blood is continuously monitored by special detectors (receptor) carotid bodies and aortic bodies.
 Most of the bicarbonate ions diffuse out from R.B.C to blood plasma. A small amount of CO2 is also carried and
dissolved in R.B.C when the blood reaches lungs these bicarbonate ions diffuse back into RBC where again converted
into carbonic acid then into CO2.
 The CO2 diffuses out of the blood capillaries and into alveoli, where from it is expelled out when breathing out.
 If the CO2 level increases in blood, pH of blood start increasing so that the receptor sends a message to the control
centre which ultimately increases the breathing rate to expel out the CO2 efficiently.
URINARY SYSTEM IN MAN
 The urinary system of human is consist of:
• Pair of kidney
• A pair of ureters
• A urinary bladder
• A urethra
 Kidneys are reddish-brown bean shaped organs, situated at the dorsal side of the
abdominal cavity on either side of the vertebral column.
 The kidneys lie above the waistline.
 Each kidney has an area in the center of concave surface which faces the vertebral column; this area is called hillus.
 The renal artery, renal vein, nerve and ureter are connected to each kidney at the hillus.
 The ureter is a narrow tube which connects the kidney to the urinary bladder.
 Urine passes through ureter to the urinary bladder.
 The urinary bladder is a thin walled muscular bag situated towards the bottom of abdominal cavity in front of
the rectum which stores urine.
 The urethra is a tube which comes out from the urinary bladder, runs down and opens outside the body
through urinary opening. It passes urine from bladder to outside the body.
STRUCTURE OF A KIDNEY
 Kidney is enclosed in a membrane called peritoneum.
 A fluid filled in between peritoneum and kidney called peritoneal f l u i d w h i c h r e d u c e s t h e friction.
 A longitudinal section of kidney shows three main parts: the cortex, the medulla and the Pelvis.
 Cortex is the outer dark brown portion.
 It is covered and protected by a brous capsule.
 The medulla is the inner lighter portion of the kidney.
 It contains the conical projection called renal pyramids; the human Kidneys contain 12-16 pyramids.
 The medulla contains nephrons.
 Nephrons are the basic functional units of the kidney.
 These are tiny kidney tubules where osmoregulation occurs to produce urine.
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The kidneys are connected to the ureter at pelvis.

Pelvis is a funnel like space. It is the enlarged portion of ureter inside the kidney.
STRUCTURE OF NEPHRON
 Nephrons are the functional unit of kidney.
 Each kidney contains more than one million nephrons, which are microscopic urinary tubules.
 Each nephron consists of four main parts: The Bowmann's capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, Loop of Henle's,
distal convoluted tubule.
 Number of nephrons open into a tube called collecting duct.
 Nephrons are surrounded by different blood vessels that are connected to the renal artery and renal vein.
ROLE OF KIDNEY IN URINE FORMATION
UREA FORMATION
 The urea is formed within the liver cells.
 The liver stores surplus glucose of food by converting it into glycogen and other food substances but it can not store
the proteins.
 The amino group (NH2) is removed from amino acid called deamination.
 This NH2 group is converted into ammonia (NH3) which is very poisonous, it may kill the cell when
stored in high concentration.
 So the liver cells quickly convert NH3 into less toxic substance urea.
 This urea is carried by blood to kidneys and excrete out in the form of urine.
 A small amount of urea is also excreted in sweat as well.
URINE FORMATION
 Excess mineral salt and nitrogenous waste products i.e. urea, creatinine and uric acid, which are poisonous if
accumulated. These are removed from body with water and this mixture is called urine
 Urine formation takes place in Kidneys.
 Two main processes are involved in the formation of urine within nephron.
(i) Filtration
(ii) Reabsorption
ROLE OF KIDNEYS IN OSMOREGULATION
 Kidney is not only an excretory organ, it also regulates water and salt balance in the blood.
 Kidneys makes sure that the concentration of blood stays more or less constant.
DISORDERS OF KIDNEYS
 Kidney Stone
 Kidney Failure
KIDNEY DIALYSIS
 Patient of kidney failure may get a kidney transplant.
 A person with two healthy kidneys may donate one kidney and survive with one kidney.
 If a donor is not available, the patient can be treated with dialysis using a dialysis machine.
 A dialysis machine performs the function of a kidney.
 It helps to clean the patient's blood from metabolic waste products and toxics.
 For effective treatment the patient needs to undergo dialysis 2-3 times a week.
 Each session lasts about 3-5 hours depending on the patient's body size and medical condition.
CHAPTER 03
COORDINATION
INTRODUCTION
 Coordination is defined as the process where different units of a system work together to perform a meaningful
function.
STIMULUS:
 It refers to any factor which cause change either in internal or external environment of the organism.
 The changes are detected by special cells or organs termed as receptors.
 For example, eyes are photoreceptors (sensitive to light), ears are sound receptors, nose is chemoreceptor for
gases and tongue is chemoreceptor for solids or liquids.
 A stimulus is a change in the environment that can be detected by a sense organ and bring about a response.
RESPONSE:
 It is the activity performed by some living organism after analyzing stimulus or stimuli.
 It is exhibited by organs like muscles, glands which are termed as effectors.
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TYPES OF COORDINATION:
 There are two types of coordination: 1) Chemical Coordination, 2) Nervous Coordination
1) CHEMICAL COORDINATION:
 It takes place by releasing specific, signaling molecules such as hormones by special cells or glands.
 This kind of coordination is helpful in lower animals as well as plants because of their simple body plans and
small size.
2) NERVOUS COORDINATION:
 It is an advance type of coordination exhibited by most of the animals, which is a consequence of specially
designed cell, Neurons.
 The neurons upon stimulation generate electrochemical signals. Since the signaling is in electric form so it is
very rapid.
 A comparison of Nervous coordination with Chemical coordination:
NERVOUS COORDINATION
1) Activity of Neurons
2) Signal type is electro-chemical
3) Rapid in action
4) Response is shorter duration
5) Advance type of coordination
6) Exclusively related to animals
7) Involves neurotransmitters
CHEMICAL COORDINATION
1) Activity of special secretory cells
2) Signal type is purely chemical
3) Slower in action
4) Response is longer duration
5) Primitive type of coordination
6) Related to all organisms
7) Involves other signaling molecules such as hormones.
COORDINATION IN LOWER ORGANISMS AND PLANTS:
 Lower organisms like prokaryotes, protozoa, algae, fungi and plants have chemical coordination through signaling
molecules released usually in the form of hormones to regulate their movements, growth, metabolism,
reproduction, etc.
HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Human nervous system like other vertebrates is “centralized-type nervous system” (CNS).
 Stimuli from various organs of the body are sent simultaneously its control center or central nervous system
where they are integrated, analyzed and processed to develop command in the form of response.
 Centralized nervous system consists of two major divisions, viz. Central Nervous System (CNS) and
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM:
 It is the major command and control center to which stimuli are reported and decisions are made and
conveyed to effector organs.
 It consists of two main components, brain and spinal cord.
BRAIN
 It is the major command and control center of our body.
 It is wrapped in three protective membranes called meninges.
 Inside the brain, there are empty cavities or ventricles filled with a cerebro spinal fluid (CSF).
 Bones of the skull provide another protection to brain.
 Human brain consists of following important parts: Cerebrum, hippocampus, amygdala, thalamus,
hypothalamus, mid-brain, cerebellum, and medulla oblongata.
CEREBRUM:
 It is the largest part of the brain where important decisions are made.
 It is considered to be the seat of intelligence, all conscious activities and memory.
 Its outer part, cortex or gray matter is grayish in color and consists of cell bodies of neurons while inner part white
matter is whitish and consists of cell processes which are hair-like outgrowths.
 Cerebrum consists of two hemispheres, i.e. Right and left cerebral hemispheres.
 The right cerebral hemisphere regulates the left side of the body
 The left cerebral hemisphere to the right side of the body.
 The cortex is associated with thoughts, plans, actions and determination.
 It can be divided into four sections or lobes, viz., Frontal lobe, Parietal lobe, Temporal lobe and Occipital lobe.
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 Frontal lobe is associated with thoughts, emotions, etc.

 Parietal lobe is associated with different sensations like pressure, temperature, language processing, etc.
 The temporal lobe is involved in hearing and speech.
 The occipital lobe is associated with vision.
THALAMUS:
 Thalamus lies inside in the brain just above the hypothalamus.
 It guides the stimuli towards appropriate part of the cortex.
HYPOTHALAMUS:
 Hypothalamus regulates life maintaining functions like blood pressure, body temperature, hunger, thirst, etc.
 It plays vital role in maintaining homeostasis of the body.
HIPPOCAMPUS:
 It is related with long-term memory.
AMYGDALA:
 It's a deep seated small area involved in emotions (pain, pleasure, etc.)
MID BRAIN:
 In human it is relatively smaller and involved in integration of visual and olfactory (smell) stimuli.
 It is also collaborator of spinal cord with fore-brain.
CEREBELLUM:
 It is highly convoluted structure located on the dorsal side just below the cerebrum.
 It controls the precision in movement of the muscles for balance and maintains the position of the body in relation
to gravity.
 Activities like writing, drawing, painting, dancing, crafting have become possible due to its elaborate structure in
human.
MEDULLA OBLONGATA:
 It lies just above the spinal cord.
 It is the control center for automatic activities like breathing, heart-beat, blood pressure, coughing,
swallowing, hiccupping, digesting food, etc. Such activities are termed as Reflexes.
PONS:
 It lies on the ventral side of medulla oblongata.
 It helps in controlling the facial muscles as well as helps in sleep and wakening.
SPINAL CORD:
 It's a butterfly shaped, thick, whitish, long tube like structure which arises from medulla oblongata and
extends down through the vertebral column.
 Unlike brain, in cross section, its outer portion is whitish called white matter while inner is grayish or gray
matter.
 Like brain, it is also wrapped in meninges and bathed in cerebrospinal fluid.
 It acts as a mini control center for few reflexes.
 It also acts as express way for flow of information from brain to the different parts of the body and vice versa.
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM:
 It consists of cables which arise from the central nervous system and connect it to different organs of the body. Each
cable is termed as a Nerve. Each nerve consists of bundles of axons of both sensory and motor neurons.
 The PNS consists of somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous systems.
 The somatic nervous system is associated with skeletal muscles and glands while the autonomic nervous system is
associated with involuntary functions like digestion, breathing, etc. These functions are vital for maintaining life
processes.
NEURON:
 The cells of the nervous system are termed as neurons.
 Each neuron is specialized to generate and conduct neuronal signal or nerve impulse.
 Typically, a neuron consists of a cell body or soma and cell processes.
 Cell body or soma comprised of plasma membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus.
 The cell processes are hair-like projections given out from soma.
 They are of two types, dendrites and axon.
 Dendrites receive stimulus while axons transmits the command either to some other neuron or some effector
cells.
 Like an electric cable, cell processes usually have insulated coverings, termed as myelin sheath to ensure the
uninterrupted transmission of nerve impulse.
REFLEX ACTION:
 The activities like blinking of eyes, hand with- d rawl, kn ee- jerk, sn eez in g, hiccup, cough, etc. are automatic.
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 Su ch a u t o m a t i c , p re- programmed responses regulated by CNS are termed as reflex actions.

 The shortest path of a reflex action, such as knee-jerk involves two neurons, a sensory neuron and motor neuron.
 The pathway of a reflex action is termed as reflex arc.
RECEPTORS OF THE HUMAN BODY
 Human body can detect number of stimuli like light, sound, gravity, damage to the tissues, etc., through its various
receptors.
EYE
 It is the organ of sight.
 It works on the principle of a simple camera.
 The light captured by retina is converted into nerve impulses and reported to the brain.
 Each eye lies in a bony socket for protection.
 A tough outer coat, sclera (white part of eye) covers each eye.
 In front, the sclera becomes transparent termed as cornea. Behind it, lies a small chamber, aqueous humor filled
with watery fluid. At its back lies colored part or iris with a central hole, called pupil. The pupil appears blackish.
 Immediately behind the iris is a crystalline convex lens suspended by a ring of circular muscles known as ciliary body.
 The contraction of ciliary muscles causes changes in the shape of the lens to adjust focus.
 Behind the lens, there is a main cavity of eye ball filled with a clear gel, vitreous humor.
 The innermost layer of eye is retina on which the image is formed by cornea and lens.
 It has sensory cells, rods and cones which upon stimulation convert light signals into nerve impulses and
report them to the brain.
SHORT-SIGHTEDNESS AND LONG-SIGHTEDNESS:
 Short-sightedness (myopia) refers to the difficulty in focusing distant object while the near objects are focused
normally.
 Long- sightedness (Hyperopia) is the difficulty in focusing closer objects while distant vision is clear.
 Both can be diagnosed and corrected by using appropriate glasses or contact lenses.
COLOUR BLINDNESS:
 It's a deficiency of vision in which one cannot distinguish certain colors such as blue and yellow or red and green.
 It is due to the defect in cones of retina.
Though, the vision may be normal in a color blind person, yet the most common problem is driving because of
their inability to distinguish red and green traffic lights.Contribution of Ibn-al-Haitham and Ali-Ibn-Isa about the
strucuture of eye and treatment of ophthalmic diseases:
IBN-AL-HAITHAM:
th
 He was a great Muslim mathematician, philosopher, astronomer and physicist of 11 century.
 He was considered as “father of modern optics” due to his great contribution in principles of optics and visual
perception.
 He was the first person to consider vision as a result of bouncing back of light from an object and then enters our eyes.
 His most important book on optics was “Kitab-ul-manazir”.
 ALI IBN-ISA:He was one of the most important Muslim ophthalmologists of medieval times.
 In his famous book “Memorandum of the oculists” on ophthalmology, he described more than hundred
different eye diseases and their treatment.
EAR
 Ear is an organ of hearing and balance.
 It consists of three parts: 1) outer ear, 2) middle ear and 3) inner ear.
 The outer ear consists of pinna, ear canal and tympanic membrane or ear drum.
 The pinna composed of folds of skin and cartilage.
 The pinna leads into the ear canal which is closed at the inner end by tympanic membrane.
 Ear canal has hair and produces wax to trap dust and small foreign bodies.
 The outer ear collects and transmits sound waves.
 The middle ear consists of a small cavity containing three small moveable bones (malleus, incus and stapes).
 The middle ear is connected to inner nasal cavity through a small tube, the Eustachian tube.
 The middle ear receives sound waves from air outside and transmits it into the fluid in the inner ear.
 The inner ear consists of a front membranous cochlea and a rear, three semicircular canals deep inside the
skull bones.
 The cochlea is associated with hearing while semicircular canals are associated with balance.
 Both cochlea and semicircular canals are fluid filled and contain sensory hair cells.
 These cells transform sound waves into nerve impulse.
 ENDOCRINE SYSTEMIt is an important means of chemical coordination.
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 In animals, it is a system of ductless glands which secrete hormones directly into the blood.
 It carries hormones to their target tissues or organs.
 Harmones act like chemical signals or chemical messengers for target organs either stimulating or inhibiting
their function.
 Following are important endocrine glands in human body, Pituitary gland, Thyroid gland, Pancreas, Adrenal gland
and Gonads. They are located in different locations in our body.
PITUITARY GLAND:
 It is located in brain and considered to be very important. It secretes number of hormones which influence upon other
endocrine glands also besides other organs. Pituitary gland consists of two lobes in human, an anterior lobe or
anterior pituitary gland and a posterior lobe or posterior pituitary gland.
ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND:
 It has number of hormone secreting cells. Its important hormones and their effect with target organs are
summarized in the table:
Some important hormones of Anterior Pituitary gland, their target organs and important effects
POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND:
 It is actually stores and releases some hormones of hypothalamus.
 Few neurons of hypothalamus store and secrete their hormones from posterior pituitary.Examples of such
hormones are antidiuretic haromone (ADH) and oxytocin.
 ADH maintains the blood pressure, blood volume and tissue water.
 Oxytocin stimulates greater contraction of smooth muscles as well as social behavior.
THYROID GLAND:
 It's a butterfly shaped gland located on trachea in the base of neck.
 It secretes thyroxine and calcitonin.
 Thyroxine has iodine as its important constituent.
 It regulates the rate of the metabolic activities of cells.
 It regulates the physical growth and mental development in children.
 In case of its deficiency, physical and mental retardation occur in children.
 If the intake of iodine in diet is low in adult, the thyroid gradually enlarges in size. This abnormal condition is termed
as “goiter”. Calcitonin released in response to high level of calcium in blood lowers the blood calcium.
PANCREAS:
 Pancreas is about 6 inches long, leaf-like in structure located in the abdominal cavity in between stomach
and small intestine.
 It is both exocrine as well as endocrine gland in nature.
 The endocrine part consists of patches of cells called “Islets of Langerhan's”.
 It is involved in regulating glucose metabolism.
 In response to high level of glucose, it secretes Insulin which helps in decreasing the blood glucose levels.
 On the other hand, low level of blood glucose, it secretes glucagon which increases the glucose level up to
normal.
 The regulation of blood glucose through insulin and glucagon is a type of negative feed-back in which
opposite effect is observed in relation to stimulus.
DIABETES MELLITUS:
 It's a disorder in which pancreas produces insufficient or no insulin.
 As a result, the level of glucose in blood becomes very high.
 The excess amount of glucose is excreted in urine so the frequency of passing urine increases many times.
 Moreover, the patient feels very thirsty and hungry.
 In the absence of using or storing glucose by the cells, the patient losses weight and get tired.
WAYS TO MANAGE DIABETES MELLITUS
• Balanced Diet
• Exercise
• Medication
• Blood Glucose Monitoring
ADRENAL GLAND:
 Adrenal gland is located on the top of each kidney.
 It is triangular shape and consists of two glands; the outer part is called Adrenal Cortex while the inner one is
Adrenal Medulla. Adrenal Cortex secretes number of steroid (lipid) hormones necessary for regulation of
body metabolism, maintenance of water and salts. Cortisol is one of the important hormones secreted by
adrenal cortex in response to illness or inflammation of any tissue.
 It stimulates glucose production.
 Adrenal medulla responds to emergency conditions to produce so called “fight or flight response”.
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 It secretes adrenaline or emergency hormone resulting in an increase in blood glucose level by breaking down
of glycogen.
GONADS:
 Gonads are the reproductive organs, viz., testes in male while ovaries in female.
 They are involved in gametes formation and hormones secretion.
TESTIS:
 Each testis is oval shaped structure located in a pouch of skin, scrotum.
 It secretes hormone known as testosterone, a type of androgen hormone.
 Testosterone is responsible for the development of secondary characteristics in boys like appearance of
moustache and beard, deepening of voice, etc.
OVARIES:
 Each ovary is about the size of a grape located in the lower abdominal cavity on either side of uterus.
 Ovary secretes estrogen and progesterone hormones.
 Estrogen is responsible for the development of secondary characteristics in girls like development of breasts,
sharpening of voice, etc.
 Progesterone maintains and prepares uterus for pregnancy.
Feedback control mechanism of hormonal secretion:
 Hormone secretion is regulated through feed-back control so that they are secreted whenever required.
 There are two types of feed-back systems working in the body, negative and positive feed-back controls.
Negative feed-back control:
 It refers to the opposite effect in relation to the stimulus.
 For example, if there is an increase in blood glucose level (effect), the pancreas would secrete insulin (response)
which will bring down the blood glucose to its set point.
Positive feedback control:
 It refers to enhancement of the effect in relation to stimulus.
 For example, when an infant sucks the nipple of his mother's breast, she secretes hormone to secrete milk.
 Further continuous sucking increases the hormonal secretion several folds.
DISORDERS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM:
PARALYSIS:
 It is characterized by partial or complete loss of controlled movement caused by the inability to contract one
or more muscles.
EPILEPSY:
 It is a brain disorder in which there is temporary alteration in one or more function or recurrent seizures.
 It is due to the abnormal electrical activity in brain.

CHAPTER 04
SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT
INTRODUCTION
 The cells of an organism have a living material, protoplasm, which sensitive, due to its sensitive nature it possess special
property called irritability.
 Due to this irritability the living organism take some action to reduce its irritation these actions called movement.
 The movement can also occur at cellular level, like cyclosis in cell or the movement of chromosomes towards their
respective poles during cell division etc. On the basis of stimuli there are two types of movement
AUTONOMIC OR SPONTANEOUS MOVEMENT
++
 It is due to internal stimuli i.e. cramps due to involuntarily release of Ca ions.
 Types of movement on the basis of responses.
PARATONIC OR INDUCED MOVEMENT
 It is due to external stimuli i.e. reflex action.
LOCOMOTORY MOVEMENT OR TACTIC MOVEMENT.
 Types of movement where organisms change its place either towards or away from stimulus.
 Usually found in animals, bacteria and protozoa.
TROPHIC MOVEMENT
 Types of growth movement organism move toward or away by g r o w i n g th eir organs.
 U s u a l l y fou n d in plants, fungi or in bacterial colony.
 G r o w t h of root towards water and mineral or growth of stem towards light.
NASTIC MOVEMENT
 Typ es of movement wh ere change in osmotic water occur due to stimuli.
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 Purely found in plants like touch m e n o t p l a n t , which close leave when touch.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MOVEMENT AND LOCOMOTION
 Movement is a broad term where organism response to stimuli in any way whereas locomotion is one of the
type of movement where organism change its place takes place either towards stimuli or away from stimuli.
SKELETON AND ITS TYPES
 Skeleton are the frame work which gives shape to any structure. The skeleton performs three main functions
 Provide shape to organs
 Provide support to organs during movement
 Provide protection to soft, vital organs.
TYPES OF SKELETON
 There are three main types of skeletons.
1. Hydrostatic skeleton.
2. Exoskeleton
3. Endoskeleton.
HUMAN SKELETON
 The skeletal system of human is basically made up of two types of skeletons
1. Cartilage
2. Bones
 Both are rigid, cellular structure and type of endoskeleton.
CARTILAGE
 Type of skeleton which is flexible.
 It is made up of cells called chondrocytes embedded in a matrix of protein called collagen.
 It is much softer than bones as well as flexible.
 Calcification does not takes place.
 It covers ends of the bones and joints.
 No blood vessel penetrate into cartilage.
BONES
 Type of skeleton which is harder
 It is made up of cell called osteocytes embedded in a matrix of protein called collagen.
 It is harder due to the deposition of calcium phosphate, process is called calcification.
 Calcification takes place.
 It support the organ consists of an outer shell of compact bone.
 Blood vessels can penetrate into bone esp eci ally in spongy bones.
 Skeleton Provide Support and Movement
SKELETAL SYSTEM IS A DYNAMIC SYSTEM
 The dynamic property of skeletal system means that it is made up of living tissues, it is capable of quick growth.
 It can adapt to stress and can repair itself after damage (injury). 5% to 10% of our bones dissolve away
annually and are replaced by a new one this process is called remodeling.
 There are three types of cells associated with bones i.e. bones forming cells (osteoblast), mature bone
cell (osteocyte) and bone dissolving cells (osteoclast).
 Bone remodeling is the result of coordinated activity of osteoclast and osteoblast.
HUMAN SKELETON
 In humans 206 bones are present which can be categorized into two groups.The axial skeleton
 The appendicular skeleton
 The axial skeleton forms the main axis of the human body, includes the bone of the head (skull 22 bones ),
vertebral column (26 vertebrae) and rib cage (ribs 12 pairs and sternum 1 bone).
 The appendicular Skeleton forms the appendages (Limbs) and their attachment to the axial skeleton includes
pectoral (shoulder) and pelvis (hip) girdles.
 Pectoral girdle is consist of two bones i.e. scapula and clavicle.
 The forelimb consists of humerus, radius and ulna, carpal (8), metacarpal (5), and phalanges (14).
 Pelvic girdle consist of three bones ileum, ischium and pubis
 Hind limb consists of femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals (7), metatarsals (5) and phalanges (14).
JOINTS
 The junction of two bones is called a joint.
 There are two types of joints.Immovable and fixed joint.
 Joint where bones are fixed like puzzle pieces and do not allow to move, like 8 bones of skull or 3 bones of pelvic
girdles.
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 Moveable joints where bones are allowed to move freely or partially. So there are two types of moveable joints i.e
freely moveable and partially moveable.
MOVEABLE JOINTS
Freely moveable joints
 Hinge joint e.g. elbow, knee, phalanges etc.
 Pivot joint e.g. elbow joint.
 Ball and socket joint e.g. Hip joint, Shoulder joint.
 Partially moveable joints e.g. sternum and ribs
 Sliding joint e.g. wrist joint
 Gliding Joint e.g. vertebrae
 Hinge Joints (e.g. knee joint) allow movement in one plane only whereas ball and socket (shoulder joint)
allow movement in many plans such as forward, backward and sideways.
 Both hinge joints and ball socket joints have the same basic structure.
LIGAMENT AND TENDON: THEIR ROLE IN MOVEMENT
 The band of fibrous connective tissues by which bones are joined to one another at joints called ligament.
 It works as strong firmly attached ropes, it stabilizes the joint or hold the ends of two bones together.T h e s t r o n
g connective tissue in the ligaments p rotects these structures and prevents them from bending twisting.
 Skeletal muscles are attached to bones on either side of the joint by bands of tough, fibrous connective tissues
called Tendons.
 They are tougher and less elastic than ligaments.
 Tendon transfers the mechanical force of muscle contraction to the bones.
 It is strongly connected to muscles fiber at one end and to components of the bones at its other end.
 They are very strong, highly tensile.
LOCATION AND MOVEMENT OF HINGE JOINT
 Hinge joints move back and forth like the hinge on a door and allow movements in one plane only.
 The knee and elbow are hinge joints.
LOCATION AND MOVEMENT OF BALL AND SOCKET JOINTS
 This joint allows movement in all directions.
 The ball of humerus and femur t into the socket of pectoral and pelvic girdle respectively.
 The hip and shoulder joints are ball and socket joints.
MUSCLES
 Muscles are connective tissues consist of fibrous cells.
 These tissues have a tendency to contract and relax.
 The vertebrate possess three kind of muscles.
i. Skeletal muscles ii. Cardiac muscles iii. Smooth muscles
SKELETAL MUSCLES
 The muscles which are attached to the skeleton called skeletal muscles.
 They are associated with the movement of bones.
 These muscles are voluntary in nature.
 They are also called striped or stride muscles because they have alternate thick and thin means dark and light
bands.
CARDIAC MUSCLES
 These are the muscles which build the walls of heart.
 They are also striated muscles but unlike skeletal muscles they are branched in nature and arranging mash
work.
 They are involuntary in nature, work under the control of SAN (Sino auricular node).
SMOOTH MUSCLES
 Smooth muscles are the earliest form of muscles from evolutionary point of view.
 They are made up of long and spindle shaped cells, each cell contain single nucleus.
 They have no striations or stripes.
 They are involuntary in nature.
 These muscles are found in blood vessels, digestive tract and many other internal organs.
 Support and locomotion is mainly due to skeletal system and skeletal muscles system.
 The contraction and relaxation of skeletal muscles allows the bones to move.
 The muscles which are attached with bones are called skeletal muscles. These muscles only exert a pulling
force.
 When skeletal muscles relax, they are stretched by the contraction of another muscles.
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 It shows that muscles are always found in pairs.

 The one muscle of this pair when contracted other muscles will relax.
 This type of working of two muscles against each other called antagonism. The pair of skeletal muscles which
work against each other called an antagonistic pair.
 The action of biceps and triceps muscles of arm is a good example of an antagonistic pair.
 The bicep muscle is a large muscle that lies on the front of the upper arm between the shoulder and elbow.
 It has two heads or origin.
 The tricep is also a large muscle on the back of arm.
 It is three headed or origin when the biceps muscle contracts it pulls upon the radius bone of lower arm, which bend
the arm at elbow, this bending process is called flexon.
 On the other side when triceps muscle contracts it pull on the ulna which straightens or extends the arm.
 The straighten process is called extension.
 It shows that when the biceps contracts the triceps relaxes and vice versa.
 It means that in arm the biceps is the flexor muscle and tricep is the extensor muscle.
DISORDER OF SKELETON SYSTEM
EFFECT OF CALCIUM DEFICIENCY ON BONE
 The hardening of bones occurs due to deposition of calcium phosphate, this process is called calcification.
++ ++
 If Ca deficiency occurs in body or blood, ultimately it occurs in bones. This deficiency of Ca in bone is called
hypocalcemia known as calcium deficiency disease.
 A long term calcium deficiency can lead to dental weakness, osteoporosis, in childhood rickets.
 Osteoporosis is a disorder related to the aging process.
 In this condition the bones become porous or more spongy, thinner and weaker so that they become fragile, in
this condition a slight injury break the bone.
 Osteoporosis is more common in female than male.
RICKETS
 Rickets is the softening and weakening of bones in children, usually because of an extreme and prolonged
vitamin D deficiency.
++ ++
 Vitamin D plays vital role in the absorption of Ca , deficiency of vitamin D leads to deficiency of Ca in bone
ARTHRITIS
 It is the painful condition of joints due to swelling and tenderness of joint.
 The main symptom of arthritis are
 Joint pain
 Tenderness and stiffness
 Inflammation in and around the joint
 Restricted movement of joint
 Warm red skin over the affected joint
 Trouble dressing, combing, gripping, bending over squatty or climbing stair.
Common types of Arthritis
OSTEOARTHRITIS:
 It is a “wear and tear” causes; overuse of joints, age, joint injury, obesity. Joints that bear weight, like knees,
hips, feet and spine.
RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS:
 It is due to immune system i.e. autoimmune disorder.
 In this disorder immune system attacks on joints.
PSORIATIC ARTHRITIS:
 In this disorder joints and skin affects.
Causes of Arthritis
 The following factors are the causes of arthritis.
 Injury
 Abnormal metabolism
 Infection
 Auto immune system
 Genetic makeup
 Reduction in the normal amount of cartilage or synovial fluid.
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CHAPTER 05
REPRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
 One of the processes where living organisms produce offspring of their own kind is called reproduction.
TYPES OF REPRODUCTION
 Living organism can produce by two ways
(i) Asexually
(ii) Sexually
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 Type of reproduction which takes place without fusion of male and female gametes (sex Cells).
 In this type of reproduction only one parent is involved.
 The off springs are exactly similar to their parent.
 Organisms are gen etically similar to each other as well as to their parent.
 No new combination of genes (genetic recombination) occurs.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 Types of reproduction which takes place by the fusion of male and female gamete (sex cells).
 In this type of reproduction usually two parents of opposite sexes are involved.
 The off springs are not exactly similar to any one of the parent.
 Organisms are gen etically dissimilar to each other as well as to their parent.
 Genetic recombination occurs which causes variation and leads to evolution.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PROTISTS, BACTERIA AND PLANTS
 The bacteria, protists and plants reproduce asexually by a number of methods, whereas Bacteria only reproduce
by asexual reproduction.
 Some of the asexual methods of reproduction in plants are described below.
1. BY FISSION (SPLITTING):
 The splitting of cell into two or more cells is called Fission.
 Fission is of two types. I.e. binary fission or multiple fission.
2. BINARY FISSION:
 Type of fission where a mother cell divides into two daughter cells.
3. It takes place in bacteria under favorable conditions of temperature, nutrition and moisture, single
bacterium divides into two bacteria within 20 minutes and numerous bacteria are produced within very short
interval of time.MULTIPLE FISSION:
 Type of fission where a mother cell divide into more than two daughter cells
4. BUDDING:
 In this type of asexual reproduction the parent cell forms a small out growth which is called bud.
 This bud detach from parent cell or body and grows into new organism. It takes place in yeast and plants.
5. BY SPORES
 In fungi, algae and plants asexual reproductive structure sporangium is developed on their body.
 These sporangia produce numerous unicellular spores. Spores are very small and light usually they dispersed by
wind.
 Spores have thick, resistant walls which enable them to survive in unfavorable conditions.
 When these spores drop on proper substratum, they develop into new organism in favorable conditions.
6. VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
 Vegetative means non-reproductive part of plant like, thallus, root, stem and leaf.
 If any of this part develop into new plant called vegetative propagation.
Vegetative Propagation
 It is natural development of new plant without human efforts.
 Natural vegetative propagation usually occurs by root, stem, or leaves.
 S t e m ; R u n n e r s g r o w horizontally above the ground.
 Roots; new plant emerges out of swollen modified root known as tuber.
 L e a v e s ; o f a f e w p l a n t s detached from parent plant and develop into new plant e.g. Bryophyllum.
Artificial Propagation
 It is the method of development of new plant with the help of human efforts.
 Artificial propagation can occur from cells, tissues, cutting of stem etc.
 The method are
Tissue culture, Cutting, Grafting, Layering, Budding
 Root may be used for artificial propagation
 Any leave tissue may also use for artificial propagation.
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VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION IN PLANTS (THROUGH STEM, SUCKERS AND LEAVES)

 New plants can be produced from vegetative structures such as the roots, stems, suckers and leaves.
 The process can be natural or artificial.
BY STEM:
 In many plants, the stem has buds as in onions, daffodils and strawberries etc. have stems that can start
new offspring.
 These type of stem that can reproduce recognized as runners, bulbs, rhizome, tubers, and suckers.
LEAVES:
 Some leaves have bud on their margin e.g. Bryophyllum.
 These buds give rise adventitious root when fall on ground or come in contact with soil.
 After some time these parts of leaves develop into an independent plant.
SUCKERS:
 S u c k e r s are kn o wn as root sprouts, basically these are plants stem that arise from buds on the base of stem
or root of parent plant that use suckers, are apple, elm and banana tree.
 Suckers grow and form a dense compost mats that is attached to parent plant. Too many suckers can lead to a
small crop.
METHODS OF ARTIFICIAL VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION:
Cutting:
 Cuttings are the short pieces of stems that have 2 to 3 nodes and buds.
 It cuts obliquely below a node from a plant.
 The cutting embedded in soil with at least one node above the soil.
 The adventitious roots and shoots grow from buds of the portion below the soil and above the soil respectively
forming a new plant e.g. sugar cane, sweet potato and rose.
Grafting:
 This is a technique where a branch of desired variety of plant is joined to another plant with well-
established root system.
 The plant from which the branch is taken is called scion and the plant to which it is joined is called stock.
 The two plants involved normally belongs to different varieties of same species e.g. oranges, lime and
mango.
Cloning (Tissue Culture Technology):
 In this method tissues of selected plants are cultured using their ability of asexual reproduction in test tube or
dishes.
 To speed up the growth, hormones are added in the growth medium. After some time the baby plant is
transferred to field for large commercial scale production of desired yield.
APOM IXES (PARTHENOGENESIS) IS THE TYPE OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION:
 Apomixes is the type of seed production without fusion of male and female gametes.
 It is the type of Parthenogenesis which is the form of asexual reproduction.
 Where an egg develops into a complete individual without being fertilized.
 The resulting offspring can be either haploid or diploid depending on the process and the species.
 It is a natural form of asexual reproduction in which embryo develops in the absence of fertilization.
 Most commonly found in plants and invertebrates.
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
 The angiosperm is the group of plants which gives rise traditional flower therefore these plants are called
flowering plant.
 In these plants sexual reproduction takes place through flower.
 Flower is highly modified shoot which is responsible for the reproduction by producing seeds within fruits.
 Angiospermic flower has two external wheels of leave called calyx and corolla which consist of sepals and
petals, respectively.
 The androecium and Gynoecium are two inner wheels of leaves i.e. stamen and carpels respectively; which
are directly responsible for sexual reproduction of plants.
 Stamen produce pollen grains and carpel produce ovule in ovary.
STRUCTURE OF OVULE:
 Each ovule has main cellular body called nucellus.
 It is surrounded by two coats, outer and inner integuments.
 A small opening present at the apex of the integument is called the micropyle.
 The ovule has stalk, the funicle with which it is attached to ovary wall.
 Chalaza are tissues between nucellus and funicle.
 There is a large oval cell embedded in the nucellus which form embryo sac (female gametophyte).
 The mature embryo sac consists of 7 cells i.e. one Ovum, two synergids, three antipodals cells and one
secondary nucleus in numbers while a diploid cell is a fusion nucleus in the center.
STRUCTURE OF POLLEN GRAIN:
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 Pollen grain develops in pollen sac of anther form microspore in the form of loose, dusty powder.
 Each pollen grain is 4 celled structure, bounded by wall which consists of 2 layers, outer, the exine and inner,
the intine.
 In angiospermic plants the main plant is sporophyte which consists of vegetative and floral parts.
 The vegetative parts are root, stem and leaves while flower, fruit, seed are floral parts which develop from flower.
 The floral part is reproductive part.
 After two processes i.e. pollination and fertilization, it produces seed within fruit.
 The seeds when disperse germinate into baby plant called seedling, when matures, it become a new plant like its
parents.
 In flower androecium (male part) is consist of stamen (microsporophyll) has 2 to 4 pollen sac (microsporangia) in its
anther. These pollen sac are filled with microspore mother cell which produce microspore by meiotic cell division.
 Each unicellular microspore divide its cells by mitosis and produce 2 to 4 cells, in this way unicellular
microspore become pollen grain (multicellular) but each of its cell is haploid.
 When anther burst these pollen grains disperse in nature.On the other hand each carpel (megasporophyll)
has one or more ovules (megasporangium) in its ovary.
 Each ovule has single megaspore mother cell.
 This megaspore mother cell divided by meiosis to produce 4 haploid megaspores.
 Only one will survive and develops into embryo sac (female gametophyte) inside ovule, which consists of 7
cells
 The pollen grain disperse if dropped at the stigma of carpel the life cycle remain continues.
POLLINATION
Pollination is the process in which pollen
grains are transferred from anther to stigma of
carpel.TYPES OF POLLINATION
 Self-pollination
 Cross pollination
SELF-POLLINATION
 It is the transfer of pollen grains from anther of stamen to the stigma of same
flower.
CROSS POLLINATION
 It is the transfer of pollen grains from anther of one flower to stigma of other flower belongs to another plant of
same species.
 Cross pollination is more common than self- pollination, the pollen grains are carried from one flower to
another flower through following agents.
(i) Wind
(ii) Water
(iii) Insects
(iv) Animals
CROSS POLLINATION
 When pollen grain drops at stigma, it starts its development into pollen tube (male gametophyte), which
consists of 6 haploid cells, among them two are prothallial cells, two are male gametes, one stalk nucleus and
one tube nucleus.
 The pollen tube grows from stigma to ovule through style and transfers two male gametes in ovule through
micropyle which ultimately reach to embryo sac.
 One sperm nucleus fuses with ovum to produce diploid (2N) zygote while other gamete fuses with secondary
nucleus to form 3N (Triploid) cell which later develop into endosperm of seed.
 This type of fertilization is called double fertilization which is the characteristic feature of angiospermic plant.
 The 2N zygote after successive mitotic divisions develops into an embryo within the embryo sac, whereas
triploid (3N) secondary nucleus develops into endosperm.
 The endosperm provides nourishment to the developing embryo.
 During this development the ovule develops into seed the integument develop into seed coat whereas zygote
form small embryo and cotyledon during this the ovary outside ovule become swollen due to mitotic cell
division and become fruit.
Formation of fruit with out fertilization
 Some fruit may formed without fertilization. This mechanism is called parthenocarpy i.e formation of seedless
fruit, like banana.
SEED AND ITS STRUCTURE
 Seed may be defined as ripened ovule or it is fertilized, developed ovule which contains dormant embryo.
 The seed consists of following parts:
1. Seed Coat
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2. Embryo
3. Cotyledon
4. Sometime endosperm
 The outer wall of seed which develops from integument of ovule called seed coat.
 The seed coat consists of an outer thick layer called testa and inner thin wall called tegmen.
 The embryo develops from diploid zygote. It is a small axis, lying between two cotyledons, the upper end
called plumule and the other lower end is called radicle.
 The seed also contains leaf-like structure called cotyledon.
 These are either one or two on the basis of these numbers the seeds are classi ed into monocot or dicot
seed, respectively.
 The hilum is a scare, present at seed coat.
 The water enters into the seed through a very small hole in the seed coat this pore is called micropyle.
 In some monocot seeds, ripened ovary walls called pericarp.
 Internally maize grain is divided into two unequal parts by a thin layer of cells called epithelium.
 The larger portion is the endosperm and the smaller is embryo. In the embryonic part, a shield shaped
cotyledon is present called s c u t e l l u m .
 Moreover t h e plmule and radicle are enclosed in protective sheath called coleoptile and coleorhiza,
respectively.
GERMINATION OF SEED
 Breaking of seed dormancy is called seed germination.
 As a result of germination seed develops into seedling.
CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR SEED GERMINATION
 Role of water (Moisture)
 Role of oxygen
 Temperature
 Types of germination
EPIGEAL GERMINATION (Epi = above, geo = earth)
 The type of germination where seeds come above the soil during germination.
 The growth rate of hypocotyl is higher than epicotyl.
 The hypocotyl grow in the form of arch.
 The cotyledons become green when come above the soil and work as 1st foliage leaves.
HYPOGEAL GERMINATION (Hypo = below, geo = earth)
 The type of germination where seeds remain in the soil during germination
 The growth rate of epicotyl is higher than hypocotyl.
 The hypocotyl does not grow in the form of arch.
 The cotyledons do not turn green.
REPRODUTION IN ANIMALS
 There are also two types of reproduction in animal. i.e. Asexual and sexual reproduction.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 Animals reproduce asexually by different methods, some of them are as follows.
1. FISSION (SPLITTING)
 Splitting of cell into two or many cells or organisms called fission.
2. BINARY FISSION:
 The type of fission where an organism divides into two organisms is called binary fission.
 It is commonly observed in unicellular organisms like protozoa. During this process the nucleus of the
parent organism divides into two nuclei, both of them move in opposite directions in the cytoplasm.
Meanwhile, a construction appears in cytoplasm which deepens from outside to inside finally organism
divides into two organisms.
3. MULTIPLE FISSION
 Multiple fission involves the division of an organism into many small sized daughter organisms as found in
Plasmodium.
4. BUDDING
 In this method one or more out growth develop on the body surface of organism which are called buds.
 When buds separates from the parent body starts living independently and develop into new organism
e.g. Hydra.
5. FRAGMENTATION
 It is found in lower, multicellular animals like liver fluke and nematodes.
 When a living organism divides into fragments, each fragment recovers its lost part by regeneration and
develops into new organism.
SEXUALREPRODUCTION
 The process of sexual reproduction involves fusion of specialized haploid sex-cells or gametes to form a single
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diploid cell, zygote.

 The fusion of these gametes is called fertilization.
 Sexual reproduction involves:
1. Gametogenesis - Formation of gametes
2. Mating - Union of male and female organisms to collect their gametes at same place.
3. Fertilization - Fusion of male and female gametes to form zygote.
GAMETOGENESIS IN RABBIT
 Gametogenesis is the process of gametes formation by meiosis in gonads.
 These are two types.
SPERMATOGENESIS
 Formation of sperm in male gonads (Testis) from germ cells.
OOGENESIS
 Formation of ovum in female gonads (ovary).
 The process of gametes f o r m a t i o n o r g a m e t o g e n e s i s involves meiosis, which reduces number of
chromosomes to half in gametes.
 It also results variation in genes by process called crossing over .
 These gametes mostly do not have identical genetic make up.
FERTILIZATION
 The process of fusion of male and female gametes from diploid zygote is called fertilization. On the basis of
location of fertilization there are two types of fertilization, external and internal fertilization.
EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION
 It takes place outside the body.
 It takes place in water.
 Both gametes mature at same time.
 Gametes are produced in large numbers.
 It takes place in fishes and amphibians.
INTERNAL FERTILIZATION
 It takes place inside the body of female.
 It takes place inside female body.
 Gametes may mature after each other.
 Gametes are produced in limited numbers.
 It takes place in reptiles, aves and mammals.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES
 The diseases or infections which are passed from one person to another person through genital organs and
genital fluids during sexual contacts called sexually transmitted diseases.
 Sometimes they can spread through intimate physical contact as well like herpes, spread by skin to skin
contact.
 Some of the sexually transmitted diseases are Gonorrhea, AIDS, Syphilis, Genital herpes etc.
 Sexually transmitted infections have been known since ancient time, they remain world wide a major
public health problem.
 AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome) is caused by virus known as HIV (Human Immuno-
deficiency Virus).
 The HIV is transmitted through contaminated surgical instruments, transfusion of infected blood, sexual
contacts, placenta and mother's milk.
CHAPTER 06
INHERITANCE
INTRODUCTION
 Inheritance means the transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring.
 Genetics is the branch of biology in which we study inheritance.
 These characteristics from parents to offspring called the traits.
 For example: in man height, colour of the eyes, intelligence etc. are all inheritable traits.
 Parents pass characteristics to their young through gene transmission.
 Equal numbers of chromosomes from each parent are combined during fertilization.
 The chromosomes carry the units of inheritance called the genes.
CHROMOSOMES AND GENES
 Genes consist of DNA.
 They contain specific instructions for protein synthesis.
 The body cells have a constant number of paired chromosomes.
 The two chromosomes of a pair are known as homologous chromosomes.
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 In human body cells, there are 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes for a total of 46 chromosomes.
 Chromosome is made of chromatin material (simply as chromatin).
 Chromatin is a complex material, made of DNA and proteins (mainly histone proteins).
 DNA wraps around histone proteins and forms round structures, called nucleosomes.
 DNA is also present between nucleosomes.
 In this way, the nucleosomes and the DNA between them look like “beads on a string”.
 The fibres consisting of nucleosomes condense into compact forms and get the structure of chromosomes.
WATSON-CRICK MODEL OF DNA
 In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick proposed the structure for DNA.
 According to the Watson-Crick model, a DNA molecule consists of two polynucleotide strands.
 These strands are coiled around each other in the form of a double helix.
 There is a phosphate- sugar backbone on the outside of double helix, and the nitrogenous bases are on the inside.
 In double helix, the nitrogenous bases of opposite nucleotides form pairs through hydrogen bonds.
 The nitrogenous base adenine of one nucleotide forms pair with the thymine of opposing nucleotide, while cytosine
forms pair with guanine.
 There are two hydrogen bonds between adenine and thymine and there are three hydrogen bonds between
cytosine and guanine.
DNA REPLICATION
 During (cell cycle) that before a cell divides, its DNA is replicated (duplicated).
 It is done to make the copies of the chromatids of chromosomes.
 During replication, the DNA double helix is unwound and the two strands are separated.
 Each strand acts as a template to produce another strand.
 Its Nitrogen- bases make pairs with the Nitrogen-bases of new nucleotides.
 In this way, both template strands make new polynucleotide strands in front of them.
 Each template and its new strand together then form a new DNA double helix, identical to the original.
DNA
 DNA is the genetic material i.e. it contains the instructions to direct all the functions of cells.
 It performs its role by giving instructions for the synthesis of specific proteins.
 Some proteins perform structural roles while the others act as enzymes to control all biochemical reactions of cells.
 In this way, whatever a cell does, is actually controlled by its DNA.
 In other words, DNA makes the characteristic or trait of cell or organism.
 DNA controls the sequence of amino acids by the sequence of its nucleotides.
 During protein synthesis, the sequence of DNA nucleotides decides what will be the sequence of amino acids.
 For this purpose, the specific sequence of DNA nucleotides is copied in the form of messenger RNA (mRNA)
nucleotides.This process is called transcription.
 The mRNA carries the sequence of its nucleotides to the ribosome.
 The ribosome reads this sequence and joins specific amino acids, according to it, to form protein. This step is
known as translation. The part of DNA (sequence of nucleotides) that contains the instructions for the
synthesis of a particular protein is known as a gene.
 The locations or positions of genes on chromosomes are known as loci (Singular: locus).
 For convenience, pairs of genes are represented by a letter or symbol.
 The alternate forms of a gene are called alleles.
 If an individual has Aa gene pair, ‘A’ and ‘a’ are the alleles of one another.
 In this individual, allele ‘A’ is located on one of the two homologous chromosomes and the allele ‘a’ is on the
other chromosome.
 When chromosomes separate during meiosis, alleles also separate and each gamete gets one of the two
alleles. When gametes of both parents unite, the zygote (and the offspring also) receives one allele from each
parent.
GENOTYPE AND ITS TYPES
 The specific combination of genes in an individual is known as genotype.
 It is of two types i.e. homozygous and heterozygous. The genotype in which the gene pair contains two
identical alleles (AA or aa), is called homozygous genotype.
 The genotype in which the gene pair contains two different alleles (Aa), is called heterozygous genotype.
 When in the heterozygous condition one allele masks or prevents the expression of the other, it is called the
dominant allele.
 The allele which is not expressed is called recessive.
 The dominant alleles are represented by capital letters and recessive alleles by lower case letters.
 Albinism is a recessive trait i.e. it is produced when both alleles are recessive.
 In humans, allele ‘A’ produces normal body pigments while allele ‘a’ does not produce pigments.
 If genotype is AA or Aa, the individual will produce pigments.
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 On the other hand, if genotype is aa, no pigments will be produced and the individual will be albino.
 The allele ‘A’ dominates over ‘a’, because in Aa indiviual pigments are produced and the effect of ‘a’ is
suppressed by ‘A’. The expression of this genotype in the form of trait is known as the phenotype.
MENDEL’S LAWS OF INHERITANCE
 Gregor Mendel was a monk (priest) in Austria.
 He developed the fundamental principles of genetics.
 Mendel proposed that there are “special factors” in organisms, which control the expression of traits and their
transmission to next generations.
 These factors were eventually termed genes.
 Mendel selected pea plant (Pisum sativum) to carry out a large number of experiments.
 He argued that an organism for genetic experiments should have the following features:
 There should be a number of different traits that can be studied.
 The organism should have contrasting traits e.g. for the trait of height there should be only
two very different phenotypes i.e. tallness and dwarfness.
 The organism (if it is a plant) should be self-fertilizing but cross fertilization should also be
possible.
 The organism should have a short but fast life cycle.
 All these features are present in pea plant.
 Normally, the flowers of pea plant allow self-pollination.
 Mendel’s Law of Segregation
 Mendel studied the inheritance of seed shape first. For this purpose, he crossed (reproduced) two plants
having one contrasting trait i.e. seed shape.
 A cross in which only one trait is studied at a time, is called as a monohybrid cross.
 Mendel crossed a true-breeding round-seeded plant with a true-breeding wrinkled-seeded plant.
 All resulting seeds of the next generation were round.
 Mendel declared the trait “round seeds” as dominant, while “wrinkled seeds” as recessive. The following year,
Mendel planted these seeds and allowed the new plants to self-fertilize. As a result, he got 7324 seeds: 5474 round and
1850 wrinkled (3 round : 1wrinkled).
 The parental generation is denoted as P1 generation.
 The offspring of P1 generation are F1 generation (first filial).
 The cross in F1 generation produces F2 generation (second filial).
 Similarly, when “true-breeding” tall plants were crossed with “true-breeding” short plants, all offspring of F1
were tall plants i.e. tallness was a dominant trait.
 When members of F1 generation were self-fertilized, Mendel got the ratio of tall to short plants in F2 as 3:1.
LAW OF SEGREGATION
 Mendel concluded that the traits under study were controlled by discrete (separable) factors or genes. In each
organism, the genes are present in pairs. During gamete formation, the genes (alleles) of each pair segregate from
each other and each gamete receives one gene from the pair.
 When the gametes of male and female parents unite, the resulting offspring again gets the genes in pairs. These
conclusions were called the Law of Segregation.
 Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment
 In the next crosses, Mendel studied two contrasting traits at a time. Such crosses are called dihybrid crosses.
 He performed experiments on two seed traits i.e. shape and colour.
 The trait of round seeds (controlled by allele R) was dominant over wrinkled (controlled by allele r) seeds.
 Similarly, yellow seed colour (controlled by Y) was dominant over green (controlled by y).
 Mendel crossed a true breeding plant that had round yellow seeds (RRYY) with a true breeding plant having wrinkled
green seeds (rryy).
 All seeds in F1 generation were round yellow.
 When F1 seeds grew into plants, they were self-fertilized. This cross produced seeds with four phenotypes.
 There were 315 round yellow seeds, 108 round green seeds, 101 wrinkled yellow seeds and 32 wrinkled green
seeds.
 The ratio of these phenotypes was 9:3:3:1.
 The Punnett square is a diagram that is used to predict an outcome of a particular cross or breeding experiment.
 It is named after R. C. Punnett (an English mathematician).
 Mendel explained that the two traits i.e. seed shape and seed colour are not tied with each other. The segregation of
‘R’ and ‘r’ alleles happens independently of the segregation of ‘Y’ and ‘y’ alleles. From his second experiment, Mendel
concluded that different traits are inherited independently of one another. This principle is known as the law of
independent assortment.
 It states as: “the alleles of a gene pair segregate (get separated and distributed to gametes) independently from the alleles
of other gene pairs”.
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CO-DOMINANCE AND INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE

 Co-dominance and incomplete dominance are two examples of deviations from Mendel’s laws.
 Co-dominance is the situation where two different alleles of a gene pair express themselves completely, instead
of showing a dominant-recessive relationship.
 As a result, the heterozygous organism shows a phenotype that is different from both homozygous parents.
 In-complete dominance is the situation where, in heterozygous genotypes, both the alleles express as a blend (mixture)
and neither allele is dominant over the other.
 As a result of this blending, an intermediate phenotype is expressed. Following is the familiar example of incomplete
dominance.
VARIATIONS AND EVOLUTION
 The differences in characters such as height, color, etc. among individuals of same species are called Variations.
 The inheritable variations are of two types i.e. discontinuous and continuous variations. Discontinuous variations
show distinct phenotypes.
 The phenotypes of such variations cannot be measured.
 Blood groups are a good example of such variations.
 Discontinuous variations are controlled by the alleles of a single gene pair.
 The environment has little effect on this type of variations.
 In continuous variations, the phenotypes show a complete range of measurements from one extreme to the other.
 Height, weight, feet size, intelligence etc. are example of continuous variations.
 Continuous variations are controlled by many genes and are often affected by environmental factors.
VARIATIONS LEAD TO EVOLUTION
 Organic evolution (biological evolution) is the change in the characteristics of a population or species of
organisms over the course of generations.
 The evolutionary changes are always inheritable.
 The changes in an individual are not considered as evolution, because evolution refers to populations and not
to individuals.
 Organic evolution includes two major processes:
 Alteration in genetic characteristics (traits) of a type of organism over time; and
 Creation of new types of organisms from a single type.
 The study of evolution determines the ancestry and relationships among different kinds of organisms.
 The anti-evolution ideas support that all living things had been created in their current form only a few
thousand years ago. It is known as the “theory of special creation”.
 Variations are also caused by different combinations of chromosomes in gametes and then in zygote.
 In the case of humans, the possible number of chromosomal combinations at fertilization is
70,368,744,177,664.
 In other words, a couple can produce more than 70 trillion genetically different children!
 French biologist C. de Buffon (1707–1788) was the first to hint at evolution.
 His countryman J. de Lamarck (1744–1829) was the first to propose a mechanism of evolution. Lamarck’s ideas were
soon rejected due to the vagueness of the mechanisms he proposed.
 Charles Darwin (1809–1882) proposed the mechanism of organic evolution in 1838. It was called as “The Theory of Natural
Selection”.
 Darwin proposed this theory after his 5-year voyage on the HMS (His Majesty’s Ship) Beagle.
 He also published a book “On the Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection” in 1859. Darwin’s theory of
evolution was not widely accepted because of lack of sufficient evidence. Modern evolutionary theory began in the late
1920s and early 1930s.
 Some scientists proved that the theory of natural selection and Mendelian genetics are the same ideas just as
Darwin had proposed.
MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION - NATURAL SELECTION
 Natural selection is the process by which the better genetic variations become more common in successive generations of
a population.
 The central concept of natural selection is the evolutionary fitness of an organism.
 Fitness means an organism’s ability to survive and reproduce.
ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
 The term “artificial selection” was expressed by the Persian scientist Abu Rayhan Biruni in the 11th century.
 Artificial selection (or selective breeding) means intentional breeding between individuals for certain traits, or combination
of traits.
 In artificial selection, the bred animals are known as breeds, while bred plants are known as varieties or cultivars.
 Numerous breeds of sheep, goat, cow, hen etc. have been produced by artificial selection to increase the
production of wool, meat, milk, eggs etc.
 Similarly many plant varieties (cultivars) have been produced for better quantity and quality of cereals, fruits and
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vegetables.
 In artificial selection, humans favour specific variations for selection while in natural selection the environment selects
or rejects variations.
CHAPTER 07
MAN AND HIS ENVIRONMENT
INTRODUCTION
 An organism’s environment is the sum of physical (abiotic) and biological (biotic) conditions which influence that
organism.
 The study of the interrelationship between organisms and their environment is called ecology.
LEVELS OF BIOLOGICAL SELECTION
 In ecology, the levels of organization range from organism to biosphere.
 An organism may be unicellular or multicellular.
 A group of the organisms of the same species inhabiting a specific geographical area (habitat) at a particular time is
called a population.
 All the populations that live in a habitat and interact in various ways with one another are collectively called a
community.
 The biotic and abiotic components of environment interact with each other to form a system. The self-sufficient unit
of an environment that is formed as a result of interactions between its biotic community and the abiotic components
is known as an ecosystem.
 A pond, a lake and a forest are examples of natural ecosystems.
 Ecosystems may also be artificial for example an aquarium.
 All ecosystems of the world together form the biosphere.
 It includes all the ecosystems of the planet Earth.
 In other words, the biosphere consists of all organisms present on the Earth and all regions of the Earth where they
live.
 Biosphere ranges from the floor of oceans to the tops of the highest mountains. It is about 20 kilometres thick.
COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM
 An ecosystem comprises of two basic parts i.e. abiotic components and biotic components. The abiotic components
include the non-living factors present in ecosystem.
 The important non-living factors are light, air, water, soil and the basic elements and compounds.
 The biotic components comprise the living part (organisms) of the ecosystem.
 Biotic components are further classified as producers, consumers and decomposers.
 The producers are the autotrophs present in an ecosystem.
 Producers include plants, algae and photosynthetic bacteria.
 These organisms are able to synthesize complex organic compounds (food) from inorganic raw materials.
 In terrestrial ecosystems, plants are the main producers.
 In aquatic ecosystems, the main producers are the floating photosynthetic organisms (mainly algae) called
phytoplankton and shallow water rooted plants.
 The consumers are heterotrophs.
 They cannot synthesize their food and so depend upon producers for food.
 Consumers include all animals, fungi, protozoans and many of the bacteria.
 The animals are the major consumers of ecosystems.
 They are further classified as herbivores and carnivores.
 Herbivores e.g. cattle, deer, rabbit, grasshopper etc. feed on plants.
 They are the primary consumers.
 They feed directly on plants or products of plants.
 Carnivores feed on other animals.
 Primary carnivores (secondary consumers) feed on herbivores.
 Fox, frog, predatory birds, many fishes and snakes etc. are primary carnivores.
 Secondary carnivores (tertiary consumers) feed on primary carnivores.
 Wolf and owl etc. are secondary carnivores.
 Tertiary carnivores e.g. lion, tiger etc. feed on secondary carnivores
 Decomposers or reducers break down the complex organic compounds of dead matter (of plants and animals) into simple
compounds.
 They secrete digestive enzymes into dead and decaying plant and animal remains to digest the organic material.
 After digestion, decomposers absorb the products for their own use.
 Many types of bacteria and fungi are the principal decomposers of biosphere.
 The minerals, which are released by decomposers, are used as nutrients by the producers.
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FLOW OF MATERIALS AND ENERGY IN ECOSYSTEM

 In an ecosystem, energy as well as materials travel from one trophic level to the next.
 Trophic (food) level is the level at which an organism feeds in food chain.
 The first trophic level is made of producers; the second of primary consumers and so on.
FLOW OF ENERGY
 The flow of energy in different trophic levels of the ecosystem is unidirectional.
 The Sun is the primary source of energy for all ecosystems.
 Producers get solar energy and transform it into chemical energy by the process of photosynthesis.
 The energy in producers’ tissues flows to herbivores when producers are eaten.
 Herbivores transform it into mechanical and heat energy during their metabolic activities and store the rest in
their tissues.
 Carnivores eat herbivores and get energy.
 After the death of producers and consumers, the energy stored in their tissues is used by decomposers.
 Constant flow or transfer of energy from the Sun through producers to consumers and decomposers.A
significant decrease in useful energy during transfer of energy at each trophic level.
FLOW OF MATERIALS
 The materials flow from one trophic level to the next by means of food chains and food webs. A food chain is a
series of organisms within an ecosystem, in which each organism feeds on the one before it and is fed by the
one after it.
 The base of food chain is always formed by a plant (producer).
 It is eaten by a primary consumer, which is preyed upon by a secondary consumer.
 The secondary consumer may be eaten by a tertiary consumer.
 A food chain, can therefore, be represented as,
 Producer ➔Primary Consumer ➔ Secondary Consumer ➔ Tertiary Consumer
 A food chain involvesa nutritive interaction among the biotic components of an ecosystem.
 Usually there are 4 or 5 trophic levels.
 Shorter food provide greater available energy and vice - versa.
 Interconnected food chains collectively make ‘food web’.
 Food web can be defined as, “a network of food chains which are interconnected at various trophic levels.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
 In 1927, Charles Elton (an English ecologist) developed the concept of
 ecological pyramids.
 He noted that the animals present at the beginning of food chain are abundant in number while the animals
present at the end of food chain are fewer in number.
 Ecological pyramid can be defined as, “A representation of the number of individuals or amount of biomass or energy
present in various trophic levels of a food chain”.
 Ecological pyramids are of three types.
PYRAMID OF NUMBERS
 It is the graphic representation of the number of individuals per unit area at various trophic levels.
PYRAMID OF BIOMASS
 The total amount of living or organic matter in an ecosystem at any time is called “biomass”.
 It is the graphic representation of biomass present per unit area at different trophic levels.
 In a terrestrial ecosystem, the maximum biomass occurs in producers, and there is progressive decrease in biomass from
lower to higher trophic levels.
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
 The materials are continuously recycled between organisms and environment.
 Biogeochemical cycles are the cyclic pathwaysthrough which materials movefrom environment toorganismsandback
to environment.
 Since such movement of elements and inorganic compounds is essential for maintenance of life, they are also called
“nutrient cycles”.
CARBON CYCLE
 Carbon atom is the principal building block of many kinds of biomolecules.
 Carbon is found as graphite and diamond in nature.
 It also occurs as carbon dioxide in atmosphere.
 Major source of carbon for the living world is carbon dioxide present in atmosphere and water. Fossil fuels like peat,
coal, natural gas and petroleum also contain carbon.
 Carbonates of Earth’s crust also give rise to carbon dioxide.
 Carbon cycle is a perfect cycle in the sense that carbon is returned to atmosphere as soon as it is removed.
 The major process that brings carbon from atmosphere or water into living world is photosynthesis.
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 The balance of carbon cycle has been upset by human activities such as deforestation and excessive burning of
fossil fuels.
NITROGEN CYCLE
 Nitrogen is an important component of many biomolecules, like proteins and nucleicacids (DNA and RNA).
 Atmosphere is the reservoir of free gaseous nitrogen.
 Living organisms cannot pickup this gaseous nitrogen directly from atmosphere (except for nitrogen fixing bacteria).
 It has to be converted into nitrates to be utilised by plants. Nitrogen cycling involves several stages:
FORMATION OF NITRATES
 It is done by the following ways:
NITROGEN FIXATION
 Conversion of nitrogen gas into nitrates is called nitrogen fixation.
 It occurs in the following ways.
 Thunderstorms and lightning convert atmospheric gaseous nitrogen to oxides of nitrogen. These oxides dissolve in water
and form nitrous acid and nitric acid. The acids in turn combine with other salts to produce ‘nitrates’. It is called as
atmospheric nitrogen fixation.
 Some bacteria also have the ability to transform gaseous nitrogen into nitrates. It is called biological nitrogen
fixation.
 Some of these nitrogen fixing bacteria live as symbionts and many are free-living.
 Nitrogen fixation is also done in industries.
 In industrial nitrogen fixation, hydrogen is combined with atmospheric nitrogen under high pressure
and temperature.
 It produces ammonia which is further converted into ammonium nitrate
AMMONIFICATION AND NITRIFICATION
 Ammonification is the breakdown of the proteins of dead organisms and nitrogenous wastes (urea, uric acid
etc.) to ammonia.
 It is done by ammonifying bacteria.
 After the formation of ammonia, it is converted into nitrites and nitrates. It is called nitrification and is done by
nitrifying bacteria.
 First, ammonia is converted into nitrites by bacteria (e.g. Nitrosomonas).
 The nitrites are then converted into nitrates by other bacteria (e.g. Nitrobacter).
ASSIMILATION
 The utilization of nitrates by organisms is called assimilation.
DENITRIFICATION
 It is a biological process in which nitrates and nitrites are reduced to nitrogen gas by denitrifying bacteria.
 By this process, nitrogen is returned to atmosphere.
INTERACTIONS IN ECOSYSTEMS
 In all ecosystems, there are many kinds of interactions among living organisms.
 The interactions between the members of the same species are called intraspecific interactions
 while the interactions between the members of different species are called interspecific interactions.
 Some important interactions among living organisms in ecosystems are given below.
COMPETITION
 There is a competition among the organisms of ecosystem for the utilization of resources.
 The competition may be intraspecific or interspecific.
 Intraspecific competition is always stronger and more severe than the interspecific competition.
PREDATION
 It is an interaction between two animals of different species or between a plant and an animal.
 In predation, one organism (the predator) attacks, kills and feeds on other organism (the prey). Some examples of
predation are given below.
 All carnivore animals are predators.
SYMBIOSIS
 It is a relationship between members of different species, in which they live together for longer or shorter periods of
time.
 Symbiosis is of three types.
PARASITISM
 It is a type of symbiosis (between members of different species), in which smaller partner (parasite) derives food and
shelter from the body of larger partner (host) and, in turn, harms it.
 In temporary parasitism, the parasite spends most of its life cycle as independent free-living organisms.
 Leech, bed bug, mosquito are common temporary parasites of humans.
 In permanent parasitism, the parasites spend their whole life cycle as parasites.
 Many disease causing bacteria and all viruses are permanent parasites.
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 Parasites may also be classified as ectoparasites and endoparasites.

 Ectoparasites live outside i.e. on the surface of host’s body and get food from there.
 Mosquitoes, leeches, lice etc. are the examples of ectoparasites.
 Endoparasites live inside the body of host and get food and shelter.
 Bacteria, viruses, tapeworm, Ascaris, Entamoeba, Plasmodium etc. are the examples of endoparasites.
MUTUALISM
 In this type of symbiotic interaction, both partners (of different species) get benefit and neither is harmed.
 For example, Termites eat wood but are not able to digest it.
 A protozoan lives in its intestine. It secretes ‘cellulase’ enzyme to digest the cellulose of wood.
 The nitrogen fixer bacteria Rhizobium live in the root nodules of leguminous plants like pea, gram etc.
 The bacteria obtain food and shelter from plants while in return they fix gaseous nitrogen into nitrates for the plant
which is required for their growth.
COMMENSALISM
 It is a type of symbiosis in which one partner is benefited while the other is neither benefited nor harmed.
 For example:
• Epiphytes are small plants found growing on other larger plants for space only. They absorb water and minerals from
atmosphere and prepare their own food.
• The larger plants are neither benefited nor harmed in any way.
• Sucker fish attaches to the surface of sharks by its sucker.
ECOSYSTEM BALANCE AND HUMAN IMPACT
GLOBAL WARMING
 These gases remain in the lowest part of Earth’s atmosphere and do not allow solar radiations to reflect back into
space. As a result, heat remains within the Earth’s atmosphere and increases its temperature. This is called global
warming.
GREENHOUSE EFFECT
 The term ‘Greenhouse Effect’ refers to the phenomenon in which certain gases (called greenhouse gases) trap heat in
the atmosphere The greenhouse gases trap infrared radiation and send it back to Earth.
 Carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide are important greenhouse gases.
 Since 1800, the amount of Carbon dioxide in atmosphere has increased 30 %.
 The amount of methane has more than doubled and the amount of nitrous oxide has increased about 8%.
ACID RAIN
Effects of acid rain are:
• Acid rain destroys the necessary nutrients present in the waters of rivers and lakes etc.
• Its also lowers the pH of water.
• Most of the aquatic animals cannot survive at this pH.
• Acid rain washes nutrients out of soil, damages the bark and leaves of trees and harms root hairs.
• Leaf pigments (chlorophyll) are also destroyed.
• Metallic surfaces exposed to acid rain are easily corroded.
• Fabrics, paper and leather products lose their material strength or disintegrate easily.
• Building materials such as limestone, marble, dolomite, mortar and slate are weakened with acid rains because of
the formation of soluble compounds.
• Thus, acid rain is dangerous for historical monuments.
DEFORESTATION
 Deforestation means clearing of forests by natural causes or humans.
 The effects of deforestation include floods, droughts, landslides and soil erosions, global warming and loss of habitat of
many species.
POLLUTION
AIR POLLUTION
 It is defined as the change of composition of air by the addition of harmful substances (e.g. industrial and
automobile gases and particulate matter).
 All sources of air pollution are related to human activities.
 Burning of coal produces a lot of smoke and dust whereas burning of petroleum produces sulphur dioxide.
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
 Smog formation:
 Acid rains:
 Ozone depletion:
WATER POLLUTION
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 It is the change in the composition of water by the addition of harmful substances.

 Water pollution severely affects the health of people.
 Sewage is one of the major pollutants of water.
Effects of Water Pollution
 The following are major effects of water pollution. Eutrophication:
 Enrichment of water with inorganic nutrients (nitrates and phosphates) is called eutrophication.
FOOD CHAIN CONTAMINATION:
 The non-biodegradable water pollutants may stay in water for long times.
 From water, they enter into small organisms, which are fed upon by fish.
 The fish in turn are fed upon by land animals including human.
EPIDEMICS:
 Organic pollutants in water facilitate the growth of germs. Such polluted water causes epidemics like cholera,
gastroenteritis etc.

CHAPTER 08
BIOTECHNOLOGY
INTRODUCTION OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
 Biotechnology is defined as the use of living organisms in processes for the manufacture of useful products or for services.
 Genetic engineering i.e. the artificial synthesis, modification, removal, addition and repair of the genetic
material (DNA) is considered as modern biotechnology.
 The work on genetic engineering started in 1944 when it was proved that DNA carries the genetic information.
 In 1970s, they were able to cut and paste the DNA of organisms.
 In 1978, scientists prepared human insulin by inserting the insulin gene in bacteria.
 Human growth hormone was also synthesized in bacteria.
 In 1990, the Human Genome Project was launched to map all the genes in human cell.
 The complete map of human genome was published in 2002.
FERMENTATION
 Fermentation is the process in which there is incomplete oxidation-reduction of glucose.
 Fermentation has been in the knowledge of man since centuries, but it was believed that it is purely a chemical
process.
 In 1857, Pasteur convinced the scientific community that all fermentations are the results of microbial activity.
 There are many kinds of fermentation and each kind is a characteristic of particular microbial group.
 Fermentations are classified in terms of the products formed.
 The initial steps of carbohydrate fermentation are identical to those of respiration.
 The two basic types of carbohydrate fermentation are described next.
Alcoholic Fermentation (by yeast)
 This fermentation is carried out by many types of yeast such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
 This process is quite important and is used to produce bread, beer, wine and distilled spirits.
Lactic Acid Fermentation (by bacteria)
 In this process, pyruvic acid is educed to lactic acid.
 It is carried out by many bacteria e.g. Streptococcus and many Lactobacillus species.
 It is quite important in dairy industry where it is used for souring milk and also for production of various types of
cheese.
FERMENTER
 Fermenter is a device that provides optimum environment to microorganisms to grow into a biomass, so that
they can interact with a substrate, forming the product.
 Fermentation is carried out in fermenters, in the batch fermentation and continues fermentation.
GENETIC ENGINEERING
 Genetic engineering or recombinant DNA technology involves the artificial synthesis, modification, removal, addition and
repair of the genetic material (DNA).
OBJECTIVES OF GENETIC ENGINEERING
The important objectives of genetic engineering are as follows.
• Isolation of a particular gene or part of a gene for various purposes such as gene therapy
• Production of particular RNA and protein molecules
• Improvementintheproductionofenzymes,drugsandcommerciallyimportantorganicchemicals
• Production of varieties of plants having particular desirable characteristics
• Treatment of genetic defects in higher organisms
BASIC STEPS IN GENETIC ENGINEERING
All the above mentioned objectives can be obtained by some basic methodologies, such as:
 Isolation of the gene of interest
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 Insertion of the gene into a vector

 Transfer of recombinant DNA into host organism
 Growth of the GMO (Genetically modified organism)
 Expression of the gene
ACHIEVEMENTS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING
Various achievements of genetic engineering are as follows.
• Human insulin gene was transferred into bacteria. The genetically modified bacteria became able to synthesize insulin.
Diabetics are now receiving this insulin. The steps of genetic engineering for the production of insulin are shown in figure
17.7.
• In 1977 an E. coli bacterium was created that was capable of synthesizing the human growth hormone.
• The hormone thymosin which may prove effective against brain and lung cancer has been produced by genetically
modified microorganisms.
• Beta-endorphin, a pain killer produced by the brain, has also been produced by genetic engineering techniques.
• Genetic engineers produced a safe vaccine against the foot and mouth disease (a viral disease in cattle, goats and deer).
Similarly many vaccines have been produced against human diseases such as hepatitis B.
• Interferons are anti-viral proteins produced by cells infected with viruses. In 1980, interferon was produced in the genetically
modified microorganisms, for the first time.
• The enzyme urokinase, which is used to dissolve blood clots, has been produced by genetically modified microorganisms.
• Now it has become possible to modify the genes in the human egg cell. This can lead to the elimination of inherited
diseases like haemophilia.
• Genetic engineering techniques can also be used to cure blood diseases like thalassemia and sickle-cell anaemia, which result
from defects in single genes.
• Normal genes could be transferred into the bone marrow.
• Genetic engineers have developed plants that can fix nitrogen directly from the atmosphere. Such plants need less
fertilizers.
CHAPTER 09
PHARMACOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
 Pharmacology is the study of drug composition, properties and medical applications.
 The sources of drugs are also studied in pharmacology.
 Any substance that, when absorbed into the body of a living organism, alters normal body function is known as a drug.
 Drugs are broadly classified into two types.
 A pharmaceutical drug or medicinal drug is defined as any chemical substance used in the diagnosis, cure,
treatment, or prevention of disease.
 Some drugs often make person dependent on them, or addicted. These may be called as addictive drugs.
MEDICINAL DRUGS
 Drugs are obtained from the following sources.
SYNTHETIC DRUGS
 Such drugs do not occur naturally but are synthesized in laboratory. Pharmaceutical companies produce these
drugs e.g. aspirin.
DRUGS FROM PLANTS AND FUNGI
 Many important medicines are obtained from plants and fungi.
 These medicines include antibiotics, cardiotonics and certain analgesics.
 The antibiotic penicillin comes from a fungus.
 The cardiotonic, known as digitalis, is used to stimulate the heart.
 It is made from the leaves of purple flowered plant, foxglove.
 Many addictive illegal drugs e.g. marijuana are also obtained from plants.
 The pain reliever morphine is made from opium, which comes from the juice of opium poppy plant.
DRUGS FROM ANIMALS
 Drugs obtained from animals are usually their glandular products.
 Fish liver oils, musk, bees’ wax, certain hormones and antitoxins are obtained from animal sources.
DRUGS FROM MINERALS
 Several common drugs are produced from minerals. The mineral iodine is used in making tincture of iodine, a liquid that
helps prevent infection when applied to cuts and bruises.
 The powder form of silver nitrate is applied on wounds to stop bleeding and prevent infection.
DRUGS FROM BACTERIA
 Many antibiotics e.g. streptomycin are obtained from bacteria.
 Principle Usage Of Important Medicinal Drugs
 Drugs are classified on the basis of their chemical properties and modes of action.
 Analgesics (painkillers) reduce pain e.g. aspirin, paracetamol etc.
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 Antibiotics inhibit or kill bacteria and treat bacterial infections e.g. tetracycline, cephalosporin etc.
 Sedatives induce sedation by reducing irritability or excitement e.g. diazepam.
 Vaccinesareusedtodevelop immunityagainstviralandbacterialinfectionse.g.vaccinesagainst small pox, whooping cough,
hepatitis B etc.
 Antiseptics reduce the possibility of infections on skin
 Antibiotics inhibit or kill bacteria within or on the body
 Disinfectants destroy microorganisms found on non-living objects.
 Joseph Lister (1827 – 1912) was an English surgeon. He promoted the idea of sterile surgery for the first time. He
introduced carbolic acid to sterilise surgical instruments and to clean wounds.
ADDICTIVE DRUGS
 The following are major categories of addictive drugs:
SEDATIVES
 These drugs interact with central nervous system to depress its activities. Sedative drugs induce dizziness, lethargy,
slow brain function and depression. Long-term use of sedative induce suicidal thoughts.
NARCOTICS
 Narcotics are strong painkillers.
 These are used to relieve pain for patients with chronic diseases such as cancer.
 These are also used to relieve acute pain after operations.
 But some people may abuse narcotics for ecstatic effects.
 Morphine and codeine are the narcotics, derived from opium (poppy). Morphine acts directly on central nervous
system to relieve pain.
 Morphine has a high potential for addiction.
 The most commonly abused narcotic i.e. heroin is a semi-synthetic drug from morphine.
 It effects on central nervous system and causes drowsiness.
HALLUCINOGENS
 Hallucinogens are the drugs that cause changes in perception, thought, emotion and consciousness.
 The group includes mescaline, which comes from a cactus and psilocin, which comes from a mushroom.
Physiologically, hallucinogens affect on the sympathetic nervous system, causing dilation of pupils, constriction
of some arteries and rise in blood pressure.
MARIJUANA (HASHISH)
 Marijuana is a hallucinogen, which is smoked.
 It is obtained from the flowers, stems, and leaves of the marijuana plant (Cannabis sativa and C. indica).
ANTIBIOTICS AND VACCINES
 Two important medicinal drugs are antibiotics and vaccines.
ANTIBIOTICS
 An antibiotic is a drug that kills or retards the growth (reproduction) of bacteria.
 They are the chemicals produced by or derived from microorganisms (bacteria and fungi).
BACTERICIDAL AND BACTERIOSTATIC ANTIBIOTICS
 Antibiotics are used to treat many different bacterial infections.
 Some antibiotics are ‘bactericidal’, meaning that they kill bacteria.
 Others are ‘bacteriostatic’, meaning that they work by stopping bacterial growth.
 Three major groups of antibiotics are described below.
CEPHALOSPORINS
 Cephalosporins interfere with synthesis of bacterial cell wall and so are bactericidal.
 Cephalosporins are used to treat pneumonia, sore throat, tonsillitis, bronchitis etc.
TETRACYCLINES
 These are broad-spectrum bacteriostatic antibiotics and inhibit bacterial protein synthesis.
 Tetracyclines are used in the treatment of infections of respiratory tract, urinary tract, intestine etc.
 Tetracyclines are not used in children under the age of 8, and specifically during periods of tooth development.
SULPHA DRUGS - SULFONAMIDES
 Sulpha drugs are synthetic antibiotics that contain sulfonamide group. Sulfonamides are broad spectrum
bacteriostatic antibiotics.
 They inhibit the folic acid synthesis in bacteria.
 They are used to treat pneumonia and urinary tract infections.
VACCINES
 A vaccine is a material containing weakened or killed pathogens and is used to produce immunity to a disease by
stimulating the production of antibodies.
 In 1796, a British physician, Edward Jenner, infected a young boy with cowpox, by injecting pus cells.
 After the boy had recovered from cowpox, Jenner injected the pus cells from a smallpox patient into him.
 The boy did not get smallpox.
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 So it became clear that intentional infection with cowpox protected people from smallpox. This method was named
“vaccination” and the substance used to vaccinate was called a “vaccine”.
THE MODE OF ACTION OF VACCINES
 Pathogens contain special proteins called “antigens”.
 When pathogens enter the body (blood) of host, these proteins stimulate the immune response in host i.e. synthesis of
“antibodies”.
 Antibodies bind to pathogens and destroy them.
 In addition, “memory cells” are produced, which remain in blood and provide protection against future infections with
the same pathogen.
 B-lymphocytes recognize the weakened or dead pathogens as enemies and start producing antibodies against them.
 These antibodies remain in blood and provide protection against pathogens.
 If real pathogens enter blood, the already present antibodies kill them

CHEMISTRY CLASS 09
CHAPTER 01
FUNDAMENTALS OF CHEMISTRY
INTRODUCTION
 The branch of science which deals with the composition, structure, properties and reactions of matter is called
chemistry.
BRANCHES OF CHEMISTRY
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
 Physical Chemistry is defined as the branch of chemistry that deals with the relationship between the
composition and physical properties of matter along with the changes in them.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
 Organic Chemistry is the study of covalent compounds of carbon and hydrogen (hydrocarbons) and their
derivatives.
 Organic compounds occur naturally and are also synthesized in the laboratories. Organic Inorganic Chemistry
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
 Inorganic Chemistry deals with the study of all elements and their compounds except those of compounds of
carbon and hydrogen (hydrocarbons) and their derivatives.
BIOCHEMISTRY
 It is the branch of chemistry in which we study structure, composition, and chemical reactions of substances found
in living organisms.
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY
 The branch of chemistry that deals with the manufacturing of chemical compounds on commercial scale, is called
industrial chemistry.
NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
 Nuclear Chemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the radioactivity, nuclear processes and properties.
ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY
 It is the branch of chemistry in which we study about components of the environment and the effects of human
activities on the environment.
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
 Analytical chemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with separation and analysis of a sample to identify its
components.
 The separation is carried out prior to qualitative and quantitative analysis.
BASIC DEFINITIONS
 Matter is simply defined as anything that has mass and occupies space.
 All types of matters that can exist in any of three physical states: solid, liquid or gas.
 A piece of matter in pure form is termed as a substance.
 Every substance has a fixed composition and specific properties or characteristics. Whereas, impure matter is called
a mixture; which can be homogeneous or heterogeneous in its composition.
 The properties those are associated with the physical state of the substance are called physical properties, like
colour, smell, taste, hardness, shape of crystal, solubility, melting or boiling points, etc.
 The chemical properties depend upon the composition of the substance. When a substance undergoes a chemical
change, its composition changes and a new substances are formed. For example, decomposition of water is a
chemical change as it produces hydrogen and oxygen gases.
ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES
ELEMENTS
 Element is that it is a substance made up of same type of atoms, having same atomic number and cannot be
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decomposed into simple substances by ordinary chemical means.

 It means that each element is made up of unique type of atoms that have very specific properties.
 Now 118 elements have been discovered, out of which 92 are naturally occurring elements.
Natural Occurrences by Weight % of Some Major Elements

 Elements may be solid, liquid or gas.

 Majority of the elements exist as solids e.g. sodium, copper, zinc, gold, etc.
 There are very few elements which occur in liquid state e.g. mercury and bromine.
 A few elements exist as gases e.g. nitrogen, oxygen, chlorine and hydrogen.
 On the basis of their properties, elements are divided into metals, non-metals and metalloids.
 About 80 percent of the elements are metals.
 Elements are represented by symbols, which are abbreviations for the name of elements.
 A symbol is taken from the name of that element in English, Latin, Greek or German.
 The unique property of an element is valency. It is combining capacity of an element with other elements. It
depends upon the number of electrons in the outermost shell.
 In simple covalent compounds, valency is the number of hydrogen atoms which combine with one atom of that
element or the number of bonds formed by one atom of that element e.g. in the following compounds.

 The valency of chlorine, oxygen, nitrogen and carbon is 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively.

COMPOUND
 Compound is a substance made up of two or more elements chemically combined together in a fixed ratio by mass.
 As a result of this combination, elements lose their own properties and produce new substances (compounds) that
have entirely different properties.
 Compounds can't be broken down into its constituent elements by simple physical methods.
 Compounds can be classified as ionic or covalent.
 Ionic compounds do not exist in independent molecular form.
 They form a three dimensional crystal lattice, in which each ion is surrounded by oppositely charged ions.
 These oppositely charged ions attract each other very strongly, as a result ionic compounds have high melting
and boiling points.
 These compounds are represented by formula units e.g. NaCl, KBr, CuSO4.
 The covalent compounds mostly exist in molecular form.
 A molecule is a true representative of the covalent compound and its formula is called molecular formula e.g.
H2O, HC1, H2SO4, Ch4.
 MIXTURE:
 When two or more elements or compounds mix up physically without any fixed ratio, they form a mixture.
 The mixture can be separated into parent components by physical methods such as distillation, filtration,
evaporation, crystallisation or magnetization.
 Mixtures that have uniform composition throughout are called homogeneous mixtures e.g. air, gasoline, ice
cream.
 Heterogeneous mixtures are those in which composition is not uniform throughout e.g. soil, rock, and wood.
Compound Mixture
i It is formed by a chemical combination of Mixture is formed by the simple mixing up of
atoms of the elements. the substances.
ii. The constituents lose their identity and form a Mixture shows the properties of the
new substance having entirely different constituents.
properties from them.

iii. Compounds always have fixed composition by Mixtures do not have fixed composition.
mass.
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iv. The components cannot be separated by The components can be separated by simple
physical means. physical methods.
v. Every compound is represented by a chemical It consists of two or more components and
formula. does not have any chemical formula.

vi. Compounds have homogeneous composition. They may be homogeneous or

heterogeneous in composition
vii. Compounds have sharp and fixed melting Mixtures do not have sharp and fixed
points melting points.
SOME COMMON COMPOUNDS WITH THEIR FORMULAE

RADICALS WITH THEIR SYMBOLS AND COMMON VALENCIES

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ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER

 The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons present in the nucleus of its atoms.
 It is represented by symbol ‘Z’.
 As all atoms of an element have the same number of protons in their nuclei, they have the same atomic number.
 Each element has a specific atomic number termed as its identification number. For example, all hydrogen atoms
have 1 proton, their atomic number is Z=l.
 All atoms in carbon have 6 protons, their atomic number is Z=6. Similarly, in oxygen all atoms have 8 protons
having atomic number Z=8 and sulphur having 16 protons shows atomic number Z = 16.
 The mass number is the sum of number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom. It is
represented by symbol 'A'.
 It is calculated as A=Z+n, where n is the number of neutrons.
 Each proton and neutron has 1 amu mass. For example, hydrogen atom has one proton and no neutron in its
nucleus, its mass number A=l+0 =1.
 Carbon atom has 6 protons and 6 neutrons, hence its mass number A=12.
SOME ELEMENTS ALONG WITH THEIR ATOMIC AND MASS NUMBERS

RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS AND ATOMIC MASS UNIT

th
 The relative atomic mass of an element is the average mass of the atoms of that element as compared to 1/12
(one-twelfth) the mass of an atom of carbon- 12 isotope (an element having different mass number but same atomic
number).
th
 Based on carbon-12 standard, the mass of an atom of carbon is 12 units and l/2 of it comes to be 1 unit.
 The unit for relative atomic masses is called atomic mass unit, with symbol 'amu'.
 101

th th
 One atomic mass unit is 1/12 the mass of one atom of carbon-12 .
 When this atomic mass unit is expressed in grams.
 How to write a Chemical Formula
 Compounds are represented by chemical formulae as elements are represented by symbols. Chemical formulae of
compounds are written keeping the following steps in consideration.
1. Symbols of two elements are written side by side, in the order of positive ion first and negative ion later.
+ 2+
2. The valency of each ion is written on the right top corner of its symbol, e.g. Na , Ca , CI and O2 .
3. This valency of each ion is brought to the lower right corner of other ion by 'cross- exchange' method, e.g.
4. They are written as

5. If the valencies are same, they are offset and are not written in the chemical formula. But if they are different,
they are indicated as such at the same position, e.g. in case of sodium chloride both the valencies are offset and
formula is written as NaCl, whereas, calcium chloride is represented by formula CaCl2.
2+
6. If an ion is a combination of two or more atoms which is called radical, bearing a net charge on it, e.g. SO
3+
(sulphate) and PO (phosphate), then the net charge represents the valency of the radical.
7. The chemical formula of such compounds is written as explained in (iii) and (iv); writing the negative radical
within the parenthesis. For example, chemical formula of aluminum sulphate is written as Al2(SO4)3 and that of
calcium phosphate as Ca3(PO4)2.
EMPIRICAL FORMULA
 Chemical formulae are of two types. The simplest type of formula is empirical formula. It is the simplest whole
number ratio of atoms present in a compound.
 The empirical formula of a compound is determined by knowing the percentage composition of a compound.
 For example;
 The covalent compound silica (sand) has simplest ratio of 1:2 of silicon and oxygen respectively. Therefore, its
empirical formula is SiO2.
 The simplest unit taken as a representative of an ionic compound is called formula unit. It is defined as the
simplest whole number ratio of ions, as present in the ionic compound.
 In other words, ionic compounds have only empirical formulae. For example, formula unit of common salt
+ +
consists of one Na and one CI ion and its empirical formula is NaCl. Similarly, formula unit of potassium
bromide is KBr, which is also its empirical formula.
MOLECULAR FORMULA
 Molecules are formed by the combination of atoms. These molecules are represented by molecular formulae that
show actual number of atoms of each element present in a molecule of that compound.
 Molecular formula is derived from empirical formula by the following relationship:
 Molecular formula = (Empirical formula)n Where n is 1,2,3 and so on.
 For example, molecular formula of benzene is C6H6 which is derived from the empirical formula CH where the
value of n is 6.
 The molecular formula of a compound may be same or a multiple of the empirical formula.
 Some compounds may have same empirical and molecular formula e.g. water (H20), hydrochloric acid (HC1), etc.
SOME COMPOUNDS WITH THEIR EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULAE
 102

MOLECULAR MASS AND FORMULA MASS

 The sum of atomic masses of all the atoms present in one molecule of a molecular substance, is its molecular mass.
 For example, molecular mass of chlorine (Cl2) is 71.0 amu, of water (H2O) is 18 amu and that of carbon oxide (CO2)
is 44 amu.
 Formula mass is the sum of atomic masses of all the atoms present in one formula unit of a substance.
 For example, formula mass of sodium chloride is 58.5 amu and that of CaCO3 is 100 amu.
CHEMICAL SPECIES
IONS (CATIONS AND ANIONS), MOLECULAR IONS AND FREE RADICALS
 There are two types of ions i.e. cations and anions.
 An atom or group of atoms having positive charge on it is called cation.
 The cations are formed when atoms lose electrons from their outermost shells.
 An atom or a group of atoms that has a negative charge on it is called anion.
 Anion is formed by the gain or addition of electrons to an atom.
ATOM:
 It is the smallest particle of an element.
 It can or cannot exist independently and can take part in chemical reaction.
 It is electrically neutral.
ION:
 It is the smallest unit of an ionic compound.
 It cannot exist independently and is surrounded by oppositely charged ions.
 It has net charge either positive or negative on it.
MOLECULE:
 It is the smallest particle of an element or compound which can exist independently and shows all the properties
of that compound.
 I is always neutral.
 It is formed by the combination of atoms.
MOLECULAR ION:
 It is formed by gain or loss of electrons by a molecule.
 It can have negative or positive charge.
 It is formed by the ionization of a molecule.
 It is a reactive specie.
IONS:
 These are the atoms which bear some charge.
 They exist in solution or in cystal lattice.
 Their formation is not affected by the paresence of light.
FREE RADICALS:
 These are the atoms that have odd number of electrons.
 They can exist in solutions as well in air.
 They may form in the presence of light.
TYPES OF MOLECULE:
 A molecule consisting of only one atom is called monoatomic molecule. For example, the inert gases helium,
neon and argon all exist independently in atomic form and they are called monoatomic molecules.
 If a molecule consists of two atoms, it is called diatomic molecule. For example: hydrogen (H2), oxygen (O2),
chlorine (Cl2) and hydrogen chloride (HCl).
 If it consists of three atoms, it is called triatomic molecule. For example: H2O and CO2.
 If a molecule consists of many atoms, it is called polyatomic. For example: methane (CH4), sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
and glucose (C6H12O6).
 A Molecule containing same type of atoms, is called homoatomic molecule. For example: hydrogen (H2), ozone
(O3), sulphur (S8) and phosphorus (P4).
 When a molecule consists of different kinds of atoms, it is called heteroatomic molecule. For example: CO2, H2O
and NH3.
AVAGADRO’S NUMBER
23
 Avogadro's number is a collection of 6.02 x 10 particles.
 It is represented by symbol 'N '.
 103

23
 Hence, the 6.02 x 10 number of atoms, molecules or formula units is called Avogadro's number that is
equivalent to one 'mole' of respective substance.
23
 In simple words, 6.02 x 10 particles are equal to one mole.
MOLE
23
 A mole is defined as the amount (mass) of a substance that contains 6.02 x l0 number of particles (atoms,
molecules or formula units).
 It is abbreviated as 'mol'.
 The masses are expressed in atomic mass units (amu). But when these masses are expressed in grams, they are
called as molar masses.
 Quantitative definition of mole is the atomic mass, molecular mass or formula mass of a substance expressed in
grams is called mole.
CHEMICALCALCULATIONS
 In chemical calculations, we calculate number of moles and number of particles of a given mass of a substance or
vice versa.
 These calculations are based upon mole concept.
 Few examples of these calculations.
 Calculating the number of moles and number of particles from known mass of a substance.
 First calculate the number of moles from given mass by using equation

 Then calculate number of particles from the calculated number of moles with the help of following equation:

MOLE-MASS CALCULATIONS
 In these calculations, we calculate the number of moles of a substance from the known mass of the substance
with the help of following equation:

 When we rearrange the equation to calculate mass of a substance from the number of moles of a substance we
get,

MOLE-PARTICLE CALCULATIONS
 In these calculations, we can calculate the number of moles of a substance from the given number of particles.
(These particles are the atoms, molecules or formula units).

 On rearranging above equation we get,

CHAPTER 02
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
INTRODUCTION
 Ancient Greek philosopher Democritus suggested that matter is composed of tiny indivisible particles called atoms.
th
 The name atom was derived from the Latin word 'Atomos' meaning indivisible. In the beginning of 19 century
John Dalton put forward Atomic Theory. According to it 'all matter is made up of very small indivisible particles
called atoms'.
th
 In the beginning of 20 century experiments performed by Goldstein, J. J. Thomson, Rutherford, Bohr and other
scientist revealed that atom is made up of subatomic particles like electron, proton and neutron.
THEORIES AND EXPERIMENTS RELATED TO STRUCTURE OF ATOM
 According to Dalton, an atom is an indivisible, hard, dense sphere.
 Atoms of the same element are alike.
 They combine in different ways to form compounds.
 In 1886, Goldstein discovered positively charged particles called protons.
 104

 In 1897, J.J. Thomson found in an atom, the negatively charged particles known as electrons.
 It was established that electrons and protons are fundamental particles of matter.
 Based upon these observations Thomson put forth his “plum pudding” theory.
 He postulated that atoms were solid structures of positively charge with tiny negative particles stuck inside. It is
like plums in the pudding.
J.J. THOMSON (1856- 1940) :
 He was a British physicist.
 He was awarded the 1906 Noble Prize in Physics for the discovery of electron and for his work on the conduction
of electricity in gases
SIR WILLIAM CROOKS (1832-1919):
 He was a British chemist and physicist.
 He was pioneer of vacuum tubes.
 He worked on spectroscopy.
 Cathode rays and Discovery of Electron
 In 1895 Sir William Crooks performed experiments by passing electric current through gases in a discharge tube at
very low pressure.
 He took a glass tube fitted with two metallic electrode, which were connected to a high voltage battery.
 The cathode rays were studied in detail and their properties were determined, which are given below:
i. These rays travel in straight lines perpendicular to the cathode surface.
ii. They can cast a sharp shadow of an opaque object if placed in their path.
iii. They are deflected towards positive plate in an electric field showing that they are negatively charged.
iv. They raise temperature of the body on which they fall.
v. JJ. Thomson discovered their charge/mass (e / m) ratio.
vi. Light is produced when these rays hit the walls of the discharge tube.
vii. It was found that the same type of rays were emitted no matter which gas and which cathode was used
in the discharge tube.
DISCOVERY OF PROTON
 In 1886 Goldstein observed that in addition to cathode rays, other rays were also present in the discharge tube.
 These rays were traveling in opposite direction to cathode rays.
 He used a discharge tube having perforated cathode.
 He found that these rays passed through holes present in the cathode and produced a glow on the walls of the
discharge tube.
 He called these rays as "canal rays".
 The properties of these rays were as following:
(i) These rays travel in straight lines in a direction opposite to the cathode rays.
(ii) Their deflection in electric and magnetic field proved that these are positively charged.
(iii) The nature of canal rays depends upon the nature of gas, present in the discharge tube.
(iv) These rays do not originate from the anode. In fact these rays are produced when the cathode rays or electrons
collide with the residual gas molecules present in the discharge tube and ionize them as follows:

(v) Mass of these particles was found equal to that of a proton or simple multiple of it. The mass of a proton is 1840
times more than that of an electron.

(vi) Thus, these rays are made up of positively charged particles.

DISCOVERY OF NEUTRON
 Rutherford observed that atomic mass of the element could not be explained on the basis of the masses of
electron and proton only.
 He predicted in 1920 that some neutral particle having mass equal to that of proton must be present in an atom.
 Eventually in 1932 Chadwick discovered neutron, when he bombarded alpha particles on a beryllium target.
 He observed that highly penetrating radiations were produced. These radiations were called neutron.

 Properties of neutron are as following:

(i) Neutrons carry no charge i.e. they are neutral.

(ii) They are highly penetrating.
(iii) Mass of these particles was nearly equal to the mass of a proton.
RUTHERFORD'S ATOMIC MODEL
 Rutherford performed 'Gold Foil' experiment to understand how negative and positive charges could coexist in
 105

an atom.
 He bombarded alpha particles on a 0.00004 cm thick gold foil.
 Alpha particles are emitted by radioactive elements like radium and polonium.
2+
 These are actually helium nuclei (He ).
 He observed the effects of -particles on a photographic plate or a screen coated with zinc sulphide.
 He proved that the 'plum-pudding' model of the atom was not correct.
 Observations made by Rutherford were as follows:
(i) Almost all the particles passed through the foil un-deflected.
(ii) Out of 20000 particles, only a few were deflected at fairly large angles and very few bounced back on
hitting the gold foil.
(iii) Results of the experiment
(iv) Rutherford proposed planetary model for an atom and concluded following results:
(v) Since most of the particles passed through the foil un- deflected, therefore most of the volume occupied by an
atom is empty.
(vi) The deflection of a few particles proved that there is a 'center of positive charges' in an atom, which is called
'nucleus' of an atom.
(vii) The complete rebounce of a few particles show that the nucleus is very dense and hard.
(viii) Since a few particles were deflected, it shows that the size of the nucleus is very small as compared to the total
volume of an atom.
(ix) The electrons revolve around the nucleus.
(x) An atom as a whole is neutral, therefore the number of electrons in an atom is equal to the number of protons.
(xi) Except electrons, all other fundamental particles that lie within the nucleus, are known as nucleons.
RUTHERFORD
 RUTHERFORD was a British- New Zealand chemist.
 He performed a series of experiments using a - particles.
 He won the 1908 Noble Prize in Chemistry.
 In 1911, he proposed the nuclear model of the atom and performed the first experiment to split atom.
 Because of his great contributions, he is considered the father of nuclear science.
BOHR'S ATOMIC THEORY
 Neil Bohr presented another model of atom in 1913.
 The Quantum Theory of Max Planck was used as foundation for this model.
 According to Bohr's model, revolving electron in an atom does not absorb or emit energy continuously.
 The energy of a revolving electron is 'quantized' as it revolves only in orbits of fixed energy, called 'energy levels'
by him.
 The Bohr's atomic model was based upon the following postulates:
1. The hydrogen atom consists of a tiny nucleus and electrons are revolving in one of circular orbits of radius
‘r’ around the nucleus.
2. Each orbit has a fixed energy that is quantized.
3. As long as electron remains in a particular orbit, it does not radiate or absorb energy. The energy is
emitted or absorbed only when an electron jumps from one orbit to another.
4. When an electron jumps from lower orbit to higher orbit, it absorbs energy and when it jumps from higher orbit
to lower orbit it radiates energy. This change in energy is given by following Planck's equation
34
 Where, h is Planck's constant equal to 6.63 x10 Js, and v is frequency of light.
 Electron can revolve only in orbits of a fixed angular moment mvr, given as: Where 'n' is the quantum number or orbit

number having values 1,2,3 and so on.

NEIL BOHAR:
 Neil Bohr was a Danish physicist who joined Rutherford in 1912 for his post doctoral research.
 In 1913, Bohr presented his atomic model based upon Quantum theory.
 He won the 1922 Noble Prize for Physics for his work on the structure of an atom.

SUMMARY OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TWO THEORIES:

Rutherford's Atomic Theory Bohr's Atomic Theory
 106

 It was based upon classical theory.  It was based upon quantum theory.
Electrons revolve around the Electrons revolve around the
nucleus. nucleus in orbits of fixed energy.
 No idea about orbits was  Orbits had angular momentum.
introduced. Atoms should produce Atoms should produce line
continuous spectrum. spectrum.
 Atoms should collapse.  Atoms should exist.

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
 Before discussing electronic configuration let us first understand the concept of shells and subshells.
 Now we will discuss how the electrons revolve around the nucleus?
 The electrons revolve around the nucleus in different energy levels or shells according to their respective energies
(potential energy).
 Energy levels are represented by 'n' values 1, 2, 3 and so on.
 They are designated by the alphabets K, L, M and so on.
 A shell closer to the nucleus is of minimum energy.
 Since K shell is closest to the nucleus, the energy of shells increases from K shell onwards. Such as:
 N shell can accommodate 32 electrons.
 Filling of electrons in subshells of a shell is such as that V subshell is filled first and then its p subshell and then
other subshells are filled.
 The maximum capacity of subshells to accommodate electrons is:
 ‘s’ subshell can accommodate 2 electrons. ‘p’subshell can accommodate 6 electrons.
 Let us write the electronic configuration of the elements and their ions with the help of a few examples. Keep in
mind, we should know three things:
1. The number of electrons in an atom.
2. The sequence of shells and subshells according to the energy levels.
3. The maximum number of electrons that can be placed in different shells and subshells.
 Solution:
o When there are 5 electrons in M shell, it means K and L shell are completely filled with their maximum
capacity of 10 electrons. Hence the electronic configuration of the element is:

 So the total number of electrons is 2 + 8 + 5 = 15

 As we know, the number of electrons in an atom is equal to its atomic number. Therefore, atomic number of this
element is 15.
THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION OF FIRST 18 ELEMENTS
 The sequence of filling of electrons in different subshells is as following:
 Where number represents the shell number, while letters (s and p) represent subshells.
 The superscript shows the number of electrons in a subshell.
 The sum of superscripts number is the total number of electrons in an atom. i.e. atomic number of an element.
 107

ISOTOPES
DEFINITION
 Isotopes are defined as the atoms of an element that have same atomic number but different mass numbers.
 They have same electronic configuration and number of protons but they differ in the number of neutrons.
 Isotopes have similar chemical properties because these depend upon electronic configuration.
 But they have different physical properties because these depend upon mass numbers.
ISOTOPES OF HYDROGEN:
 The naturally occurring hydrogen is combination of its three isotopes, present in different abundances.
The three isotopes of hydrogen are named as protium, deuterium and tritium
 Each one of them has 1 proton and 1 electron, but number of neutrons are different.
 The isotopes are represented as:
o Protium ( 1 H )
o Deuterium ( 2 H)
o Tritium ( 3 H )
ISOTOPES OF CARBON:
12 13 14
There are two stable isotopes of carbon C and C and one radioactive isotope C.
12 13 14
The isotope C is present in abundance of 98.9 %, while C and C are both present only 1.1 % in nature.
All of them have the same number of protons and electrons but differ in number of neutrons.
ISOTOPES OF CHLORINE:
 There are two isotopes of chlorine,
ISOTOPES OF URANIUM
 There are three isotopes of uranium i.e. in nature nearly 99%.
 Atomic Number, Mass Number, Number of Protons and Neutrons of H, C, CI and U
USES OF ISOTOPES:
 Radiotherapy (Treatment of Cancer)
 Tracer for Diagnosis and Medicine
 Archaeological and Geological Uses
 Chemical Reaction and Structure Determination
 Applications in Power Generation

CHAPTER 03
PERIODIC TABLE AND PERIODICITY OF PROPERTIES
INTRODUCTION
 On the basis of Periodic law, the elements known at that time, were arranged in the form of a table which is known
as periodic table.
 108

 The vertical columns of that table were called groups and horizontal lines were called periods.
 That orderly arrangement of elements generally coincided with their increasing atomic number.
PERIODIC TABLE
Dobereiner's Triads:
 A German chemist Dobereiner’s observed relationship between atomic masses of several groups of three elements
called triads.
 One triad group example is that of calcium (40), strontium (88) and barium (137).
 The atomic mass of strontium is the average of the atomic masses of calcium and barium.
 Newlands Octaves
 After successful determination of correct atomic masses of elements by Cannizzaro in 1860, attempts were
again initiated to organize elements.
 In 1864 British chemist Newlands put forward his observations in the form of 'law of octaves'.
 He noted that there was a repetition in chemical properties of every eighth element if they were arranged by
their increasing atomic masses.
MENDELEEV:
 Mendeleev (1834-1907) was a Russian chemist and inventor.
 He was the creator of first version of Periodic table of elements.
 With help of the table, he predicted the properties of the elements yet to be discovered.
 Mendeleev's Periodic Table
 Russian chemist, Mendeleev arranged the known elements (only 63) in order of increasing atomic masses, in
horizontal rows called periods.
 So that elements with similar properties were in the same vertical columns.
 This arrangement of elements was called periodic table.
 He put forward the results of his work in the form of periodic law, which is stated as "properties of the
elements are periodic functions of their atomic masses"
PERIODIC LAW
 In 1913 H. Moseley discovered a new property of the elements i.e. atomic number. He observed that atomic
number instead of atomic mass should determine the position of element in the periodic table and accordingly
the periodic law was amended as "properties of the elements are periodic function of their atomic numbers".
 Atomic number of an element is equal to the number of electrons in a neutral atom.
 Modern Periodic Table
 Atomic number of an element is more fundamental property than atomic mass in two respects, (a) It increases
regularly from element to element, (b) It is fixed for every element.
 So the discovery of atomic number of an element in 1913 led to change in Mendeleev's periodic law which was
based on atomic mass.
 The modern periodic table is based upon the arrangement of elements according to increasing atomic number.
 When the elements are arranged according to increasing atomic number from left to right in a horizontal row,
properties of elements were found repeating after regular intervals such that elements of similar properties and
similar configuration are placed in the same group.
LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE
 Salient Features of Long Form of Periodic Table:
1. This table consists of seven horizontal rows called periods.
2. First period consists of only two elements. Second and third periods consist of 8 elements each. Fourth and fifth
periods consist of 18 elements each. Sixth period has 32 elements while seventh period has 23 elements and is
incomplete.
3. Elements of a period show different properties.
4. There are 18 vertical columns in the periodic table numbered 1 to 18 from left to right, which are called groups.
5. The elements of a group show similar chemical properties.
6. Elements are classified into four blocks depending upon the type of the subshell which gets the last electron.
PERIODS
 First period is called short period.
 It consists of only two elements, hydrogen and helium.
 Second and third periods are called normal periods.
 Each of them has eight elements in it.
 Second period consists of lithium, beryllium, boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine and ends at neon, a noble
gas.
 Fourth and fifth periods are called long periods.
 Each one of them consists of eighteen elements.
 Whereas, sixth and seventh periods are called very long periods.
 In these periods after atomic number 57 and 89, two series of fourteen elements each, were accommodated.
 109

 Because of space problem, these two series were placed separately below the normal periodic table to keep it in
a manageable and presentable form.
 Since the two series start after Lanthanum (Z=57) and Actinium (Z=89), so these two series of elements are named
as Lanthanides and Actinides respectively.

GROUPS

 Group 1 consists of hydrogen, lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium and francium.
 Although elements of a group do not have continuously increasing atomic numbers, yet they have similar electronic
configuration in their valence shells.
 That is the reason elements of a group are also called a family.
 For example, all the group 1 elements have one electron in their valence shells, they are given the family name of
alkali metals.
 The groups 1 and 2 and 13 to 17 contain the normal elements.
 In the normal elements, all the inner shells are completely filled with electrons, only the outermost shells are
incomplete.
 For example, group 17 elements (halogens) have 7 electrons in their valence (outermost) shell.
 The groups 3 to 12 are called transition elements.
 In these elements 'af' sub-shell is in the process of completion.
DIFFERENT GROUPS OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

PERIODICITY OF PROPERTIES
ATOMIC SIZE AND ATOMIC RADIUS:
 The common method to determine the size of an atom is to assume that atoms are spheres.
 Half of the distance between the nuclei of the two bonded atoms is referred as the atomic radius of the atom.
 When we move from left to right in a period although atomic number increases, yet the size of atoms decreases
gradually. It is because with the increase of atomic number, the effective nuclear charge increases gradually
because of addition of more and more protons in the nucleus.
 But on the other hand addition of electrons takes place in the same valence shell i.e. shells do not increase.
 There is gradual increase of effective nuclear charge which increases due to addition of protons. This force pulls
down or contracts the outermost shell towards the nucleus.
 For example, atomic size in period 2 decreases from Li (152 pm) to Ne (69 pm).
 The size of atoms or their radii increases from top to bottom in a group.
 The trend of atomic size of transition elements has slight ariation when we consider this series in a period.
 The atomic size of the elements first reduces or atom contracts and then there is increase in it when we move
from left to right in 4th period.
 Shielding Effect
 The electrons present in the inner shells screen or shield the force of attraction of nucleus felt by the valence shell
electrons. This is called shielding effect.
 Ionization Energy
 The ionization energy is the amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from the
valence shell of an isolated gaseous atom.
ELECTRON AFFINITY:
 Electron Affinity is defined as the amount of energy released when an electron is added in the outermost shell of
an isolated gaseous atom.
 Affinity means attraction.
ELECTRONEGATIVITY:
The ability of an atom to attract the shared pair of electrons towards itself in a molecule, is called electronegativity.
 110

CHAPTER 04
 111

CHEMICAL BONDING
INTRODUCTION
2 6
 Atoms achieve stability by attaining electronic configuration of noble gases (He, Ne or Ar, etc) i.e. ns np .
 Having 2 or 8 electrons in the valence shell is sign of stability.
 Attaining two electrons in the valence shell is called duplet rule while attaining eight electrons in the valence shell
is called octet rule.
 The noble gases do have 2 or 8 electrons in their valence shells.
 All the noble gases have their valence shells completely filled.
 Noble gases do not gain, lose or share electrons.
 That is why they are non-reactive.
 Atoms combine with one another, which is called chemical bonding.
 In other words, atoms form chemical bonds to achieve stability by acquiring inert gas electron configuration.
 Every atom has a natural tendency to have 2 or 8 electrons in its valence shell.
 The atoms having less than 2 or 8 electrons in their valence shells are unstable.
 The position of an atom in the periodic table indicates its group number.
 Mode of reaction of an atom depends upon its number of valence shell electrons. CHEMICALBOND
 A chemical bond is defined as a force of attraction between atoms that holds them together in a substance. In
other words, during bond formation there is some force which holds the atoms together.
TYPES OF CHEMICALBOND
 The valence electrons, which are involved in chemical bonding, are termed as bonding electrons.
 Four types of chemical bonds are
 Ionic Bond Covalent Bond
 Dative Covalent or Coordinate Covalent Bond Metallic Bond
IONIC BOND
 Chemical bond, which is formed due to complete transfer of electron from one atom to another atom, is called
ionic bond.
 The formation of NaCl is a good example of this type of bond.

 The compounds formed due to this type of bonding are called ionic compounds.
COVALENT BOND
 The elements of Group-13 to Group-17 when allowed to react with each other, they form a chemical bond by
mutual sharing of their valence shell electrons.
 This type of bond, which is formed due to mutual sharing of electrons, is called a covalent bond.
 Types of covalent bonds
 The electrons that pair up to form a chemical bond are called 'bond pair' electrons.
 Single Covalent bond
 When one electron is contributed by each bonded atom, one bond pair is formed and it forms a single covalent bond.
 Double Covalent bond
 When each bonded atom contributes two electrons, two bond pairs are shared and a double covalent bond is
formed.
 These bond pairs are indicated as double line between those atoms in the structure of such molecules.
 Triple Covalent Bond
 When each bonded atom contributes three electrons, three bond pairs are involved in bond formation. This type is
called triple covalent bond.
 Three small lines are used to indicate these three pairs of electrons between those atoms in the molecules.
DATIVE COVALENT OR COORDINATE COVALENT BOND
 Type of covalent bonding in which the bond pair of electrons is donated by one bonded atom only.
 The atom which donates the electron pair is called donor and the atom which accepts the electron pair is called
acceptor.
 A small arrow is usually used to indicate the atom and pair of electron being donated. The head of arrow is
towards the acceptor atom.
 The non-bonded electron pair available on an atom, like the one available on nitrogen in ammonia NH3, is called a
lone pair.
POLAR AND NON-POLAR COVALENT BOND
 If a covalent bond is formed between two similar atoms (homo-atoms), the shared pair of electrons is attracted by
both the atoms equally. Such type of bond is called non-polar covalent bond.
 These bonds are formed by equal sharing of electron pair between the two bonding atoms.
 112

 This type of bond is called a pure covalent bond. For example, bond formation in H2 and CI2.
 When there is difference of electronegativity between two covalently bonded atoms, there will be unequal
attraction for the bond pair of electrons between such atoms. It will result in the formation of polar covalent
bond.
METALLIC BOND
 The metallic bond is defined as a bond formed between metal atoms (positively charged ions) due to mobile or
free electrons.
 The different properties shown by metals such as high melting and boiling points, good conductions of heat and
electricity, hard and heavy nature, suggest existence of different type of chemical bond between atoms of metals.
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
 The forces that hold atoms in a compound are chemical bonds.
 In addition to these strong bonding forces, relatively weak forces also exist in between the molecules, which are
called intermolecular forces.
 It requires about 17 kJ energy to break these intermolecular forces between one mole of liquid hydrogen
chloride molecules to convert it into gas.
 Whereas, about 430 kJ energy's required to break the chemical bond between hydrogen and chlorine atoms in 1
mole of hydrogen chloride.
DIPOLE - DIPOLE INTERACTION
 All intermolecular forces, which are collectively called van der Waals forces, are electrical in nature.
 They result from the attractions of opposite charges which may be temporary or permanent.
 The unequal sharing of electrons between two different types of atoms make one end of molecule slightly
positive and other end slightly negatively charged called dipole – diploeinteration.
HYDROGEN BONDING
 Partially positively charged hydrogen atom of one molecule attracts and forms a bond with the partially negatively
charged atom of the other molecule, the bonding is called hydrogen bonding. This force of attraction is
represented by a dotted line between the molecules.
NATURE OF BONDINGAND PROPERTIES
 Properties of the compounds depend upon the nature of bonding present in them.
 Let us discuss the effects of nature of bonding on the properties of compounds.
IONIC COMPOUNDS
 Ionic compounds are made up of positively and negatively charged ions.
 Thus they consist of ions and not the molecules.
 These positively and negatively charged ions are held together in a solid or crystal form with strong electrostatic
attractive forces.
 The ionic compounds have following properties:
1. Ionic compounds are mostly crystalline solids.
2. Ionic compounds in solid state have negligible electrical conductance but they are good conductors in solution and
in the molten form. It is due to presence of free ions in them.
3. Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points. For example, sodium chloride has melting point 800 °C and
a boiling point 1413 °C. As ionic compounds are made up of positive and negative ions, there exist strong
electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely charged ions. So, a great amount of energy is required to
break these forces.
4. They dissolve easily in polar solvents like water. Water has high dielectric constant that weakens the attraction
between ions.
COVALENT COMPOUNDS
 The covalent compounds are made up of molecules that are formed by mutual sharing of electrons between
their atoms i.e. covalent bonds.
 Covalent compounds are made up of two or more non-metals, e.g. H2, CH4, CO2, H2SO4, C6H12O6.
 Lower molecular mass covalent compounds are gases or low boiling liquids. Contrary to it, higher molecular
mass covalent compounds are solids.
 General properties shown by covalent compound are as follows:
1. They have usually low melting and boiling points.
2. They are usually bad conductors of electricity. The compounds having polar character in their bonding are
conductor of electricity when they dissolve in polar solvents.
3. They are usually insoluble in water but are soluble in non-aqueous solvents like benzene, ether, alcohol and
acetone.
4. Large molecules with three dimensional bonding form covalent crystals which are very stable and hard. They have
very high melting and boiling points.
POLAR AND NON-POLAR COMPOUNDS
 On the Pauling Scale, fluorine has been given an electronegativity value of 4.0.
 113

 Non-polar covalent compounds usually do not dissolve in water while polar covalent compounds usually
dissolve in water.
 Similarly non-polar compounds do not conduct electricity but an aqueous solution of a polar compound usually
conduct electricity due to the formation of ions as a result of its reaction with water.
COORDINATE COVALENT COMPOUNDS
 They do not form ions in water.
 Due to their covalent nature they form solutions in organic solvents and are very less soluble in water.
 Usually they are rigid compounds with a dipole.
METALS
 Metals have common property of conducting heat and electricity.
 It gives them prime role in many industires.
 Major properties shown by the metals are as follows:
1. They show metallic luster.
2. They are usually malleable and ductile. Malleability is the property by virtue of which a metal can be rolled into
sheets, while ductility is the property by virtue of which a metal can be drawn into wires.
3. They have usually high melting and boiling points.
+
4. Being greater in size they have low ionization energies and form cations (M ) very easily.
5. They are good conductors of heat and electricity in solid and liquid state due to mobile electrons.

CHPATER 05
PHYSICAL STATES OF MATTER
INTRODUCTION
 Matter exists in three physical states i.e. gas, liquid and solid.
 The simplest form of matter is the gaseous state.
 Liquids are less common and most of the matter exists as solid.
 Matter in gaseous state does not have definite shape and volume.
 Therefore, gases occupy all the available space.
 Their intermolecular forces are very weak.
 Pressure is a significant property of gases.
 The liquid state has strong intermolecular forces hence it has definite volume but it does not have definite shape.
 Liquids evaporate and their vapours exert pressure.
 When vapour pressure of a liquid becomes equal to external pressure, it boils.
 Liquids are less mobile than gases therefore, they diffuse slowly.
 The solid state has definite volume and shape.
 They are rigid and denser than liquids and gases.
 They exist in amorphous or crystalline forms.
GASEOUS STATE
TYPICALPROPERTIES
 Gases have similar physical properties. A few typical properties are discussed here.
DIFFUSION
 Gases can diffuse very rapidly.
 Diffusion is defined as spontaneous mixing up of molecules by random motion and collisions to form a homogeneous
mixture.
 Rate of diffusion depends upon the molecular mass of the gases.
 Lighter gases diffuse rapidly than heavier ones. For example, H2 diffuses four times faster than O2 gas .
EFFUSION
 It is escaping of gas molecules through a tiny hole into a space with lesser pressure.
 For example, when a tyre gets punctured, air effuses out.
 Effusion depends upon molecular masses, lighter gases effuse faster than heavier gases.
PRESSURE
 Gas molecules are always in continuous state of motion.
 Hence, when molecules strike with the walls of the container or any other surface, they exert pressure.
 Pressure (P) is defined as the force(F) exerted per unit surface area (A). P = F/A
2 -2
 The SI unit of force is Newton and that of area is m . Hence pressure has SI unit of N m . It is also called Pascal (Pa)
-2
 One Pascal (Pa) = 1 Nm
 Barometer is used to measure atmospheric pressure and manometer is used to measure pressure in the
laboratory.
STANDARD ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
 114

 It is the pressure exerted by the atmosphere at the sea level.

 It is defined as the pressure exerted by a mercury column of 760 mm height at sea level.
 (I mm of Hg = one torr)
COMPRESSIBILITY
 Gases are highly compressible due to empty spaces between their molecules.
 When gases are compressed, the molecules come closer to one another and occupy less volume as compared to the
volume in uncompressed state.
MOBILITY
 Gas molecules are always in state of continuous motion. They can move from one place to another because gas
molecules possess very high kinetic energy.
 They move through empty spaces that are available for the molecules to move freely.
 This mobility or random motion results in mixing up of gas molecules to produce a homogeneous mixture.
DENSITY OF GASES
 Gases have low density than liquids and solids.
3
 Gas density is expressed in grams per dm .
3
 Whereas, liquid and solid densities are expressed in grams per cm i.e. liquids and solids are 1000 times denser
than gases.
 The density of gases increases by cooling because their volume decreases.
3 3
 For example, at normal atmospheric pressure, the density of oxygen gas is 1.4 g dm at 20°C and 1.5 g dm at 0°C.
LAWS RELATED TO GASES
BOYLE'S LAW
 In 1662 Robert Boyle studied the relationship between the volume and pressure of a gas at constant temperature.
 He observed that volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure provided the
temperature remains constant.
 According to this law, the volume (V) of a given mass of a gas decreases with increase of pressure (P) and vice
versa.Mathematically, it can be written as:

 Where 'k' is proportionality constant.

 The value of k is same for the same amount of a given gas.
 Therefore, Boyle's law can be stated as the product of pressure and volume of a fixed mass of a gas is constant
at a constant temperature.

 As both equations have same constant therefore, their variables are also equal to each other.

 This equation establishes the relationship between pressure and volume of the gas.
 Robert Boyle (1627-1691) was natural philosopher, chemist, physicist and inventor.
 He is famous for 'Boyle's law of gases'.

ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE SCALE

 Lord Kelvin introduced absolute temperature scale or Kelvin scale.
 This scale of temperature starts from 0 K or 273.15 °C, which is given the name of absolute zero.
 It is the temperature at which an ideal gas would have zero volume.
 As both scales have equal degree range, therefore, when 0 K equal to 273 °C then 273 K is equal to 0 °C
Conversion of Kelvin temperature to Celsius temperature and vice versa can be carried out as follows:

CHARLES'S LAW
 The relationship between volume and temperature keeping the pressure constant was also studied.
 French scientist J. Charles in 1787 presented his law that states "the volume of a given mass of a gas is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature if the pressure is kept constant'.
 115

 When pressure P is constant, the volume V of a given mass of a gas is proportional to absolute temperature T.
Mathematically, it is represented as:

 Where k is proportionality constant.

 If temperature of the gas is increased, its volume also increases.
 When temperature is changed from T1 to T2, the volume changes from V1 to V2.
 The mathematical form of Charles' Law will be:

 As both equations have same value of constant, therefore, their variables are also equal to each other

J. Charles (1746-1823) was a French inventor, scientist, mathematician and balloonist. He described in
1802, how gases tend to expandPHYSICAL STATES OF MATTER AND ROLE OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
 In the gaseous state, the molecules are far apart from each other.
 Therefore, intermolecular forces are very weak in them.
 But in the liquid and solid states intermolecular forces play a very important role on their properties.
 In the liquid state molecules are much closer to each other as compared to gases
 Compounds having stronger intermolecular forces have higher boiling points
 The intermolecular forces become so dominant in solid state that the molecules look motionless.
 They arrange in a regular pattern therefore they are denser than molecules of liquids.
LIQUID STATE
 Liquids have a definite volume but their shape is not definite.
 A liquid attains shape of the container in which it is put.
 A few typical properties of the liquids are discussed here.
TYPICALPROPERTIES
EVAPORATION
 The process of changing of a liquid into a gas phase is called evaporation.
 It is reverse to condensation in which a gas changes into liquid.
 Evaporation is an endothermic process (heat is absorbed).
 The molecules having more than average kinetic energy overcome the attractive forces among the molecules and
escape from the surface. It is called as evaporation.
 The rate of evaporation is directly proportional to temperature.
 It increases with the increase in temperature because of increase in kinetic energy of the molecules.
 Evaporation is a cooling process.
 When the high kinetic energy molecules vapourize, the temperature of remaining
 Evaporation depends upon following factors:
o Surface area
o Temperature
o Intermolecular forces
VAPOUR PRESSURE
 The pressure exerted by the vapours of a liquid at equilibrium with the liquid at a particular temperature is called
vapour pressure of a liquid.
 The equilibrium is a state when rate of vapourization and rate of condensation is equal to each other but in
opposite directions.
 Vapour pressure of a liquid depends upon the following factors.
 Nature of liquid:
 Size of molecules
 Temperature
 Relationship of Vapours Pressure of Water with Temperature
 Relationship of Vapour Pressure of Water with Temperature

 Boiling point is defined as the temperature at which the vapour pressure of a liquid becomes equal to the
atmospheric pressure or any external pressure.
 The boiling point of the liquid depends upon the following factors.
o Nature of liquid:.
 116

o Intermolecular forces:
o External pressure
FREEZING POINT
 When liquids are cooled, the vapour pressure of liquid decreases and a stage reaches when vapour pressure of a
liquid state becomes equal to the vapour pressure of the solid state. At this temperature, liquid and solid coexist in
dynamic equilibrium and this is called the freezing point of a liquid.
 Freezing and Boiling Points of Common Liquids

DIFFUSION
 The diffusion of liquid depends upon the following factors. Intermolecular forces:
 Size of molecules:
 Shapes of molecules:
 Temperature:
DENSITY
 The density of liquid depends upon its mass per unit volume.
 Liquids are denser than gases because molecules of liquid are closely packed and the spaces between their
molecules are negligible.
 As the liquid molecules have strong intermolecular forces hence they cannot expand freely and have a fixed
volume.
 Like gases, they cannot occupy all the available volume of the container that is the reason why densities of
liquids are high.
3 3
 For example: density of water is 1.0 g cm while that of air is 0.001 g cm .
 That is the reason why drops of rain fall downward.
The densities of liquids also vary.
SOLID STATE
 It is third state of matter which has definite shape and volume.
 In solid state, the molecules are very close to one another and they are closely packed. The intermolecular forces
are so strong that particles become almost motionless.
 Hence, they cannot diffuse.
 Solid particles possess only vibrational motion.
TYPICALPROPERTIES
 Solids exhibit typical properties, a few of which are discussed here.
MELTING POINT
 The solid particles possess only vibrational kinetic energy.
 When solids are heated, their vibrational energies increase and particles vibrate at their mean position with a
higher speed.
 If the heat is supplied continuously, a stage reaches at which the particles leave their fixed positions and then
become mobile.
 At this temperature solid melts. The temperature at which the solid starts melting and coexists in dynamic
equilibrium with liquid state is called melting point.
 The ionic and covalent solids make network structure to form macromolecules. So all such solids have very high
melting points.
RIGIDITY
 The particles of solids are not mobile.
 They have fixed positions. Therefore, solids are rigid in their structure.
DENSITY
 Solids are denser than liquids and gases because solid particles are closely packed and do not have empty spaces
between their particles.
 Therefore, they have the highest densities among the three states of matter.
-3 -3 -3
 For example, density of aluminium is 2.70 g cm , iron is 7.86 g cm and gold is 19.3 g cm .
TYPES OF SOLIDS
 According to their general appearance solids can be classified into two types: amorphous solids and crystalline
 117

solids.
AMORPHOUS SOLIDS
 Amorphous means shapeless.
 Solids in which the particles are not regularly arranged or their regular shapes are destroyed, are called
amorphous solids.
 They do not have sharp melting points.
 Plastic, rubber and even glass are amorphous solids as they do not have any sharp melting points.
CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS
 Solids in which particles are arranged in a definite three-dimensional pattern are called crystalline solids.
 They have definite surfaces or faces.
 Each face has definite angle with the other.
 They have sharp melting points.
 Examples of crystalline solids are diamond, sodium chloride, etc.
ALLOTROPY
 The existence of an element in more than one forms in same physical state is called allotropy.
 Allotropy is due to:
1. The existence of two or more kinds of molecules of an element each having different number of atoms
such as allotropes of oxygen are oxygen (O2) and ozone (O3)
2. Different arrangement of two or more atoms or molecules in a crystal of the element. Such as, sulphur
shows allotropy due to different arrangement of molecules (S8) in the crystals.
 They always show different physical properties but have same chemical properties.
 Allotropes of solids have different arrangement of atoms in space at a given temperature.
 The temperature at which one allotrope changes into another is called transition temperature.
 For example, transition temperature of sulphur is 96 °C.
 Below this temperature rhombic form is stable.
 If rhombic form is heated above 96 °C, its molecules rearrange themselves to give monoclinic form.
 Other examples are tin and phosphorus
 White phosphorus is very reactive, poisonous and waxy solid.
 It exists as tetra-atomic molecules.
 While red phosphorous is less reactive, non-poisonous and a brittle powder.

CHAPTER 06
SOLUTIONS
INTRODUCTION
 Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more components.
 Generally, solutions are found in three physical states depending upon the physical state of the solvent, e.g.
alloy is a solid solution; sea water is a liquid solution and air is a gaseous solution.
 There are nine types of solutions ranging from gas-gas e.g. air we breathe to solid-solid solutions e.g. dental
amalgam for filling of tooth.
 Liquid solutions are the most common solutions because of the most common solvent water.
 Therefore, there is a wide variety of liquid solutions ranging from a drop of rain to oceans.
 Sea water is a resource of 92 naturally occurring elements.
SOLUTION
 A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
 For example, the air we breathe is a solution of several gases, brass is a solid solution of Zn and Cu.
 Sugar dissolved in water is an example of liquid solution.
 The simplest way to distinguish between a solution and a pure liquid is evaporation. The liquid which evaporates
completely, leaving no residue, is a pure compound, while a liquid which leaves behind a residue on evaporation
is solution.
 An alloy like brass or bronze is also a homogeneous mixture.
 Although, it cannot be separated by physical means, yet it is considered a mixture as:
1. It shows the properties of its components and
2. It has a variable composition.
AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
 The solution which is formed by dissolving a substance in water is called an aqueous solution.
 In aqueous solutions water is always present in greater amount and termed as solvent. For example, sugar in water
and table salt in water.
 Aqueous solutions are mostly used in the laboratories.
 Water is called a universal solvent because it dissolves majority of compounds present in earth's crust.
 118

SOLUTE
 The component of solution which is present in smaller quantity is called solute.
 A solute is dissolved in a solvent to make a solution.
SOLVENT
 The component of a solution which is present in larger quantity is called solvent. Solvent always dissolves
solutes.
SATURATED SOLUTION
 A solution containing maximum amount of solute at a given temperature is called saturated solution.
 On the particle level, a saturated solution is the one, in which undissolved solute is in equilibrium with dissolved
solute.
UNSATURATED SOLUTION
 A solution which contains lesser amount of solute than that which is required to saturate it at a given temperature,
is called unsaturated solution.
 Such solutions have the capacity to dissolve more solute to become a saturated solution.
SUPERSATURATED SOLUTION
 The solution that is more concentrated than a saturated solution is known as supersaturated solution.
 Super- saturated solutions are not stable.
 Therefore, an easy way to get a supersaturated solution is to prepare a saturated solution at high temperature.
 It is then cooled to a temperature where excess solute crystallizes out and leaves behind a saturated solution.
DILUTION OF SOLUTION
 The solutions are classified as dilute or concentrated on the basis of relative amount of solute present in them.
 Dilute solutions are those which contain relatively small amount of dissolved solute in the solution.
 Concentrated solutions are those which contain relatively large amount of dissolved solute in the solution.
 For example, brine is a concentrated solution of common salt in water.
TYPES OF SOLUTION
 Each solution consists of two components, solute and solvent.
 The solute as well as solvent may exist as gas, liquid or solid.
CONCENTRATION UNITS
 Concentration is the proportion of a solute in a solution.
 It is also a ratio of the amount of solute to the amount of solution or ratio of amount of solute to the amount of the
solvent.
PERCENTAGE
 Percentage unit of concentration refers to the percentage of solute present in a solution. The percentage of
solute can be expressed by mass or by volume.
 It can be expressed in terms of percentage composition by four different ways.
MOLARITY
3
 It is a concentration unit defined as number of moles of solute dissolved in one dm of the solution.
 It is represented by M.
 Molarity is the unit mostly used in chemistry and allied sciences.
 The formula used for the preparation of molar solution is as follows:

SOLUBILITY
 Solubility is defined as the number of grams of the solute dissolved in 100 g of a solvent to prepare a saturated
solution at a particular temperature.
 The concentration of a saturated solution is referred to as solubility of the solute in a given solvent.
SOLUBILITY AND SOLUTE-SOLVENT INTERACTION
 The solute-solvent interaction can be explained in terms of creation of attractive forces between the particles of
solute and those of solvent.
 To dissolve one substance (solute) in another substance (solvent) following three events must occur :
1. Solute particles must separate from each other
2. Solvent particles must separate to provide space for solute particles.
3. Solute and solvent particles must attract and mix up.
 119

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON SOLUBILITY

 Temperature has major effect on the solubility of most of the substances.
 Generally, it seems that solubility increases with the increase of temperature, but it is not always true.
 When a solution is formed by adding a salt in solvent, there are different possibilities with reference to
effect of temperature on solubility.
COMPARISON OF SOLUTION, SUSPENSIONAND COLLOID

SOLUTION
 Solutions are the homogeneous mixtures of two or more than two components.
 Each component is mixed in such a way that their individual identity is not visible.
 The simplest example is that of a drop of ink mixed in water.
 This is an example of true solution.
COLLOID
 These are solutions in which the solute particles are larger than those present in the true solutions but not large
enough to be seen by naked eye.
 The particles in such system dissolve and do not settle down for a long time. But particles of colloids are big
enough to scatter the beam of light. It is called Tyndall effect.
 Examples are starch, albumin, soap solutions, blood, milk, ink, jelly and toothpaste, etc.
SUSPENSION
 Suspensions are a heterogeneous mixture of undissolved particles in a given medium.
 Particles are big enough to be seen with naked eyes.
 Examples are chalk in water(milky suspension), paints and milk of magnesia (suspension of magnesium oxide in
water).
 Comparison of the Characteristics of Solutions, Colloidals and Suspensions

CHAPTER 07
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
INTRODUCTION
 Electrochemistry is the branch of Chemistry that deals with the relationship between electricity and chemical
reactions.
 It involves oxidation and reduction reactions, which are also known as redox reactions.
 Spontaneous reactions are those which take place on their own without any external agent.
 Non-spontaneous reactions are those which take place in the presence of an external agent.
 These reactions take place in galvanic or electrolytic cells.
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OXIDATIONAND REDUCTION REACTIONS

 One concept of oxidation and reduction is based upon either addition or removal of oxygen or addition or removal
of hydrogen in a chemical reaction.
 Oxidation is defined as addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen during a chemical reaction.
 Reduction is defined as addition of hydrogen or removal of oxygen during a chemical reaction.
 Both of these processes take place simultaneously in a reaction, we can say where there is oxidation there is
reduction.
 A chemical reaction in which oxidation and reduction processes are involved is called oxidation- reduction reaction
or redox reaction.
OXIDATION AND REDUCTION IN TERMS OF LOSS OR GAIN OF ELECTRON
 To deal with these reactions, new concept 'loss or gain of electrons' is used.
 Therefore, reactions which involve 'loss or gain of electrons' are also called oxidation and reduction reactions.
 According to this concept:
 Oxidation is loss of electrons by an atom or an ion.
 Reduction is gain of electrons by an atom or ion.

OXIDATION STATE AND RULES FOR ASSIGNING OXIDATION STATE

 Oxidation state or oxidation number (O.N.) is the apparent charge assigned to an atom of an element in a
molecule or in an ion.
 For example: in HC1, oxidation number of H is + 1 and that of CI is 1.
Rules for assigning oxidation numbers (O.N.)
 The oxidation number of all elements in the Free State is zero.
 The oxidation number of an ion consisting of a single element is the same as the charge on the ion.
 The oxidation number of different elements in the periodic table is: in Group 1 it is +1, in Group 2 it is +2 and in
Group 13 it is +3.
 The oxidation number of hydrogen in all its compounds is +1. But in metal hydrides it is -1.
 The oxidation number of oxygen in all its compounds is -2. But it is -1 in peroxides and +2 in OF2.
 In any substance, the more electronegative atom has the negative oxidation number.
 In neutral molecules, the algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers of all the elements is zero.
 In ions, the algebraic sum of oxidation number equals the charge on the ion.
OXIDIZING AND REDUCING AGENTS
 An oxidizing agent is the specie that oxidise a substance by taking electrons from it. The substance (atom or ion)
which is reduced itself by gaining electrons is also called oxidizing agent.
 Non-metals are oxidizing agents because they accept electrons being more electronegative elements.
 Reducing agent is the specie that reduces a substance by donating electron to it.
 The substance (atom or ion) which is oxidized by losing electrons is also called reducing agent.
 Almost all metals are good reducing agents because they have the tendency to lose electrons. An outline of
oxidation and reduction processes is given below.
OXIDATION - REDUCTION REACTIONS
 Chemical reactions in which the oxidation state of one or more substances changes are called oxidation-
reduction or redox reactions.
 Following are the examples of redox reactions.
 Each reaction system consists of oxidizing and reducing agents.
 Let us discuss a reaction of zinc metal with hydrochloric acid:
(aq) (aq)

 The oxidation states or oxidation numbers of all the atoms or ions in this reaction are indicated below:

 Let us find out the atoms that are oxidized or reduced or whether there is a change in their oxidation state, it is
indicated as follows:
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 Similarly, in the case of formation of water from hydrogen and oxygen gases, redox reaction takes place as
follows:

 The oxidation states or oxidation numbers of all the atoms or ions in this reaction

 Let us find out the atoms that are oxidized or reduced in this reaction; with the help of figure below:

 ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS
 Electrochemical cell is a system in which two electrodes are dipped in the solution of an electrolyte which are
connected to the battery.
 Electrochemical cell is an energy storage device in which either a chemical reaction takes place by using electric
current (electrolysis) or chemical reaction produces electric current(electric conductance).
 Electrochemical cells are of two types.
i. Electrolytic cells ii. Galvanic cells
CONCEPT OF ELECTROLYTES
 The substances, which can conduct electricity in their aqueous solutions or molten states, are called electrolytes.
 For example, solutions of salts, acids or bases are good electrolytes.
 The electricity cannot pass through solid NaCl but in aqueous solution and in molten state, it does conduct.
 Electrolytes are classified into two groups depending upon their extent of ionization in solution.
STRONG ELECTROLYTES
 The electrolytes which ionize almost completely in their aqueous solutions and produce more ions, are called
strong electrolytes.
 Example of strong electrolytes are aqueous solutions of NaCl, NaOH and H2SO4, etc.

WEAK ELECTROLYTES
 The electrolytes which ionize to a small extent when dissolved in water and could not produce more ions are called
weak electrolytes.
 Acetic acid (CH3COOH) and Ca(OH)2 when dissolved in water, ionize to a small extent and are good examples of
weak electrolytes. Weak electrolytes do not ionize completely. For example, ionization of acetic acid in water
produces less ions:

 As a result the weak electrolyte is a poor conductor of electricity.

NON-ELECTROLYTES
 The substances, which do not ionize in their aqueous solutions and do not allow the current to pass through their
solutions, are called non-electrolytes.
 For example, sugar solution and benzene are non-electrolytes.
ELECTROLYTIC CELLS
 The type of electrochemical cell in which a non-spontaneous chemical reaction takes place when electric current is
passed through the solution, is called an electrolytic cell.
 The process that takes place in an electrolytic cell is called electrolysis.
 It is defined as the chemical decomposition of a compound into its components by passing current through the
solution of the compound or in the molten state of the compound. Examples of these cells are Downs cell,
Nelson's cell.
GALVANIC CELL
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 The electrochemical cell in which a spontaneous chemical reaction takes place and generates electric current is
called galvanic or voltaic cell.
 Example of this type of cell is a Daniel cell.
 Volta (1745-1827) was an Italian physicist known especially for the development of the first electric cell in 1800.
ELECTROCHEMICALINDUSTRIES
Manufacture of Sodium Metal from Fused NaCl
 On the industrial scale, molten sodium metal is obtained by the electrolysis of fused NaCl in the Downs cell.
 This electrolytic cell is a circular furnace.
 In the center there is a large block of graphite, which acts as an anode while cathode around it is made of iron.
Manufacture of NaOH from Brine
 On industrial scale caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) NaOH, is produced in Nelson's cell by the electrolysis of
aqueous solution of NaCl called brine.
CORROSION AND ITS PREVENTION
 Corrosion is slow and continuous eating away of a metal by the surrounding medium.
 It is a redox chemical reaction that takes place by the action of air and moisture with the metals.
 The most common example of corrosion is rusting of iron.
RUSTING OF IRON
 Corrosion is a general term but corrosion of iron is called rusting.
 The important condition for rusting is moist air (air having water vapours in it).
 There will be no rusting in water vapours free of air or air free of water.
PREVENTION OF CORROSION
REMOVAL OF STAINS
 The regions of stains in an iron rod act as the site for corrosion.
 If the surface of iron is properly cleaned and stains are removed, it would prevent rusting.
PAINTS AND GREASING
 Greasing or painting of the surface can prevent the rusting of iron.
ALLOYING
 Alloy is a homogeneous mixture of one metal with one or more other metals or non-metals.
 Alloying of iron with other metals has proved to be very successful technique against rusting.
 The best example of alloying is the 'stainless steel', which is a good combination of iron, chromium and nickel.
METALLIC COATING
 The best method for protection against the corrosion of metals exposed to acidic conditions is coating the metal
with other metal.
 Corrosion resistant metals like Zn, Sn and Cr are coated on the surface of iron to protect it from corrosion.
PHYSICAL METHODS (GALVANIZING AND TIN COATING)
ZINC COATING OR GALVANIZING
 The process of coating a thin layer of zinc on iron is called galvanizing.
 This process is carried out by dipping a clean iron sheet in a zinc chloride bath and then heating it.
TIN COATING
 It involves the dipping of the clean sheet of iron in a bath of molten tin and then passing it through hot rollers.
ELECTROLYTIC METHOD (ELECTROPLATING)
 Electroplating is depositing of one metal over the other by means of electrolysis.
 This process is used to protect metals against corrosion and to improve their appearance.

CHAPTER 08
CHEMICAL REACTIVITY
INTRODUCTION
 The property of substance to undergo chemical reaction with any material is called chemical
reactivity.
 Reactivity of metals depends upon its tendency to lose electron and that of non metals depends upon
its tendency to accept electron.
 Matter which undergoes chemical reactivity may be element, compound or mixture.
METAL
 The element which readily loses electron and easily form cation is termed as metal.
 All B group elements a r e m e t a l s a n d k n o w n as Transition Metals.
 Some elements of A group are also metals.
 Elements of group IA are called Alkali metals.
 Elements of group IIA are called Alkaline earth metals.
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 Beryllium (Be) is a light strong and highly toxic metal. Its small grain of 0.25 mg may kill a rat.
 Most abundant metal is aluminum (Al). Most useable metal is iron (Fe).
 Most reactive metal is cesium (Cs).
 The lightest metal is lithium (Li).
 The heaviest metal is osmium (Os).
 Most malleable, ductile metals are gold(Au) and silver (Ag).
ELECTROPOSITIVE CHARACTER (CATION FORMATION)
 Metals are highly electro positive, due to this property they easily lose their valance shell electrons.
When an atom or a molecule loses electron then it changes into positively charged ion known as
Cation.
 Electro positive character of metals increases down the group with increasing atomic size. Alkali metals
have large atomic size and low ionization potential values.
 The valence shell electronic configuration of alkali metals is ns1• Alkali metals lose one electron and form
monovalent cation.
 Example Lt, Na+, Rb+, Cs+
 The valence shell electronic configuration of alkaline earth metals is ns2•
 Alkali and Alkaline earth metals can be identified by the flame test.
IONIZATION ENERGY OF ALKALI AND ALKALINE EARTH METAL
 The removal of electron from an element requires energy which is known as Ionization Energy. Atom
+ Energy---+ Cation + e-
 Ionization energies values decreases with increasing atomic size and vice versa.

 The Alkali metals and Alkaline earth metals show increasing trend of reactivity down the group
because their atomic size increases down the group.
 Since Alkali metals have low Ionization Energy values than Alkaline earth metals, Alkali metals are highly
reactive than Alkaline earth metals.
 Alkali Metals and Alkaline earth metals have low values of Ionization Energies due to which they easily
lose their valence electron and form Cation. Thus they are highly reactive.
SOME COMMON METALS AND NON-METALS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

 Important physical characteristics of metals are listed below:

i. Almost all metals are solids (except mercury)
ii. They have high melting and boiling points, (except alkali metals)
iii. They possess metallic luster and can be polished.
iv. They are malleable (can be hammered into sheets), ductile (can be drawn into wires) and give off a tone
when hit.
v. They are good conductor of heat and electricity.
vi. They have high densities.
vii. They are hard (except sodium and potassium).
Important chemical properties of metals are:
i. They easily lose electrons and form positive ions.
ii. They readily react with oxygen to form basic oxides.
iii. They usually form ionic compounds with non-metals.
iv. They have metallic bonding.
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ATOMIC NUMBER, ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS AND IONIZATION ENERGIES (KJ/MOL) OF ALKALI AND ALKALINE
EARTH METALS

 Low ionization energies of alkali metals make them more reactive than alkaline earth metals.
COMPARISON OF REACTIVITIES OF ALKALI AND ALKALINE EARTH METALS
 A comparison of physicals properties of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals
 Comparison of Physical Properties of Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals
 The elements in first two groups of the periodic table Group 1 and Group 2 are called
 ‘Alkali’ and ‘Alkaline earth’ metals, respectively.

186, 102 160, 72

839

1
 Alkali metals are extremely reactive elements because of their ns valence shell electronic configuration.
 As there is only one electron in their valence shell, it can be easily given out.
 It is the reason that they are always found in nature as cations with +1 oxidation state.
 Therefore, they readily form salts with non-metals.
 The alkaline earth metals atoms are smaller and have more nuclear charge.
2
 They have two electrons in their valence shells i.e. ns .
 They are also reactive but less than alkali metals.
USES OF SODIUM
 Sodium-potassium alloy is used as a coolant in nuclear reactors.
 It is used to produce yellow light in sodium vapour lamps.
 It is used as a reducing agent in the extraction of metals like Ti.
USES OF MAGNESIUM
 Magnesium is used in flash light bulbs and in fireworks. It is used in the manufacture of light alloys.
 Magnesium ribbon is used in Thermite process to ignite aluminium powder
 Magnesium is used as anode for prevention of corrosion.
USES OF CALCIUM
 It is used to remove Sulphur from petroleum products.
 It is used as reducing agent to produce Cr, U and Zr.
INERTNESS OF NOBLE METALS
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 The elements in which d-orbital are in the process of filling, constitute a group of metals called transition metals or
d-group elements.
 They exhibit a variety of oxidation states.
 There are three series of transition elements; each series consisting of ten elements.

The Transition Elements in the Periodic Table.

 Chemical behavior of the first transition series is similar to active metals except copper. Three transition metals
belonging to group 11 are copper, silver and gold.
 Out of them gold and silver are relatively inactive metals because they do not lose electrons easily.
SILVER:
 Silver is white lustrous metal.
 It is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity.
 It is also highly ductile and malleable metal.
 Its polished surfaces are good reflectors of light.
 Formation of thin layer of oxide or sulphide on its surface makes it relatively unreactive.
 Under normal conditions of atmosphere, air does not affect silver.
 It tarnishes in presence of sulphur containing compounds like H2S.
 Alloys of silver with copper are widely used in making coins, silver-ware and ornaments.
 Compounds of silver are widely used in photographic films and dental preparations.
 Silver also has important applications in mirror industry.
GOLD:
 Gold is a yellow soft metal.
 It is most malleable and ductile of all the metals.
 One gram of gold can be drawn into a wire of one and a half kilometre long.
 Gold is very non- reactive or inert metal.
 It is not affected by atmosphere.
 It is not even affected by any single mineral acid or base.
 Because of its inertness in atmosphere, it is an ornamental metal as well as used in making coins.
 Gold is too soft to be used as such.
 It is always alloyed with copper, silver or some other metal.
PLATINUM
 Platinum is used to make jewelry items because of its unique characteristics like colour, beauty, strength, flexibility
and resistance to tarnish.
 It provides a secure setting for diamonds and other gemstones, enhancing their brilliance.
 An alloy of platinum, palladium and rhodium is used as catalyst in automobiles as catalytic converter.
 It converts most of the toxic gases (CO, NO2) being emitted by vehicles into less harmful carbon dioxide, nitrogen
and water vapor.
 Platinum is used in the production of hard disk drive coatings and fibre optic cables. Platinum is used in the
manufacturing of fibre glass reinforced plastic and glass for liquid crystal displays (LCD).
NON METALS
 Non-metals form negative ions (anions) by gaining electrons.
 In this way, non-metals are electronegative in nature and form acidic oxides.
 The valency of some non-metals depend upon the number of electrons accepted by them. For example, valency
of chlorine atom is 1, as it accepts only 1 electron in its outermost shell.

 Similarly, oxygen atom can accept 2 electrons, therefore, its valency is 2.

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 The non-metallic character depends upon the electron affinity and electronegativity of the atom.
 Small sized elements having high nuclear charge are electronegative in nature.
 They have high electron affinity.
 Therefore, they possess non- metallic character.
 Hence, non-metallic character decreases in a group downward and increases in a period from left to right up to
halogens.
 Fluorine is the most non-metallic element.
 The non-metals are, therefore, elements in Group-14(Carbon), Group-15 (nitrogen and phosphorus), Group-16
(oxygen, Sulphur and selenium) and in Group-17 halogens (fluorine, chorine, bromine and iodine) of the
periodic table.
IMPORTANT PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF NON-METALS ARE AS FOLLOWS:
 Physical properties of non-metals change gradually but uniquely in a group of non-metals. Non- metals usually
exist in all three physical states of matter.
 The non-metals at the top of the group are usually gases while others are either liquids or solids.
 Solids non-metals are brittle (break easily).
 Non-metals are bad conductors of heat and electricity (except graphite).
 They are not shiny, they are dull except iodine (it is lustrous like metals).They are generally soft (except
diamond).
 They have low melting and boiling points (except silicon, graphite and diamond).
 They have low densities.
IMPORTANT CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF NON-METALS ARE AS FOLLOWS:
 Their valence shells are deficient of electrons, therefore, they readily accept electrons to complete their
valence shells and become stable.
 They form ionic compounds with metals and covalent compounds by reacting with other non-metals e.g. CO2,
NO2, etc.
 Non-metals usually do not react with water.
 They do not react with dilute acids because non-metals are itself electron acceptors.
REACTIVITY OF THE HALOGENS
 Elements of Group-17 of the periodic table consist of fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and astatine. They are
collectively called halogens.

CHEMISTRY CLASS 10
CHAPTER 01
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
INTRODUCTION
 A complete reaction is one in which all reactants have been converted into products.
 Most chemical reactions do not go to completion because products react themselves to form the
reactants.
 Quantities of reactants and products remain unchanged and it seems that the reaction has stopped.
 In fact, these reactions do not stop; rather they take place on both directions at equal rate and attain
the equilibrium state. Such reactions are called reversible reactions.
 Many examples of physical and chemical equilibrium are found in nature.
 Many environmental systems depend for their existence on delicate equilibrium phenomenon.
 For example, concentration of gases in lake water is governed by the principles of equilibrium
REVERSIBLE REACTION AND DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
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 In a chemical reaction, the substances that combine are called reactants and the new substances formed
are called products.
 For example, when H2 and O2 (reactants) combine they form H2O (product).

 Most of the reactions, in which the products do not recombine to form reactants, are called irreversible
reactions.
 They are supposed to complete and are represented by putting a single arrow between the reactants and
products.
 On the other hand, reactions in which the products can recombine to form reactants are called reversible
reactions. These reactions never go to completion.
 They are represented by a double arrow between reactants and products.
 These reactions proceed in both ways, i.e., they consist of two reactions; forward and reverse. So, a
reversible reaction is one which can be made to proceed in either direction depending upon the
conditions.
 A reaction between hydrogen and iodine:
 Because one of the reactants, iodine is purple, while the product hydrogen iodide is colorless,
proceedings of the reaction are easily observable. On heating, hydrogen and iodine. vapours in a closed
flask, hydrogen iodide is formed. As a result, purple colour of iodine fades as it reacts to form colourless
hydrogen iodide.

 This reaction is called as forward reaction.

 On the other hand, when only hydrogen iodide is heated in a closed flask, purple color appears because of
formation of iodine vapours. Such as

 In this case, hydrogen iodide acts as reactant and produces hydrogen and iodine vapours.
 This reaction is reverse of the above. Therefore, it is called as reverse reaction.
 When both of these reactions are written together as a reversible reaction, they are represented as:

WHEN CALCIUM OXIDE AND CARBON DIOXIDE REACT, THEY PRODUCE CALCIUM CARBONATE:

 On the other hand, when CaCO3 is heated in an open flask, it decomposes to form calcium oxide and carbon
dioxide. CO2 escapes out and reaction goes to completion:

 In these two reactions, decomposition is reverse to combination or vice versa.

 When calcium carbonate is heated in a closed flask, so that CO2 can’t escape out.
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 Initially only decomposition take place on (forward reaction), but after a while CO2 starts combining with
CaO to form CaCO3 (reverse reaction).
 In the beginning, forward reaction is fast and reverse reaction is slow.
 But eventually, the reverse reaction speeds up and both reactions go on at the same rate.
 At this stage, decomposition and combination take place at the same rate but in opposite directions, as a
result amounts of CaCO3 , CaO and CO2 do not change. It is written as:

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM STATE

 Thus, when the rate of the forward reaction is the same as the rate of reverse reaction, the composition
of the reaction mixture remains constant, it is called a chemical equilibrium state. At equilibrium state
there are two possibilities.
1. When reaction ceases to proceed, it is called static equilibrium. This happens mostly in physical
phenomenon. For example, a building remains standing rather than falling down because all the forces
acting on it are balanced. This is an example of static equilibrium.
2. When reaction does not stop, only the rates of forward and reverse reactions become equal to each
other but take place in opposite directions. This is called dynamic equilibrium state. Dynamic means
reaction is still continuing.
AT DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM STATE

 Rate of forward reaction = Rate of reverse reaction

 In a reversible reaction, dynamic equilibrium is established before the completion of reaction. At initial
stage, the rate of forward reaction is very fast and reverse reaction is taking place at a negligible rate.
 But gradually forward reaction slows down and reverse reaction speeds up.
 Eventually, both reactions attain the same rate, it is called a dynamic equilibrium state.
 MACROSCOPIC CHARACTERISTICS OF FORWARD AND REVERSE
 Forward Reaction
 It is a reaction in which reactants react to form products.
REVERSE REACTION
 It is a reaction in which products react to produce reactants.
 It takes place from right to left.
 In the beginning, the rate of reverse reaction is negligible.
 It speeds up gradually.
MACROSCOPIC CHARECTERISTICS OF DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
 A few important characteristic features of dynamic equilibrium are given below:
1. An equilibrium is achievable only in a closed system (in which substances can neither leave nor
enter).
2. At equilibrium state, a reaction does not stop. Forward and reverse reactions keep on taking
place at the same rate but in opposite direction.
3. At equilibrium state, the amount (concentration) of reactants and products do not change. Even
physical properties like colour, density, etc. remain the same.
4. An equilibrium state is attainable from either way, i.e. starting from reactants or from
products.
5. An equilibrium state can be disturbed and again achieved under the given
conditions of concentration, pressure and temperature.
LAW OF MASS ACTION
 Guldberg and Waage in 1869 put forward this law.
 According to this law “The rate at which a substance reacts is directly proportional to its active mass and
the rate of a reaction is directly proportional to the product of the active masses of the reacting
substances”.
 Generally, an active mass is considered as the molar concentration having units of mol dm-3, expressed as
square brackets [ ].
 For example, consider a reversible reaction of the type

 Suppose [A], [B], [C] and [D] are the molar concentrations (mol dm-3) of A, B, C and D respectively.
 According to the Law of Mass Action:
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 The rate of the forward reaction [ A ] [ B ] = kf [ A ] [ B ]

Similarly,
 The rate of the reverse reaction [ C ] [ D ] = kr [ C ] [ D ]
 Where kf and kr are the proportionality constant called specific rate constants of the forward
and the reverse reactions, respectively.
AT EQUILIBRIUM STATE:
 The rate of forward reaction = The rate of reverse reaction

 Kc is called equilibrium constant. It is represented as:

LAW OF MASS ACTION:

 Law of Mass Action describes the relationship between active masses of the reactants and the rate of
a reaction.
DERIVAITION OF THE EXPRESSION FOR EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT FOR GENERAL REACTION
 Let us apply the law of Mass Action for a general reaction.

 This reaction consists of two reactions; forward and reverse reactions.

 According to this law, the rate of a chemical reaction is directly proportional to the product of the
molar concentrations of its reactants raised to power equal to their number of moles in the balanced
chemical equation of the reaction.
 Let us first discuss the forward reaction.
 A and B are the reactants whereas ‘a’ and ‘b’ are their number of moles.
 The rate of forward reaction according to law of Mass Action is:

 Where kf is the rate constant for the forward reaction.

 Similarly, the rate of the reverse reaction Rr, is directly proportional to the product of [C]c [D]d , where
‘c’ and ‘d’ are the number of moles as given in the; of [C]c [D]d, where ‘c’ balanced chemical
equation. Thus,

 where, is called equilibrium constant.

 This expression is for chemical equilibrium constant.

 All the reversible reactions can be expressed in this form. Such as:
1. When nitrogen reacts with oxygen to form nitrogen monoxide, the reversible reaction is as follows
The rate of forward reaction Rf = Kf [N2] [O2]

The rate of reverse reaction Rr = Kr [NO]2

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 The equilibrium constant expression for this reaction is:

2. For the reaction of nitrogen with hydrogen to form ammonia, the balanced chemical equation is

For the reaction

The rate of forward reaction Rf = Kf [N2] [H2]3
The rate of reverse reaction Rr = Kr [NH3]2

 The expression for the equilibrium constant for this reaction is:

EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT AND ITS UNITS

 Equilibrium constant is a ratio of the product of concentration of products raised to the power of
coefficient to the product of concentration of reactants raised to the power of coefficient as expressed in the
balanced chemical equation.

 It is conventional to write the products as numerator and reactants as denominator.

 By knowing, the balanced chemical equation for a reversible reaction we can write the equilibrium
expression.
 Thus, we can calculate the numerical value of by putting actual equilibrium concentrations of
the reactants and products into equilibrium expression.
 The value of Kc depends only on temperature, it does not depend on the initial concentrations of the
reactants and the products.
 Kc has no units in reactions with equal number of moles on both sides of the equation.
 This is because concentration units cancel out in the expression for Kc, e.g., for the reaction:

 For reactions in which the number of moles of reactants and product are not equal in the balanced
chemical equation, K of course, have units, e.g., for the reaction

IMPORTANCE OF EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT

 Knowing the numerical value of equilibrium constant of a chemical reaction, direction as well as
extent of the reaction can be predicted.
PREDICTING DIRECTION OF A REACTION
 Direction of a reaction at a particular moment can be predicted by inserting the
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concentration of the reactants and products at that particular moment in the equilibrium
expression.
 Consider the gaseous reaction of hydrogen with iodine.

 We withdraw the samples from the reaction mixture and determine the concentrations of H 2(g)
, I2(g) and HI(g) . Suppose concentrations of the components of the mixture are:

 The subscript ‘t’ with the concentration symbols means that the concentrations are
measured at some time t, not necessarily at equilibrium.
 When we put these concentrations into the equilibrium constant expression, we obtain a value
called the reaction quotient Q .
c
 The reaction quotient for this reaction is calculated as:

 As the numerical value of Qc (8.0) is less than Kc (57.0), the reaction is not at equilibrium. It
requires more concentration of product. Therefore, reaction will move in the forward direction.
 The reaction quotient Qc is useful because it predicts the direction of the reaction by comparing
the value of Qc with Kc .
 Thus, we can make the following generalization about the direction of the reaction.
 If Qc < Kc ; the reaction goes from left to right, i.e., in forward direction to attain equilibrium.
 If Qc > Kc ; the reaction goes from right to left, i.e., in reverse direction to attain equilibrium.
 If Qc = Kc ; forward and reverse reactions take place at equal rates i.e., equilibrium has been
attained.
PREDICTING EXTENT OF A REACTION

 Numerical value of the equilibrium constant predicts the extent of a reaction.

 It indicates to which extent reactants are converted to products.
 In fact, it measures how far a reaction proceeds before establishing equilibrium state.
 In general, there are three possibilities of predicting extent of reactions as explained below.
Large numerical value of Kc:
 The large value of Kc indicates that at equilibrium position the reaction mixture consists
of almost all products and reactants are negligible.
 The reaction has almost gone to completion.
 For example, oxidation of carbon monoxide goes to completion at 1000 K.

Small numerical value of Kc:

 When the Kc value of reaction is small, it indicates that the equilibrium has established with a very
small conversion of reactants to products.
 At equilibrium position, almost all reactants are present but amount of products is negligible.
Such type of reactions never go to completion.
 For example;

Numerical value of Kc is neither small nor large:

 Such reactions have comparable amounts of reactants and products at equilibrium position. For
example:

 It indicates that the rates of decomposition of N 2O4 and combination of NO2 to form N2O4
are almost comparable to each other.
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 Use of atmospheric gases in the manufacture of chemicals.

 The two major components of atmosphere are nitrogen and oxygen gases. Both of these gases constitute
99% of the atmosphere.
 These gases are being used to manufacture chemicals since the advent of 20th century.
 Nitrogen is used to prepare ammonia, which is further used to manufacture nitrogenous
fertilizers.
 Oxygen is used to prepare sulphur dioxide which is further used to manufacture king of chemicals
sulphuric acid.

CHAPTER 02
ACID, BASE AND SALT
INTRODUCTION
 Acids, bases and salts are three distinct classes in which almost all the organic and inorganic compounds are
classified.
 A famous Muslim Chemist Jabir Bin Hayan prepared nitric acid (HNO3 ), hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sulphuric
acid (H2SO4 ).
 In 1787, Lavoisier named binary compounds of oxygen such as CO2 and SO2 as acids which on dissolution in water
gave acidic solutions.
 Later on in 1815, Sir Humphrey Davy discovered that there are certain acids which are without oxygen, e.g.,
 HCl. Davy proved the presence of hydrogen as the main constituent of all acids.
 It was also discovered that all water soluble metallic oxides turn red litmus blue, which is a characteristics of
bases.
 The word acid is derived from the Latin word ‘Acidus’ meaning sour.
 The first acid known to man was acetic acid, i.e., in the form of vinegar.
 A little concentration of hydrochloric acid in our stomach, which helps to break down the food.
 The alkali neutralizes the acid, producing a harmless chemical called a salt.
CONCEPTS OF ACIDS AND BASES
 Acids and bases are recognized by their characteristic properties, such as:
ACID
 Acids have sour taste. For example, unripe citrus fruits or lemon juice.
 They turn blue litmus red.
 They are corrosive in concentrated form.
 Their aqueous solutions conduct electric current
BASES
 Bases have bitter taste and feel slippery, for example, soap is slippery to touch.
 They turn red litmus blue.
 They are non-corrosive except concentrated forms of NaOH and KOH.
 Their aqueous solutions conduct electric current.
ARRHENIUS CONCEPT OF ACIDS AND BASES
 According to Arrhenius concept (1787):
 Acid is a substance which dissociates in aqueous solution to give hydrogen ions.
 In general, the ionization of acids take place as follows.

 For example, substances such as HC1, HNO3 , CH3 COOH, HCN, etc., are acids because they ionize in aqueous solutions to
provide H+ ions.

 On the other hand, base is a substance which dissociates in aqueous solution to give hydroxide ions
 The general ionization of bases take place as follows;
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 The substances such as NaOH, KOH, NH4 OH, Ca(OH)2 etc. are bases because these compounds ionize in aqueous solutions
to provide OH ions

 Thus, according to Arrhenius Concept:

Acids give H+ ions in water, bases give OH ions in water.

ACIDS AND BASES

ACIDS
 Hydrochloric acid, HCI
 Nitric acid, HNO3
 Sulphuric acid, H2SO4
 Phosphoric acid, H3PO4
BASES
 Sodium hydroxide, NaOH
 Potassium hydroxide, KOH
 Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2
 Aluminum hydroxide, Al(OH)3
LIMITATIONS OF ARRHENIUS CONCEPT
 This concept is applicable only in aqueous medium and does not explain nature of acids and bases in non-
aqueous medium.
 According to this concept, acids and bases are only those compounds which contain hydrogen (H +) and
hydroxide (OH) ions, respectively. It can’t explain the nature of compounds like CO2, NH3, etc. which are acid
and base, respectively.
 Although this concept has limited scope yet, it led to the development of more general theories of acid-base
behavior.
BRONSTED-LOWRV CONCEPT
 In 1923, the Danish chemist Bronsted and the English chemist Lowry independently presented their
theories of acids and bases on the basis of proton-transfer.
 According to this concept:
 Anacidisasubstance(moleculeorion)thatcandonateaproton(H+)toanothersubstance.
 A base is a substance that can accept a proton (H+)from another substance. For
example,
HCl acts as an acid while NH 3 acts as a base:

 It is a reversible reaction. In the forward reaction, HCl is an acid as it donates a proton, whereas H O is a
base as it accepts a proton.
 In the reverse reaction, Cl- ion is a base as it accepts a proton from acid H O+ ion.
 CI ion is called a conjugate base of acid HCl and H O+ion is called a conjugate acid of base H2O.
 It means every acid produces a conjugate base and every base produces a conjugate acid such that there is
conjugate acid-base pair.
 Conjugate means joined together as a pair.
 A conjugate acid is a specie formed by accepting a proton by a base.
 A conjugate base is a specie formed by donating a proton by an acid.
 Thus, conjugate acid-base pair differs from one another only by a single proton.
 Similarly
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 According to Bronsted-Lowry concept, an acid and a base always work together to transfer a proton.
 That means, a substance can act as an acid (proton donor) only when another substance simultaneously
behaves as a base (proton acceptor).
 For example, H2O acts as a base when it reacts with HCl as stated above and as an acid when it reacts with
ammonia such as:

 Such a substance that can behave as an acid, as well as, a base is called amphoteric.
 All Arrhenius acids are Bronsted-Lowry acids, but except OH other Bronsted-Lowry bases are not
Arrhenius bases
CONJUGATE ACID-BASE PAIRS OF COMMON SPECIES
Acid Base Conjugate acid Conjugate base

HNO3(aq) + H2O(I) NO3 (aq)

H3O+(aq) +

H2SO4(aq) + H2O(I) HSO4 (aq)

H3O+(aq) +

HCN(aq) + H2O(I) CN (aq)

H3O+(aq) +

CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(I)
H3O+(aq) + CH3COO (aq)

H2O(I) + NH3(aq) NH4+(aq) + OH (aq)

H2O(I) + CO 2- HCO3 (aq) + OH (aq)

3
(aq)
HCI(I) + HCO3 (aq) H2CO3(aq) + CI(aq)

LEWIS CONCEPT OF ACIDS AND BASES

 The Arrhenius and Bronsted-Lowry concepts of acids and bases are limited to substances which contain protons.
 G.N. Lewis (1923) proposed a more general and broader concept of acids and bases. According to this concept:
 An acid is a substance (molecule or ion) which can accept a pair of electrons, while a base is a substance
(molecule or ion) which can donate a pair of electrons.
 For example, a reaction between ammonia and boron trifluoride takes place by forming a coordinate covalent bond
between ammonia and boron trifluoride by donating an electron pair of ammonia and accepting that electron pair
by boron trifluoride.

 The cations (proton itself or metal ions) act as Lewis acids.

 For example, a reaction between +H+ and NH3 , where H acts as an acid and ammonia as a base.

 The product of any Lewis acid-base reaction is a single specie, called an adduct.
 So, a neutralization reaction according to Lewis concept is donation and acceptance of an electron pair to form a
coordinate covalent bond in an adduct.
 Acids are electron pair acceptors while bases are electron pair donors. Thus, it is evident that any substance which
has an unshared pair of electrons can act as a Lewis base while a substance which has an empty orbital that can
accommodate a pair of electrons acts as Lewis acid.
Examples of Lewis acids and bases are given below:
LEWIS ACIDS
According to Lewis concept, the following species can act as Lewis acids:
 Molecules in which the central atom has incomplete octet. For example, in BF3 , AICI3 , FeCl3 , the central
atoms have only six electrons around them, therefore, these can accept an
 Simple cations can act as Lewis acids. All cations act as Lewis acids since they are deficient in electrons. However,
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cations such as Na+, K+, Ca2+ ions, etc., have a very little tendency to accept electrons. While the cations like H+,
Ag+ ions, etc., have a greater electron accepting tendency therefore, act as Lewis acids.
LEWIS BASES.
According to Lewis concept, the following species can act as Lewis bases:
 Neutral species having at least one lone pair of electrons. For example, ammonia, amines, alcohols etc.
act as Lewis bases because they contain a lone pair of electrons:

 Negatively charged species or anions. For example, chloride, cyanide, hydroxide ions, etc., act as Lewis bases:

SUMMARY OF THE CONCEPTS.

Concept Acid Base Product
Arrhenius Bronsted- give H+ donate gives OH accepts salt + H2O conjugate
Lowry Lewis
H+ electron pair H+ electron pair acid base pair
donor adduct
acceptor
 It may be noted that all Bronsted bases are also Lewis bases but all Bronsted acids are not Lewis acids.
 According to Bronsted concept, a base is a substance which can accept a proton, while according to Lewis
concept, a base is a substance which can donate a pair of electrons. Lewis bases generally contain one or
more lone pair of electrons and therefore, they can also accept a proton (Bronsted base). Thus, all Lewis
bases are also Bronsted bases. On the other hand, Bronsted acids are those which can give a proton.
For example, HCI, H2 SO4 are not capable of accepting a pair of electrons. Hence, all Bronsted acids are not
Lewis

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ACIDS

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
REACTION WITH METALS

 Acids react explosively with metals like sodium, potassium and calcium. However, dilute acids (HCl, H 2SO4) react
moderately with reactive metals like: Mg, Zn, Fe and Al to form their respective salts with the evolution of hydrogen
gas.

REACTION WITH CARBONATES AND BICARBONATES

 Acids react with carbonates and bicarbonates to form corresponding salts with the evolution of carbon dioxide gas.
(aq)

REACTION WITH BASES

 Acids react with bases (oxides and hydroxides of metal and ammonium hydroxide) to form salts and water. This
process is called neutralization.

REACTION WITH SULPHITES AND BISULPHITES

 Acids react with sulphites and bisulphites to form salts with the liberation of Sulphur dioxide gas.
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REACTION WITH SULPHIDES

 Acids react with metal sulphides to liberate hydrogen sulphide gas.

Following acids are called mineral acids.

 Hydrochloric acid (HCI)
 Sulphuric acid (H2SO4 )
 Nitric acid (HNO3)

USES OF ACIDS
 Sulphuric acid is used to manufacture fertilizers, ammonium sulphate, calcium superphosphate, explosives,
paints, dyes, drugs. It is also used as an electrolyte in lead storage batteries.
 Nitric acid is used in manufacturing of fertilizer (ammonium nitrate), explosives, paints, drugs and etching designs on copper
plates.
 Hydrochloric acid is used for cleaning metals, tanning and in printing industries.
 Benzoic acid is used for food preservation.
 Acetic acid is used for flavouring food and food preservation. It is also used to cure the sting of wasps.

NATURALLY OCCURRING ACIDS

Acid Source
i Citric acid Citrus fruits i.e., lemon, oranges
ii Lactic acid sour milk
iii Formic acid Stings of bees and ants
iv Butyric acid Rancid butter
v Tartaric acid Tamarind, grapes, apples
vi Malic acid Apples
vii Uric acid Urine
viii Stearic acid Fats

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF BASES

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
REACTION WITH ACIDS

 Bases react with acid to form salt and water. It is a neutralization reaction.

REACTION WITH AMMONIUM SALTS

 Alkalis react with ammonium salts to liberate ammonia gas:

PRECIPITATION OF HYDROXIDES

 Alkalis precipitate insoluble hydroxides when added to solutions of salts of heavy metals such as copper, iron, zinc,
lead and calcium.
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USES OF BASES
 Sodium hydroxide is used for manufacturing of soap.
 Calcium hydroxide is used for manufacturing of bleaching powder, softening of hard water and neutralizing acidic soil
and lakes due to acid rain.
 Potassium hydroxide is used in alkaline batteries.
 Magnesium hydroxide is used as a base to neutralize acidity in the stomach. It is also used for the treatment of bee’s
stings.
 Aluminum hydroxide is used as foaming agent in fire extinguishers.
 Ammonium hydroxide is used to remove grease stains from clothes.
pH SCALE
 Concentration of hydrogen ion [H+] in pure water is the basis for the pH scale.
 Water is a weak electrolyte because it ionizes very slightly into ions in a process called auto- ionization or
self-ionization;

 A solution of a compound of pH 7 or pOH 7 is considered a neutral solution.

 Solutions of pH less than 7 are acidic and more than 7 are basic .

[H3O+] pH [OH-] pOH

1x10-14 14.0 1x10-0 0.0
1x10-13 13.0 1x10-1 1.0
1x10-12 12.0 1x10-2 2.0
More Basic

BASIC 1x10-11 11.0 1x10-3 3.0

1x10-10 10.0 1x10-4 4.0
1x10-9 9.0 1x10-5 5.0
1x10-8 8.0 1x10-6 6.0
NATURAL 1x10-7 7.0 1x10-7 7.0
1x10-6 6.0 1x10-8 8.0
re acidic
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1x10-5 5.0 1x10-9 9.0

1x10-4 4.0 1x10-10 10.0
ACIDIC 1x10-3 3.0 1x10-11 11.0
1x10-2 2.0 1x10-12 12.0
1x10-1 1.0 1x10-13 13.0
1x10-0 0.0 1x10-14 14.0

 Since the pH scale is logarithmic, a solution of pH 1 has 10 times higher concentration of [H+] than that of a
solution of pH 2; 100 times than that of a solution of pH 3 and so on.
 Hence, low pH value means strong acid while high pH value means a strong base and vice versa.
CONCLUSION
 pH of a neutral solution is always 7.
 Acidic solutions have pH less than 7.
 Basic solutions have pH value greater than 7.
 pH and pOH values range from 0 to 14.
USES OF PH
 It is used to determine acidic or basic nature of a solution.
 It is used to produce medicines, culture at a microbiological particular concentration of H+ ion.
 It is used to prepare solutions of required concentrations necessary for certain biological reactions.
INDICATORS
 Indicators are the organic compounds.
 They have different colors in acidic and alkaline solutions.
 Litmus is a common indicator.
 It is red in acidic solutions and blue in alkaline solutions.
 Each indicator has a specific color in acidic medium which changes at a specific pH to another color in basic
medium.
 For example, phenolphthalein is colorless in strongly acidic solution and red in strongly alkaline solution. It
changes color at a pH of about 9.
 This means phenolphthalein is colorless in a solution with pH less than 9.
 If the pH is above 9, phenolphthalein is red.
MEASURING PH OF A SOLUTION
UNIVERSAL INDICATOR

 Some indicators are used as mixtures.

 The mixture indicator gives different colours at different pH values.
 Hence, it is used to measure the pH of a solution.
 Such a mixed indicator is called Universal Indicator or simply pH indicator.
 The pH of solution can be measured by dipping a piece of Universal Indicator paper in the solution.
 The pH is then found by comparing the colour obtained with a colour.
THE pH METER
 The pH of a solution can be measured with a pH meter.
 It consists of a pH electrode connected to a meter.
 The electrode is dipped into the solution and the meter shows the pH either on a scale or digitally.
 It is much more reliable and accurate method of measuring pH than Universal Indicator paper, though the latter
is often more convenient.
SALTS
 Salts are ionic compounds generally formed by the neutralization of an acid with a base.
 Salts are made up of positive ions (cations) and negative ions (anions).
 A cation is metallic ion derived from a base, therefore, it is called basic radical.
 While anion is derived from an acid, therefore, it is called acid radical.
 A salt gets its name from the names of the metal and the acid.
ACIDS AND THEIR SALTS
Metal Acid Salt name
Sodium (Na) Hydrochloric acid (HCl) Sodium chloride (NaCl)
Potassium (K) Nitric acid (HNO3) Potassium nitrate (KNO3)
 139

Zinic (Zn) Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) Zinc sulphate (ZnSO4)

Calcium (Ca) Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) Calcium phosphate Ca3 (PO4)2

Silver (Ag) Acetic acid (CH3COOH) Silver acetate (CH3COOAg)

CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES OF SALTS

 Salts are ionic compounds found in crystalline form.
 They have high melting and boiling points.
 Most of the salts contain water of crystallization which is responsible for the shape of the crystals. Number of
molecules of water are specific for each salt and they are written with the chemical formula of a salt.For example,
Copper sulphate CuSO4 .5H2O; Calcium sulphate CaSO4.2H2O
 Salts are neutral compounds. Although, they do not have equal number of positive and negative ions, but have
equal number of positive and negative charges.
PREPARATION
 Salts may be water soluble or insoluble.
 The methods used for the preparation of salts are based on their solubility in
water.
GENERAL METHODS FOR THE PREPARATION OF SALTS
 There are five general methods for the preparation of salts.
 Four methods make soluble salts but one prepares insoluble salts.
PREPARATION OF SOLUBLE SALTS
 Solublesaltsareoftenpreparedinwater.
 Therefore, theyarerecovered byevaporationorcrystallization.
PREPARATION OF INSOLUBLE SALTS
 In this method, usually solutions of soluble salts are mixed.
 During the reaction exchange of ionic radicals (i.e., metallic radicals exchange with acidic radicals) takes place to produce two
new salts.
 One of the salts is insoluble and the other is soluble.
 The insoluble salt precipitates (solidify in solution).
TYPES OF SALTS
 Following are the main classes of salts.
(i) Normal salts (ii) Acidic salts
(iii) Basic salt (iv) Double salts
(v) Mixed salts (vi) Complex salts
NORMAL OR NEUTRAL SALTS
 A salt formed by the total replacement of ionizable H+ ions of an acid by a positive metal ion or
NH+4 ions is called normal or neutral salt. These salts are neutral to litmus, that is,

ACIDIC SALTS
 These salts are formed by partial replacement of a replaceable H+ ions of an acid by a positive metal
ion.

 These salts turn blue litmus red.

 Acidic salts react with bases to form normal salts.
 140

BASIC SALTS
 Basic salts are formed by the incomplete neutralization of a polyhydroxy base by an acid.

 These salts further react with acids to form normal salts.

DOUBLE SALTS
 Double salts are formed by two normal salts when they are crystallized from a mixture of
equimolar saturated solutions.
 The individual salt components retain their properties.
 The anions and cations give their respective tests.
 Mohr’s salt FeSO4 (NH4 )2 SO4 6H2 O; Potash alum K2SO4 . Al2(SO4)3 . 24H2O; Ferric alum K2SO4 .
Fe2(SO4)3 . 24H2O, are examples of double salts.
MIXED SALTS
 Mixed salts contain more than one basic or acid radicals. Bleaching powder Ca(OCl) CI, is an example of
mixed salts.
COMPLEX SALTS
 Complex salts on dissociation provides a simple cation and a complex anion or vice versa. Only the simple
ions yields the characteristics test for cation or anion. For example:
 Potassium ferrocyanide K4 [Fe(CN)6) gives on ionization, a simple cation K+ and complex anion [Fe (CN)6] 4.
USES OF SALTS
Sodium chloride (NaCI):
 It is commonly used as a table salt and for cooking purposes, it is also used for de-icing roads in winter and for the
manufacture of sodium metal, caustic soda, washing soda.
Sodium carbonate Na2CO3, 10H2O) Washing soda:
 It is used as cleaning agent for domestic and commercial purposes, for softening of water, in manufacture of chemicals
like caustic soda (NaOH), borax, glass, soap and paper.
Sodium sulphate Na2SO4
 It is used for the manufacture of glass, paper and detergents.
Sodium silicate (Na2SiO3)
 It is used for the manufacture of detergents, cleaning agents and adhesives.
Sodium chlorate (NaCIO3)
 It is used for manufacture of explosives, plastics and other chemicals.
Sodium tetraborate (Na2B4O7. 10H2O)
 It is used for manufacture of heat resistance glass (pyrex), glazes and enamels, in leather industry for soaking and cleaning
hides.
Calcium chloride (CaCI2)
 It is used for de-icing roads in winter, as a drying agent of chemical reagents and as freezing agent.
Calcium oxide (CaO) Quick lime
 It is used as drying agent for gases and alcohol and in steel making, water treatment and other chemicals like slaked lime,
bleaching powder, calcium carbide. For purification of sugar, a mixture of CaO and NaOH called soda lime is used to remove
carbon dioxide and water vapours from air.
Calcium sulphate (CaSO4. 2H2O)
 Gypsum is used as fertilizer, to prepare plaster of Paris which is used for making statues, casts, etc.
Potassium Nitrate (KNO3)
 It is used as fertilizer and for the manufacture of flint glass.
NEUTRALIZATION REACTION
 A reaction between an acid and a base is called a neutralization reaction.
 It produces a salt and water.
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ACID RAIN
 Acid rain is formed by dissolving acidic air pollutants like oxides of Sulphur and nitrogen by rain water. As a
result pH of the rain water decreases, i.e., it becomes acidic.
 When this acid rain falls down, it damages animals, plants, buildings, water bodies and even soil.

CHAPTER 03
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
INTRODUCTION
 The simplest class of organic compounds is hydrocarbons (compounds consisting of only carbon and hydrogen
elements).
 Hydrocarbons are divided into four general classes, depending upon the nature of bonds present in their
molecules.
 These are alkanes, alkenes, alkynes and aromatics.
 Each carbon atom of a hydrocarbon has four bonds.
 Hydrocarbons are further classified as saturated and unsaturated.
 The members of these classes have different chemical properties because of different nature of bonds
present in them.
 They are almost nonpolar and insoluble in water.
 They dissolve readily in non-polar solvents.
 They are gases or volatile liquids and their volatility decreases with the increase of molecular mass.
 That is the reason low molecular mass hydrocarbons are gases at room temperature, such as: CH4 and
C2H6.
 Moderate molecular mass hydrocarbons are liquids, such as, C6H14;
 While higher molecular m a s s hydrocarbons are solids.
 Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons.
 They are not only major sources of energy but also are raw materials used to make thousands of consumer
products.
 Hydrocarbons are the starting materials for the synthesis of organic chemicals of commercial importance.
 These chemicals are essential for making plastics, synthetic rubbers, synthetic fibres and fertilizers, etc.
HYDROCARBONS

 Hydrocarbons are those compounds which are made up of only carbon and hydrogen elements. Hydrocarbons
are regarded as the parent organic compounds since other organic compounds are considered to be derived from
them by the replacement of one or more hydrogen atoms by other atoms or group of atoms.
TYPES OF HYDROCARBONS
 On the basis of structure, hydrocarbons are divided into two main classes:
OPEN CHAIN OR ALIPHATIC HYDROCARBONS:
 These are the compounds in which the first and the last carbon are not directly joined to each other.
 The open chains of carbon may be straight or branched.
 For example

TYPES OF OPEN CHAIN HYDROCARBONS

 Open chain hydrocarbons have been further subdivided into saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons.
SATURATED HYDROCARBONS
 The hydrocarbon in which all the four valencies of carbon atoms are fully satisfied (saturated) by single bonds with
other carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms are called saturated hydrocarbons.
 Saturated hydrocarbons are also called alkanes.
 Thus, an alkane is a hydrocarbon in which the carbon atoms are connected by only single covalent bond
(there are no double or triple covalent bonds in alkanes).
 Methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10) are all saturated hydrocarbons because they
contain only carbon-carbon single bonds.
 142

 The hydrocarbons in which two carbon atoms are linked by a triple bond are called alkynes.
 For example, ethyne and propyne.

 They have general formula CnH2n-2 and functional group

CLOSED CHAIN OR CYCLIC HYDROCARBONS:
 Compounds having rings of carbon atoms in their molecules are called closed chain or cyclic hydrocarbons, e.g.
benzene (C6H6), cyclobutane and cyclohexane.

 The general formula of saturated hydrocarbons is CnH2n+2 , where n is the number of carbon atoms in one
molecule of the alkane.
UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS:

 The hydrocarbons in which two carbon atoms are linked by a double or a triple bond are called unsaturated
hydrocarbons.
 The compounds in which two carbon atoms are linked by a double bond are called alkenes. For example, ethene and
propene.

 These compounds have general formula CnH2n and functional group >C= C<.
CLOSED CHAIN OR CYCLIC HYDROCARBONS:
 Compounds having rings of carbon atoms in their molecules are called closed chain or cyclic hydrocarbons, e.g.
benzene (C6H6), cyclobutane and cyclohexane.

ALKANES
 The simplest hydrocarbons are alkanes.
 In these compounds, all the bonds of carbon atoms are single that means valencies of carbon atoms are
saturated.
 Therefore, they are least reactive.
 That is the reason, alkanes are called paraffins (para means less, and affins means affinity or reactivity).
 Alkanes form a homologous series of compounds in which each successive member of the
 series differs by a CH2 group but they have similar structures and similar chemical properties.
 The first member of the series is methane (CH4), next ethane (C2H6), then next propane (C3H8) and so on.
SOURCES OF ALKANES
 The main sources of alkanes are petroleum and natural gas.
 Methane forms about 85% of natural gas.
 All the alkanes are obtained commercially by the fractional distillation of crude petroleum.
 Marsh gas is formed by the bacterial decay of vegetable matter contains mostly methane.
 Fuel gases obtained from coal gas contain alkanes in small amounts.
 Methane occurs in gobar gas, sewage gas and biogas which are formed by the decomposition of cattle dung, excreta and
plant wastes.
PREPARATION OF ALKANES
HYDROGENATION OF ALKENES AND ALKYNES
 Hydrogenation means addition of molecular hydrogen in alkenes and alkynes.
 143

Reduction of Alkyl Halides

 Reduction means addition of nascent hydrogen.
 In fact, it is a replacement of a halogen atom with a hydrogen atom.
 This reaction takes place in the presence of Zn metal and HCl.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKANES
 Alkanes form a homologous series of compounds. First four members of the series are gases. The alkanes
consisting of C5 to C10 are liquids while higher members of the series are solids.They are nonpolar, therefore, they
are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.
 The density of alkanes increases gradually with the increase of molecular size.
 The melting and boiling points of alkanes increase regularly with the increase of molecular sizes. This is
because of increase of attractive forces between the molecules of alkanes.
 The alkanes become more viscous as their molecular sizes increase.
 Alkanes become less flammable, i.e. more difficult to burn with the increase of molecular sizes.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
 Alkanes are least reactive compounds being saturated hydrocarbons.
 However, they give reactions at high temperatures.
HALOGENATION
 Alkanes give only substitution reactions.
 A reaction in which one or more hydrogen atoms of a saturated compound are replaced with some other
atoms (like halogen) is called a substitution reaction.
 These reactions are a characteristic property of alkanes.
 Alkanes react fairly with halogens in diffused sunlight only.
 In dark there is no reaction.
 In direct sunlight, reaction is explosive and carbon is deposited.
 In diffused sunlight, a series of reactions take place and at each step one hydrogen atom is substituted by
halogen atoms, so that all the hydrogen atoms are substituted one by one by halogen atoms.

COMBUSTION
 Alkanes burn in the presence of excess of air or oxygen to produce a lot of heat, carbon dioxide and water.
 This reaction takes place in automobile combustion engines, domestic heaters and cooking appliances. It is highly
exothermic reaction and because of it alkanes are used as fuel.

USES OF METHANE AND ETHANE

 Natural gas that is chiefly methane is used as domestic fuel.
 Compressed natural gas (CNG) is used as automobile fuel.
 These gases are used in the manufacture of chemicals such as carbon black, methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol,
chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, formaldehyde and acetaldehyde.
 These chemicals are used in daily life, such as carbon black is used in the manufacture of shoe polishes,
printers ink and as a filler in rubber industry. Chloroform is used as a solvent for rubber, waxes, etc., and for
anesthesia.
 Carbon tetrachloride is used as an industrial solvent and in dry cleaning.
ALKENES
 The simplest alkene is ethene having formula C2H4.
 These compounds are also known as olefins (a Latin word meaning oil forming) because first members form oily
 144

products when react with halogens.

 Molecular, Condensed, Structural and Electronic Formulae of Alkenes

OCCURRENCE
 Alkenes being more reactive than alkanes, seldom occur free in nature.
 Lower alkenes occur in coal gas in minute quantities.
 Ethylene is present in natural gas sometimes to the extent of 20%.
 Alkenes are produced in large amounts by cracking of petroleum.
PREPARATION OF ALKENES
 Alkenes are prepared by the removal of small atoms (H,OH,X) from the adjacent carbon atoms of the saturated
compounds, so as to create a double bond between carbon atoms.
DEHYDRATION OF ALCOHOLS
 Dehydration is removal of water.
 Ethene is prepared by heating a mixture of ethanol and excess of concentrated sulphuric acid at 180°C.
 In first step, ethyl hydrogen sulphate is formed which decomposes on heating to produce ethene, which is collected
over water.

DEHYDROHALOGENATION OF ALKYL HALIDES

 On heating, ethyl bromide with alcoholic KOH, ethene is formed.
 Removal of hydrogen and halogen takes place from adjacent carbon atoms to create a double bond.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKENES

 The first member of the alkenes is ethene. It is a colourless gas with pleasant odour.
 Alkenes are nonpolar, therefore, they are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.
 The first member of the series ethene is slightly less dense than air.
 Alkenes are flammable hydrocarbons.
 On complete combustion, they form carbon dioxide and water with release of energy.
 However, their flame is smokier than alkanes having a similar number of carbon atoms.
 Their melting and boiling points gradually increase with the increase of molecular sizes of the compounds in the
series.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
 Alkenes are reactive compounds because the electrons of the double bond are easily available for reaction.
 These compounds have the tendency to react readily by adding other atoms, to become saturated
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compounds.
 As a result, the double bond is converted into a single bond that is more stable.
 Thus, addition reactions are characteristic property of unsaturated compounds.
 These are the reactions in which the products are formed by the addition of some reagents like H2,Cl2, etc., to
an unsaturated organic compound.
 In the process, one of the bonds of a double bond gets broken and two new single bonds are formed.
HYDROGENATION OF ALKENES
 Hydrogenation means addition of molecular hydrogen to an unsaturated hydrocarbon in the presence of a catalyst
(Ni, Pt) to form saturated compound.

 On industrial scale, this reaction is used to convert vegetable oil into margarine (Banaspati ghee).

HALOGENATION OF ALKENES
 Halogenation means addition of halogen like chlorine or bromine.
 Bromination of alkenes is very important reaction.
 When bromine water (a solution of bromine in water having red-brown colour) is added to ethene in an inert
solvent like carbon tetrachloride, its colour is discharged at once.

 In the reaction, double bond of ethene is converted into a single bond by the addition of a molecule of
bromine. This reaction is used to identify the unsaturation of an organic compound.
HYDROHALOGENATION OF ALKENES
 Dry gaseous hydrogen halides (HI, HBr and HC1) react with alkenes to produce alkyl halides.

 The order of reactivity of hydrogen halides is HI > HBr > HCl

OXIDATION OF ALKENES WITH KMNO4
 Alkenes decolorize the pink color of acidified dilute solution of potassium permanganate because the double bond
electrons react with MnO - ion, which further goes on to form MnO4 and ethene glycol (1,2-ethanediol). Such as, there is
addition of 2 two ‘hydroxyl groups’ at the double bond.

 This reaction is also used to test the unsaturation in an organic compound.

USES OF ETHENE (ETHYLENE)
Ethene is used:
 For artificial ripening of fruits;
 as a general anaesthetic;
 For manufacture of polythene: Polythene is a plastic material used in packaging, toys, bags, etc;
 As a starting material for the manufacture of a large number of compounds such as ethylene oxide, ethyl alcohol,
ethylene glycol, diethyl ether, etc.; ethylene oxide is used as a fumigant, ethylene glycol is used as an anti-freeze,
diethyl ether and ethyl alcohol are used as solvents and
 For making poisonous mustard gas which is used in chemical warfare.
ALKYNES
 The simplest alkyne is acetylene, with molecular formula C2H2.
 Alkynes are also called acetylenes because of the name of the first member of the series is acetylene.
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 Molecular, Condensed, Structural and Electronic Formulae of Alkynes

OCCURRENCE
 Acetylene does not occur free in nature.
 Traces of acetylene are present in coal gas (about 0.06%).
PREPARATION OF ALKYNES
 Alkynes are prepared by the following methods.
DEHYDROHALOGENATION OF VICINAL DIHALIDES
 When a vicinal dihalide is heated with alcoholic KOH, two hydrogen atoms along with two halogen atoms are
removed from two adjacent carbon atoms with the formation of a triple bond between the adjacent
carbons:

DEHALOGENATION OF TETRAHALIDES
 When alkyl tetrahalides are heated with Zinc dust, the elimination of halogen atoms takes place to form ethyne.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
 Alkynes also form a series of compounds. Its first member is acetylene. It is a colorless gas with faint garlic odour.
 Acetylene is slightly soluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such a benzene, alcohol, acetone, ether, etc.
 Acetylene is slightly lighter than air.
 Alkynes are also flammable. They produce smokier flames than those of alkanes and alkenes.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
 Alkynes are reactive compounds because of presence of a triple bond.
 A triple bond consists of two weak bonds and a strong bond.
 When alkynes react with other substances, two weak bonds are readily broken one by one and addition takes place
easily.
 The addition reactions of alkynes resemble those of alkenes.
ADDITION OF HALOGEN
 Chlorine and bromine adds to acetylene to form tetrachloroethane and tetrabromoethane, respectively.
 When bromine water is added to acetylene, red-brown color of bromine water is discharged rapidly due to
formation of colorless tetrabromoethane.

 This reaction is used to identify the unsaturation of alkynes.

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OXIDATION WITH KMnO4 .

 Ethyne is oxidized by alkaline KMnO4. And four hydroxyl groups add to the triple bond, such as:

 This intermediate product eliminates water molecules to for glyoxal, which is further oxidized to form oxalic acid.

USES OF ACETYLENE
 Acetylene produces oxy-acetylene flame with oxygen. It is a highly exothermic reaction. Heat released is used for
welding purposes.
 Acetylene is used to prepare other chemicals, such as alcohols, acetaldehyde and acids.
 It is used for the ripening of fruits.
 Itisusedforthemanufacturingof polymerproductslikepolyvinyl chloride,polyvinyl acetate and synthetic
rubber like neoprene.
 It is polymerized to form benzene, which is used as raw material to form a variety of organic
compounds.
CHAPTER 04
BIOCHEMISTRY
INTRODUCTION
 First time word “biochemistry” was used by a German chemist Carl Neuberg in 1903.
 It deals with the naturally occurring macromolecules such as carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids
and vitamins.
 These macromolecules are synthesized by living organisms from simple molecules present in the
environment.
 Macromolecules are essential for us as they are reservoirs of energy. For example, carbohydrates we eat,
provide us energy.
 Lipids are major source of energy. They are stored in the body to provide emergency energy supplies. They help
us to work during tough times.
 Proteins not only provide us energy, they help us to stay strong by forming new bones and muscular tissues.
 Moreover, proteins protect us against the diseases.
 Nucleic acids are responsible for transmitting genetic information from generation to generation.
CARBOHYDRATES
 Carbohydrates are macromolecules.
 They have general formula Cn(H2O)n.
Carbohydrates are synthesized by plants through photosynthesis process.
Carbohydratesareclassified as:
1. Monosaccharides 2. Oligosaccharides 3. Polysaccharides
MONOSACCHARIDES
 Monosaccharides are the simplest sugars which cannot be hydrolyzed.
 They consist of 3 to 9 carbon atoms.
 Therefore, they are classified according to the number of carbon atoms in their molecules as trioses, tetroses,
pentoses, hexoses, and so on.
 The important monosaccharides are hexoses like glucose and fructose, etc.
 Glucose is a pentahydroxy aldehyde while fructose is pentahydroxy ketone having the open chain structures and
general formula C6H12O6

 Monosaccharides are white crystalline solids.

 They are soluble in water and have sweet taste.
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 They cannot be hydrolyzed.

 They are reducing in nature, therefore, these are called reducing sugars.
OLIGOSACCHARIDES
 Oligosaccharides give 2 to 9 units of monosaccharides on hydrolysis.
 Therefore, they are classified as disaccharides, trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides, etc.
 The most important oligosaccharides are disaccharides like sucrose.
 On hydrolysis, sucrose produces one unit of glucose and one unit of fructose.

 These carbohydrates are white, crystalline solids easily soluble in water.

 They are also sweet in taste.
 They may be reducing or non-reducing.
POLYSACCHARIDES
 Polysaccharides a r e macromolecular carbohydrates consisting of hundreds to
thousands of monosaccharides.
 Examples of polysaccharides are starch and cellulose.
 They are amorphous solids.
 They are tasteless and insoluble in water.
 They are non-reducing in nature.
SOURCES AND USES OF CARBOHYDRATES
 Carbohydrates range from simple to complex ones.
 Sources of simple sugars e.g. glucose, fructose and galactose are fruits, vegetables, honey and cereals.
 Disaccharides are sucrose, lactose and maltose. Sucrose is found in sugar beet, sugar cane and fruits.
 Lactose consisting of glucose and galactose is the main sugar in milk and dairy products. Maltose, a disaccharide of two
glucose molecules is found in cereals.
 Polysaccharides are starch and cellulose.
 Starch is found in cereal crops; wheat, barley, maize, rice, etc. Cotton is pure cellulose.
 Our body uses carbohydrates in the form of glucose.
 Glucose is the only form of carbohydrates that is used directly by muscles for energy.
 It is important to note that brain needs glucose as an energy source, because it cannot use fat for this purpose.
 Besides, the energy providing materials, carbohydrates also provide the following usage to
 Our body.
 They regulate the amount of sugar level in our body. Low sugar level in body results in hypoglycemia.
 They provide essential nutrients for bacteria in intestinal tract that helps in digestion.
 Dietary fibre helps to keep the bowel functioning properly.
 Fibre helps in lowering of cholesterol level and regulates blood pressure.
 Carbohydrates protect our muscles from cramping.
 Carbohydrates as source of energy:
 Carbohydrates provide 17 kilojoules of energy per gram.
 We take carbohydrates as food.
 Long chains of starch (carbohydrates) are broken down into simple sugars (glucose) by digestive enzymes.
 The glucose is absorbed directly by small intestine into the blood stream.
 Blood stream transports the glucose to its place of use, e.g., muscles.
THE USE OF DEXTROSE IN DRIPS:
 Dextrose is crystallized glucose (natural sugar found in starchy foods).
 It provides simple carbohydrates to the body that can be easily broken down and processed.
 Dextrose solution is available in several concentrations. For example, five percent dextrose solution (D5W) consists of 5
grams of dextrose in each 100 ml of solution.
 It is used to provide fluid replacement and energy to the body.
PROTEIN
 Proteins are highly complicated nitrogenous compounds made up of amino acids.
 Proteins consist of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur.
 They are polymers of amino acids.
 Amino acids are linked with each other through peptide linkage.
 Protein has more than 10,000 amino acids.
 All proteins yield amino acids upon hydrolysis.
 Proteins are present in all living organisms.
 They make up bulk of the non-bony structure of the animal bodies.
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 They are major component of all cells and tissues of animals.

 About 50% of the dry weight of cell is made up of proteins.
 They are found in muscles, skin, hair, nails, wool, feathers, etc.
AMINO ACIDS
 Amino acids are organic compounds consisting of both amino and carboxyl groups.
 They have the general formula:
 Side chain ‘R’ is different for different amino acids.

 There are 20 amino acids.

 Ten out of twenty amino acids can be synthesized by human body. These amino acids are called non- essential
amino acids.
 While the other ten which cannot be synthesized by our bodies are called essential amino acids.
 Essential amino acids are required by our bodies and must be supplied through diet.
AMINO ACIDS ARE BUILDING BLOCKS OF PROTEINS:
 Two amino acids link through peptide linkage.
 Peptide linkage (bond) is formed by the elimination of water molecule between the amino group of one amino acid
and carboxyl acid group of another.
 When thousands of amino acids polymerize they form protein.

SOURCES AND USES OF PROTEINS:

 Proteins make up more than 50% of the dry weight of animals.
 Sources and uses of protein are as follows:
 Sourcesof animal’s proteins are meat, mutton, chicken, fish, and eggs.
 These are used as food by human beings as they are essential for the formation of protoplasm.
 Enzymes are proteins that are produced by the living cells. They catalyze the chemical reactions
taking place in the bodies. They are highly specific and have extraordinary efficiency. Many enzymes are
used as drugs. They control the bleeding and treat blood cancer.
 Hides are proteins. These are used to make leather by tanning. Leather is used to make shoes, jackets, sports items, etc.
 Proteins are found in bones. When bones are heated they give gelatin. Gelatin is used to make bakery
items.
 Plants also synthesize proteins, such as pulses, beans, etc. These are used as food.
LIPIDS
 Lipids are macromolecules made up of fatty acids.
 Lipids include oils and fats.
 Oils and fats are esters of long chain carboxylic (fatty) acids with glycerol.
 These esters are made of three fatty acids, therefore, they are called triglycerides.
 General formula of triglycerides is as under.
 Oils exist in liquid form at room temperature.
 They are triglycerides of unsaturated fatty acids.
 While fats exist in solid form at room temperature.
 They are triglycerides of saturated fatty acids.
FATTY ACIDS
 Fatty acids are building blocks of lipids.
 They are long chain saturated or unsaturated carboxylic acids. Examples are:

 These acids form esters (oils or fats) with glycerol in the presence of mineral acids.

SOURCES AND USES OF LIPIDS

 Fats and oils are high energy foods.
 They are source of vitamins A, D and E.
 They are used to build brain cells, nerve cells and cell membranes.
 They are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.
 The fats stored in the body insulate it as they are poor conductor of heat and electricity.
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 Fats and oils are synthesized naturally by animals, plants and marine organisms.
 Animal fats are found in adipose tissue cells. Animals secrete milk from which butter and ghee is obtained. Butter and
ghee are used for cooking and frying of food, for preparing bakery products and sweets.
 Animal fats are used in soap industry.
 Plants synthesize oils and store them in seeds, such as sunflower oil, coconut oil, groundnut oil and corn oil.
These oils are used as vegetable oils or ghee for cooking and other purposes.
 Marine animals like salmon and whales are also source of oils. These oils are used as medicines, e.g. cod liver oil.
NUCLEIC ACIDS
 Nucleic acids are essential components of every living cell.
 They are generally long chain molecules made up of nucleotides.
 Each nucleotide consists of three components; nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar and a phosphate
group.
 There are two types of nucleic acids:
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA)
 DNA consists of deoxyribose sugar.
 Its structure was discovered by J. Watson and F. Crick in 1953.
 It is long double stranded molecule consisting of two chains.
 Each chain is made up of sugar, phosphate and a base.
 The sugar and phosphate groups make the backbone of the chains and two chains are linked through bases.
 The chains are wrapped around each other in a double helix form.
 DNA is the permanent storage place for genetic information in the nucleus of a cell.
 It carries and stores all genetic informations of the cell.
 It passes these informations as instructions from generation to generation how to synthesize particular
proteins from amino acids.
 These instructions are ‘genetic code of life’.
 They determine whether an organism is a man or a tree or a donkey and whether a cell is a nerve cell or a muscle
cell.
 The sequence of nitrogenous bases in DNA determines the protein development in new cells.
 The function of the double helix formation of DNA is to ensure that no disorder takes place.
 DNA carries genes that controls the synthesis of RNA.
 Errors introduced into the genes synthesize faulty RNA.
 It synthesizes faulty proteins that do not function the way they are supposed to.
 This disorder causes genetic diseases.
RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA)
 It consists of ribose sugar.
 It is a single stranded molecule.
 It is responsible for putting the genetic information to work in the cell to build proteins.
 Its role is like a messenger.
 RNA is synthesized by DNA to transmit the genetic information.
 RNA receives, reads, decodes and uses the given information to synthesize new proteins.
 Thus RNA is responsible for directing the synthesis of new proteins.
VITAMINS
 In 1912 Hopkins noticed that in addition to carbohydrates, proteins and fats there are other substances needed for
normal growth.
 Although these substances were needed in small quantity, yet these substances were called Accessory Growth
Factors.
 Later Funk proposed the name Vitamin for these substances.
 He discovered Vitamin B1 (Thiamin).
TYPES OF VITAMINS
 Vitamins are divided into two types:
FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS
 The vitamins which dissolve in fats are called fat soluble vitamins.
 These are vitamin A, D, E and K.
 If these vitamins are taken in large quantity, they accumulate in the body and cause diseases. For example,
accumulation of vitamin D in the body causes bone-pain and bone- like deposits in the kidney.
 However, their deficiency also causes diseases. Sources, uses and diseases because of deficiency
WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS
 The vitamins that dissolve in water are called water soluble vitamins.
 These vitamins are B complex (this include 10 vitamins) and vitamin C (ascorbic acid). Water soluble vitamins are
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rapidly excreted from the body.

 Hence, these vitamins are not toxic even if taken in large quantity.
 However, their deficiency causes disease.

COMMERCIAL USE OF ENZYMES

 Enzymes are used on commercial scale for different purposes. Common types of
enzymes and their role in industry is described as:
 Enzymes present in the yeast are commercially used for the fermentation of molasses and starch to
produce alcohol (Ethanol). These enzymes are diastase, invertase and zymase.
 Microbial enzymes are used in detergents (powder or liquid). Lipases decompose fats into more water soluble
compounds. Amylase removes starch based stains. Cellulase degrades cellulose to glucose, a water
soluble compound. Bacterial proteases break down protein stains on the clothes. Thus, enzymes
containing detergents clean effectively and remove all stains and dirt.
 Enzymes are used for the purification of fruit juices. They are added to fruit that has been crushed
like grapes. This increases the yield of the juice extracted by removing suspended particles. It also
improves the color derived from the fruit skins.
 Amylase enzymes are used in bread making because they can yield more starch of the flour. Even they
are efficient enough to convert starch to sweet glucose syrup. This can be used as sweetner in the
food as well as bread making.
 Lactase enzyme is used to increase sweetness in ice cream. As lactose in milk is broken down to
galactose and glucose, which are sweeter than lactose.
 In the dairy industry, some enzymes are used for the production of cheeses, yogurt and other dairy
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products while others are used to improve texture or flavors of the product.
CHAPTER 05
ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY I
ATMOSPHERE
INTRODUCTION
 The scientific study of chemical and biological events that occur in natural setting is called environmental
chemistry.
 Our planet the Earth has four natural systems; lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere.
 The study of composition of atmosphere provides us the knowledge about significance of gases present in the
atmosphere.
 The earth is surrounded by a layer of gases called atmosphere. Or Atmosphere is the envelope of different gases around
the Earth.
 Atmosphere is divided into four regions.
 Each region has its natural characteristics.
COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERE
 Atmosphere continuously from the Earth’s surface outwards without any boundary.
 About 99% of atmospheric mass lies within 30 kilometers of the surface and 75% lies within the lowest 11 kilometers.
 Percentage composition of atmosphere by volume is shown in Table

COMPOSITION OF DRY
AIR

Gas % by Volume

Nitrogen 78.09

Oxygen 20.94

Argon 0.93

Carbon 0.03
dioxide
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DO YOU KNOW?
 Sunlight has short wavelength radiations.
Solar energy absorbed by the Earth surface is transformed into heat energy which is of longer wavelength.
 On the average, there is total 32% reflection of light: 6% being reflected from the Earth’s surface and 26% being
reflected back into space because of clouds, gases and dust particles in the atmosphere. 18% of sunlight is
absorbed by atmospheric gases.
 The remaining 50% reaches upto the Earth and is absorbed by it.
 This energy is radiated as heat energy of longer wavelength which is absorbed by water vapours and CO2 in atmosphere.
LAYERS OF ATMOSPHERE
 Atmosphere consists of four spheres (layers) extending from the surface of the Earth upwards.
 The concentration of the component gases decreases gradually upwards, that results in gradual decrease of
pressure.

 Depending upon the temperature variation, atmosphere is divided into four regions.
 Temperature decreases from 17°C to -58°C regularly in the lowest layer extending upto 12 km. This layer of
atmosphere is called troposphere. Above this layer lies the stratosphere that extends upto 50 km.
 In this layer, temperature rises upto 2°C.
 Beyond the stratosphere lies the mesosphere, covering upto 85 km.
 In this region, again temperature decreases down to -93°C. Beyond 85 km lies the thermosphere, in which temperature
goes on increasing upwards.

TROPOSPHERE
 The major constituents of troposphere are nitrogen and oxygen gases.
 These two gases comprise 99 % by volume of the Earth’s atmosphere.
 Both of these gases allow visible light to pass through but absorb infrared radiations emitted by the Earth’s
surface.
 Therefore, these gases absorb much of the outgoing radiations and warm the atmosphere.
 As the concentration of gases decreases gradually with the increase of altitude, correspondingly temperature also
decreases at a rate of 6°C per kilometer.
 This is the region where all weathers occur.
 Almost all aircrafts fly in this region.
STRATOSPHERE
 This region is next to troposphere and extends up to 50 kilometers.
 In this region, temperature rises gradually up to 2°C.
 The presence of ozone (due to absorption of radiation) in this region is responsible for the rise of temperature in
stratosphere.
 Within this region, temperature increases as altitude increases, such as lower layer temperature is about -58°C and
upper layer is about 2°C.
 Since ozone in the upper layer absorbs high energy ultraviolet radiations from the Sun, it breaks down into
monoatomic (O) and diatomic oxygen (O2 ).
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 The mid stratosphere has less UV light passing through it.

 Here O and O2 recombine to form ozone which is an exothermic reaction.
 Ozone formation in this region results in formation of ozone layer.
 Thus, ozone layer exists in mid stratosphere.

 The lower stratosphere receives very low UV radiations, thus monoatomic oxygen is not found here and ozone is not
formed here.
POLLUTANTS
 A pollutant is a waste material that pollutes air, water or soil.
 Three factors determine the severity of a pollutant, its chemical nature, concentration and persistence.
 These pollutants are being created and discharged to the environment by human activities. They make the
environment (air, water or soil) harmful to life.
 So the pollutants are those substances which cause pollution.
 While contaminants are those substances that make something impure.
 The harmful substances present in air are called air pollutants.
 Air pollutants change the weather, badly affect the human health, damage the plants and destroy buildings.
TYPES OF POLLUTANTS
Major air pollutants are classified as primary pollutants and secondary pollutants.
Primary pollutants are the waste or exhaust products driven out because of combustion of fossil fuels and organic matter.
These are oxides of sulphur (SO2 and SO3 ); oxides of carbon (CO2 and CO); oxides of nitrogen (specially nitric oxide NO);
hydrocarbon (CH4 ); ammonia and compounds of fluorine. Secondary pollutants are produced by various reactions of
primary pollutants. These are sulphuric acid, carbonic acid, nitric acid, hydrofluoric acid, ozone and peroxy acetyl nitrate
(PAN).
SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTANTS
 Different sources of air pollutants are described as:
Oxides of Carbon (CO2 and CO)
Sources of oxides of carbon are as follows:
 Both of these gases are emitted due to volcanic eruption and decomposition of organic matter naturally.
 However, the major source for the emission of these gases is the combustion of fossil fuels (coal, petroleum and
natural gas). Fossil fuels burnt in combustion engine of any type of automobile, kiln of any industry or open air
fires emit CO2 and CO.
 Forest fires and burning of wood also emit CO2 and CO. Especially, when supply of oxygen is limited, emission of CO
dominates.
GREENHOUSE EFFECT AND GLOBAL WARMING
 The CO2 forms a layer around the Earth like an envelope.
 It allows the heat rays of the Sun to pass through it and reach up to the Earth.
 These rays are reflected from the Earth surface and go back to upper atmosphere.
 Normal concentration of CO2 layer retains enough heat to keep the atmosphere warm.
 So, normal concentration of CO2 is necessary and beneficial for keeping the temperature warm.
 Otherwise, the Earth would have been uninhabitable.
 The Earth’s average temperature would be about -20°C, rather than presently average
temperature 15°C.
 CO2 is not an air pollutant.
 Rather, it is an essential gas for plants as O2 is essential for animals.
 Plants consume CO2 in photosynthesis process and produce O2.
 While animals use O2 in respiration and give out CO2.
 In this way, a natural balance exists between these essential gases as represented here.
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 But this balance is being disturbed by emitting more and more CO2 in air through different human activities.

 Although, CO2 is not a poisonous gas, yet its increasing concentration due to burning of fossil fuels in different human
activities is alarming.
 CO2 in the atmosphere acts like a glass wall of a green house.
 It allows UV radiations to pass through it but does not allow the IR radiations to pass through it.
 It traps some of the infrared radiations emitted by the Earth.
 Hence, increased concentration of CO2 layer absorbs the infrared radiations emitted by the Earth’s surface that
prevents heat energy escaping from the atmosphere.
 It helps to stop surface from cooling down during night.
 As the concentration of CO2 in air increases, less heat energy is lost from the surface of the Earth. Therefore, the
average temperature of the surface gradually increases. This is called greenhouse effect
 This effect is proportional to amount of CO2 in air. Greater is amount of CO2, more is trapping of heat or
warming. Due to increased warming this phenomenon is also called global warming.
EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING
 Accumulation of carbon dioxide in air is resulting in increasing atmospheric temperature about 0.05 °C every year.
 It is causing major changes in weather patterns. Extreme weather events are occurring more commonly and intensely
than previously.
 It melts glaciers and snow caps that are increasing flood risks and intense tropical cyclones.
 Sea-level is rising due to which low lying areas are liable to be submerged, turning previously populated areas no longer
habitable.
ACID RAIN AND ITS EFFECTS
 As you have studied, burning of fossil fuels produces oxides of sulphur and nitrogen in air.
 Rain water converts SO2 into H2SO4 and NOx to HNO2and HNO3 .
 Normal rain water is weakly acidic because it consists of dissolved CO2 of the air.
 Its pH is about 5.6 to 6.
 But rain water on dissolving air pollutants (acids) becomes more acidic and its pH reduces to 4. Thus, acid rain is
formed on dissolving acidic air pollutants such as Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide by rain water.
EFFECTS OF ACID RAIN
 Acid rain on soil and rocks leaches heavy metals (Al, Hg, Pb, Cr, etc) with it and discharges these metals into rivers and lakes.
 This water is used by human beings for drinking purpose.
 These metals accumulate in human body to a toxic level.
 On the other hand, aquatic life present in lakes also suffers because of high concentration of these metals.
 Especially high concentration of aluminum ions clogs the fish gills. It causes suffocation and ultimately death of fish.
 Acid rain attacks the calcium carbonate present in the marble and limestone of buildings and monuments. Thus, these
buildings are getting dull and eroded day by day.
 Acid rain increases the acidity of the soil. Many crops and plants cannot grow properly in such soil. It also increases the
toxic metals in the soil that poison the vegetation.
 Even old trees are affected due to acidity of soil.
 Their growth is retarded. They get dry and die.
 Acid rain directly damages the leaves of trees and plants, thus limiting their growth.
 Depending upon the severity of the damage, plants growth can be hampered.
 Plants capability to resist cold or diseases reduces and ultimately they die.
OZONE DEPLETION AND ITS EFFECTS
 Ozone is an allotropic form of oxygen consisting of three oxygen atoms.
 It is formed in atmosphere by the association of an oxygen atom with an oxygen molecule in the mid of stratosphere.
 Ozone is present throughout the atmosphere.

 But its maximum concentration called ozone layer lies in stratosphere region about 25 to 30 km away from the Earth’s
surface.
 This layer surrounds the globe and protects Earth like a shield from harmful ultraviolet radiations ofsunlight.
 Otherwise, ultraviolet radiations would cause skin cancer.
 Thus ozone layer in stratosphere is beneficial for life on the Earth.
 Under normal conditions ozone concentration in stratosphere remains nearly constant through a series of
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complex atmospheric reactions.

 Two reactions that maintain a balance in ozone concentrations are as follows:

 But this ozone layer is being depleted through various chemical reactions.
 However, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs ) (used as refrigerants in air conditioners and
refrigerators) are major cause of depletion of ozone layer.
 These compounds leak in one way or other escape and diffuse to stratosphere.
Ultraviolet radiations break the C-Cl bond in CFCI3 and generates chlorine free radicals
as:

 These free radicals are very reactive. They react with ozone to form oxygen as:

 A single chlorine free radical released by the decomposition of CFCs is capable of destroying upto many lacs of ozone
molecules.
 The region in which ozone layer depletes is called ozone hole.
 Signs of ozone depletion were first noticed over Antarctica in 1980s.
 Since 1990s depletion has also been recorded over the Arctic, as well.
EFFECTS OF OZONE DEPLETION
Even minor problems of ozone depletion can have major effects.
 Depletion of ozone enables ultraviolet radiations of Sun to reach to the Earth that can cause skin cancer to human beings
and other animals.
 Decreased ozone layer will increase infectious diseases like malaria.
 It can change the life cycle of plants disrupting the food chain.
 It can change the wind patterns, resulting in climatic changes all over the world. Especially,
Asia and Pacific will be the most affected regions, facing climate induced migration of people crisis.

CHAPTER 06
ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY II
WATER
OCCURRENCE OF WATER
 The oceans contain about 97% of world’s water.
 The rest of the water is in the form of glaciers, ice caps, groundwater and inland water (rivers, lakes,
streams).
 It is also present in atmosphere in the form of water vapours.
 Sea water is unfit for drinking and agricultural purposes due to high percentage of dissolved salts.
 Only 0.2% of the total water on the Earth is potable, i.e. fit for drinking purposes.
PROPERTIES OF WATER
 Water is composed of two elements: oxygen and hydrogen.
 One atom of oxygen combines with two atoms of hydrogen to form one molecule of water.
 Pure water is a clear, colourless, odourless and tasteless liquid with following properties:
 It is neutral to litmus.
 Its freezing point is 0°C and boiling point is 100 °C at sea level.
 Its maximum density is 1 gcm-3 at 4°C.
 It is excellent solvent for ionic as well as molecular compounds.
 It has unusually high heat capacity about 4.2 Jg-1K-1, which is about six times greater than that of rocks.
 It has high surface tension. This unique property of water is responsible for its high capillary action. Capillary action is
the process by which water rises up from the roots of plants to leaves.
 This process is vital for the survival of the land plants.
WATER AS SOLVENT
 Water is the universal solvent because it can dissolve almost all the minerals.
 Its ability to dissolve substances is because of two unique properties of water:
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(i) Polarity of water molecule;

(ii) Exceptional hydrogen bonding ability.
POLAR NATURE OF WATER
 Water molecule has polar structure, i.e. one end of the molecule is partially positive while the other end is
partially negative because of electronegativity difference between oxygen and hydrogen atoms.
EXTENSIVE HYDROGEN BONDING ABILITY
 Water molecule is composed of oxygen and hydrogen atoms.
 Because of two O—H bonds and two lone pairs, one H2O molecule can form hydrogen bonding with four other H2O
molecules, which are arranged tetrahedrally around the H2O molecule as shown in
 This unique behaviour of water enables it to dissolve many polar non-ionic compounds having hydroxyl group (-
OH), like alcohols, organic acids, glucose, sugar, etc. by forming hydrogen bonds with them.
SOFT AND HARD WATER
SOFT WATER
 Soft water is that water which produces good lather with soap.
HARD WATER
 Hard water is that water which does not produce lather with soap.
CAUSES OF HARDNESS IN WATER
 The rain water while coming down absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
 The water mixed with carbon dioxide, when passes through the beds of the soil, converts insoluble carbonates of calcium
and magnesium into soluble bicarbonates.
 It may also dissolve chlorides and sulphates of calcium and magnesium.
 These salts make the water hard.
TYPES OF HARDNESS OF WATER
 Hardness is of two types:
o Temporary hardness is because of presence of bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium.
o Permanent hardness is because of presence of sulphates and chlorides of calcium and
magnesium.
METHOD OF REMOVING HARDNESS
2+ 2+
 The removal of Mg and Ca ions which are responsible for the hardness is called water softening.
REMOVAL OF TEMPORARY HARDNESS
BY BOILING
 Temporary hardness of water is easily removed by boiling the water.
 On boiling, calcium bicarbonate Ca(HCO3)2 decomposes to produce insoluble calcium carbonate, which precipitates
out of the solution.
CLARK’S METHOD
 A chemical method to remove temporary hardness is by the addition of slaked lime Ca(OH)2 .
 A calculated amount of lime water is added to temporary hard water.
 Thus, once the magnesium and calcium ions precipitate out water becomes soft.
REMOVAL OF PERMANENT HARDNESS
 Permanent hardness can only be removed by using chemicals. Calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) are removed as
insoluble salts by adding washing soda (Na2CO3 ) or sodium zeolite.
BY USING WASHING SODA
 The addition of washing soda removes the calcium and magnesium ions as the insoluble calcium and magnesium
carbonates, respectively.
USING SODIUM ZEOLITE (AN ION EXCHANGER)
 Sodium zeolite is a naturally occurring resin of sodium aluminium silicate NaAl(SiO3)2 , which can also be prepared
artificially.
 It is used for softening of water at domestic as well as on industrial scale.
DISADVANTAGES OF HARD WATER
 Hard water consumes large amount of soap in washing purposes.
 Drinking hard water causes stomach disorders.
 Hard water is unfit for use in steam engines, boilers and turbines because insoluble calcium and magnesium salts
deposit inside. They are called scales.
 They are bad conductors of heat and hence more fuel is used. Insoluble calcium and magnesium sulphates not only
reduce the efficiency of the engine but also cause the boiler to burst.
WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution is a contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans and ground water). Water pollution occurs
when pollutants are discharged directly or indirectly into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful
compounds.
EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION
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Water pollution has the following effects:

 It is hazardous to human health. Drinking polluted water can cause cholera, typhoid and diarrhea.
 The use of polluted water is not only devastating for people but also for animals and birds.
 It causes rapid growth of algae. Death and decomposition of algae causes deficiency of oxygen in water that
affects organism living in water.
 It is damaging aquatic life, thus breaking a link in food chain.
 It reduces the aesthetic quality of lakes and rivers.
 It is unfit for cleaning or washing purposes.
WATERBORNE INFECTIOUS DISEASES
 Diseases that spread because of drinking polluted water or eating food prepared with polluted
water are called waterborne infectious diseases.
 Water pollution may be due to toxins or microorganisms.
 Toxins are arsenic, mercury, calcium, lead and many organic chemicals.
 Microorganisms are viruses, bacteria, protozoa and worms.
 Lack of proper sanitation facilities is the main cause of rapidly spreading waterborne diseases.
A few common diseases are mentioned here:
DIARRHEAL DISEASES
 Intestinal diseases, such as cholera, that may cause dangerous dehydration.
 Diarrhea may be caused by viruses, bacteria or parasites.
DYSENTERY
 Dysentery is an intestinal disease which is typically caused by certain bacteria or parasites.
 It is characterized by severe diarrhea that may be accompanied by blood or mucous.
CHOLERA
 Cholera is an acute infection caused by the bacteria Vibrios cholerae, which may be found in water contaminated by
human feaces.
 Cholera causes severe diarrhea and can be fatal.
CRYPTOSPORIDIUM
 Waterborne microorganism (protozoa) that causes gastrointestinal illness (cryptosporidiosis) including
diarrhea and vomiting.
 These tiny pathogens are found in surface water sources like reservoirs, lakes and rivers.
FLUOROSIS
 Fluorosis is a disease caused by the consumption of excess fluoride.
 Fluorosis can cause bones and teeth damage.
HEPATITIS
 It is liver inflammation commonly caused by one of five viruses called hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E. Hepatitis A and E
can be transmitted by contaminated water.
HOOKWORM
 Hookworm is a parasitic worm that infects the small intestine.
 Severe cases can result in anemia and stunted growth in children.
 Hookworm larvae enter the body through the skin, often via the feet.
 Spread by poor sanitary conditions, hookworms infect about one billion people worldwide per annum.
JAUNDICE
 Jaundice is caused by an excess of bile pigments in the blood.
 Liver ceases to function and eyes turn yellow.
 Patient feels weakness and fatigue.
TYPHOID
 A dangerous bacterial disease often spread by contaminated water or by food prepared with contaminated
water.
CHAPTER 07
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
INTRODUCTION
 Analysis and separation of sample to detect and estimate its components through various techniques and instruments
is known as Analytical Chemistry.
 The analytical chemistry provide the methods and tools needed to insight our material World and answer the basic questions about a
material. What?, Where? And How much?
 The Analytical Chemistry deals with Instruments and methods to separate, identify and quantify the matter. The main objective of
analytical chemistry is to develop an understanding of analysis of elements and compound for measurement and problem solving
with the help of analytical methods.
 The Analytical Chemistry is applied in all fields of chemistry such as Medicine, Clinical laboratories, industries, Agriculture,food
contamination and environmental protection.
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 The analytical chemistry consist of two main types of analysis which are as follows
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS:
 The identification of elements, ions or compounds present in sample is called qualitative
analysis.
 Qualitative analysis does not measure the quantity of substance but measure the quality of
that material.
 Qualitative analysis is performed by selective chemical reactions or with the use of
instrumentation. For example: chemical test and flame test.
 Qualitative analysis further divided on the basis of chemical test are as follows:
ORGANIC QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS:
 It deals with the identification of presence of d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s o f o r g a n i c c o m p o u n d s o r
functional groups by producing colors in chemical r e a c t i o n s .
 F o r e x a m p l e : f o r m a t i o n o f w h i t e precipitate by adding silver nitrate (AgNO3) in dilute nitric
acid (HNO3) indicate the presence of halide (X-F, CI, Br,l) .
ORGANIC QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS:
 It deals with the identification of elements.
 For example: flame test of copper halide which shows bluish-green color due to
presence of copper.
QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS:
 The determination of how much amount or quantity of one or more substance present
in compound or sample is called quantitative analysis.
 It deals with large number of quantifying methods which are classified as physical or
chemical.
 Physical methods measure physical properties such as density, temperature, absorption
of light, magnetic influences, color, and texture.
 The physical methods used to measure these properties are Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
(FTIR), Atomic emission spectroscopy (AES), trace element analysis and energy d isp ersive X —ray
spectroscopy (EDS).
 Chemical methods measure chemical reactions such as precipitation, oxidation or neutralization and
measured by volumetric analysis, gravimetric analysis and combustion analysis.
IMPORTANT PARAMETERS:
 The parameter is measureable factor or boundary which define performance and quality of analytical
methods.
 The validation of any analytical method is observed by parameters and various parameters of
validation are selectivity, linearity, range,accuracy, precision and error.
ERROR
 Error can be defined as numerical difference between observed value and true value
 All type of analytical methods or experiments we observe many errors and deviations.
 These errors are due to 13% equipment failure, 13% human error, 16% sample preparation and 10% wrong
calibration.
 So we can say that factors which produce the error are defect in instrument, lack in handling the apparatus or improper
functioning of the instrument.
 Errors in analytical chemistry are dassified as systematic and random errors.
 Systematic error are also known as determinate error and caused by defect in the analytical method
or improper functioning of instrument.
 Systematic error may be instrumental, observational, environmental and theoretical. For example a
thermometer, peppet , burette ,analytical balance and volumetric ware shows error in measurement.
 A systematic error can be estimated and eliminated but there is always some uncertainty in every
physical measurement and mostly avoided.
 Random Errors are also known as indeterminate error and caused by variations of procedure,
environmental factors and limitations of instrumentation.
 Random error are unavoidable and may be positive and negative.
 Measuring a mass of a sample on analytical balance may produce different reading due to effect of
air or water on sample or analytical balance.
ACCURACY
 The accuracy of analytical method is the closeness of obtained value to the true value of a sample,
for example if you obtain weight 2.5mg of sample or substance but actual or known weight of
sample is 10mg then your measurement is not accurate.
 Accuracy is the most difficult parameter to validate.
 Accuracy is degree of agreement between the measured value and true value.
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 An absolute true value is very rarely obtained due to this more realistic definition of accuracy is an
agreement between a measured value and the accepted true value.
PRECISION
 The Precision Is defined as the degree of agreement between replicate measurements of the same
quantity. It is repeatability of a result and known as degree of exactness.
 Precision is measured how much detailed information is given and how much exactly measurement
was taken.
CLASSICAL METHOD
 The classical methods are the fundamental laboratory practicing techniques.
 It is a traditional method of chemical analysis and also known as wet chemical method.
 Classical methods are those analytical techniques which does not use any mechanical or electronic instrument rather
than weighing balance.
 This method basically related with the chemical reactions between analyte and reagents.
 The classical methods posses' quantitative as well as quantitative analysis.
 Such as chemical and flame tests are qualitative and titrimatic and gravimetric analysis are quantitativeanalysis.
TITRIMETRIC ANALYSIS
 The titrimetric analysis Is used to determine the volume of a solution with known concentration which react with the
measured volume of solution of a substance quantitatively .
 The Titrimetric analysis is also known as volumetric analysis in which general rule of titration is applied in which
volumetric measurement of a reagent takes place which is known as titrant and this titrant complete its chemical reaction
with analyte .
What is titrant?
 A-tit-rant is a solution of known concentration that is added to another solution to determine the
concentration of a second chemical species.for example NaOH ,Ha
What is analyte?
 A chemical substance that is subject of chemical analysis or constituent going to be measure.
For example 24 karat gold, NaCI , water etc
What is indicator?
 Indicator is a substance which change the color with acidic and alkaline solution.
 Eg:Litmus, Phenolphthalein, Methyl orange
GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS
 Gravimetric analysis is the oldest and important technique for quantitative estimation in chemical analysis
 This technique involve determination of constituent by weight, it is one of the most accurate analytical
method for quantitative estimation.
 In this analysis an amount of analyte is determined by converting the analyte to some product and
then weighing it. For example you want to determine the amount of chlorine (CI) present in solution of
AgCI then you have to go through following 4 steps for gravimetric analysis.
(1) Preparation of a solution with known weight of sample (Aga).
(2) Separation of the desired constituent (CI).
(3) Weighing Separated constituent.
(4) Computation of amount of separated constituent in the sample.
 The gravimetric calculation based on gravimetric factor which convert the grams of the
compound in to grams of the single element.
 There are four types of gravimetric analysis which are Physical, Therrno, Precompetitive and Electra
gravimetric analysis.
ADVANCED INSTRUMENTAL METHODS
 The methods used as quantitative and qualitative analysis.
 These analytical advanced instrumental methods includes spectroscopy,
,chromatography , electrochemical methods ,ultra violet and visible spectroscopy,
infrared spectroscopy ,HPLC, gas chromatography, potentiomcrtric and conduc -
tornetr.
SPECTROSCOPIC METHODS
 Spectroscopy is the interaction of light with matter, light is composed of electromagnetic
waves so interaction of matter with radiative energy as function of wavel ength or
frequency is called spectroscopy.
 Spectroscopy used in physical and analytical chemistry f o r t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f
s u b s t a n c e s t h r o u g h t h e e m i s s i o n o r a b s o r p t i o n spectrum. Interaction of light
with matter.
 The spectroscopy used to assess concentration or amount of given chemical (atomic,
molecular or ionic) and the instruments used for measurement are called spectrometer,
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spectrophotometer, spectrograph.
ULTRAVIOLET AND VISIBLE SPECTROSCOPY
 The ultraviolet and visible spectroscopy is also known as electronic spectroscopy.
 It is a quantitative technique which measure how much a chemical compound absorb light.
 This is done by measuring the intensity of light passing through the sample.
 The basic principal of this spectroscopy is interaction between light and matter but here light
wavelength is ultraviolet and process is formation of spectrum due to absorption of ultra violet light to
the chemical compound or sample.
 The wavelength range of ultraviolet and visible spectroscopy is 192 to 900nm.
INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY
 The Infrared spectroscopy is analytical technique introduced in 1950, which qualify and quantify the
information about samples in less time and cost effective.
 It is non-hazardous because no any polluting chemical is required for this analysis.
 It is basically used for specification of functional groups in food products, polymers and industries now
a days.
 It is an effective tool for quality control in different industries.
 Electromagnetic radiations lower in energy than visible radiations are called infra- red radiation.
 The ordinary IR region extends from 2.5 pm(wavelength )to 15 pm(wavelength) or 4000 to
625 cm-' (wave number).
 When IR radiations passed through an organic molecule, the energy absorbed by the molecule is sufficient to
produce vibrations in the molecules and the energy which is not absorbed is transmitted through the sample .
 It is also known as vibrational spectroscopy.
CHROMATOGRAPHIC METHODS
 Chromatography is the modem analytical technique which is used for separation of compounds.
 Chromatography process starts with the mobile phase in which solutes are dissolved in substance and carry to next stationary
phase.
 The different components of mixture travel from mobile to stationary phase with different speed and retention time.
 Th e ma in ty p e s of ch ro mat og rap h y ar e g as chromatography and liquid chromatography.
HIGH PERFORMANCE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY (H PLC)
What is H PLC?
 The HPLC stands for high performance liquid chromatography, sometimes it also consider as high pressure liquid
chromatography.
 It is the technique to separate out the substances.
 HPLC instrument is consisting of reservoir of mobile phase, a pump, an Injector, a separation column, a detector
and data acquisition computer.
 The mobile liquid phase is pumped through the column packed with the absorbent, hence separation
becomes more rapid.
 The pressure mechanical pump ensures the rapid solvent flow.
 These instruments are used in drug discovery, clinical analysis, cosmetic analysis, pharmaceutical,
enviormental chemistry and biochemical genetics.
What is mobile phase ?
 Moving fluid stream of liquid containing sample up to stationary phase is called mobile phase .
What is stationary phase?
 Stationary phase is not moveable.
What is retention time ?
 T h e t i m e t a k e n f o r separation of components in compound from start to the elution or exit is called
r e t e n t i o n t i m e . T h i s retention time helps to identify the components of compounds.
GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY
 A gas chromatography is a technique used in analytical chemistry for the separation of volatile
compounds.
 The word gas chromatography is clear from its word that it is used for the separation of gases and volatile
liquids in gaseous state.
 The separation takes place by the exchange between a mobile gas phase and a liquid or solid stationary
phase.
 The first gas chromatograph was introduced by noble prizewinner John Porter Martin in 1950 and considered
as father of modem gas chromatography.
 The instrument of Gas chromatography is consisting of Gas cylinder, sample injector, Gas chromartograph,
detector and data collection device.
 Where Gas is mobile phase and Gas cylinder controls the gas passage up to sample injector, which proceeds toward
two columned gas chromartograph it is a stationary phase with uniform temperature.
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 When compound reach the detector it detect the elution and send signals to data collection device
(computer).
 The gas chromatography used in analysis of inorganic compound, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,
vitamins, pollutants like benzene, plastic materials and dairy product.
ELECTROCHEMICAL METHODS
 The electrochemical method is an analytical technique which deal with measurement of potential, charge,
electrical quantity or property of a solution.
 The measurement carried out by the use of certain instrument due to this known as advanced
instrumental methods. These methods are useful because of consuming less time and without any
suitable indicators.
 The electrochemical analytical method is carried out with the help of electrochemical cell, generally
it consist of electrodes named as anode and cathode.
 Anode possess negative sign due to liberation of electrons in oxidation reaction and cathode possess
positive sign due to consumption of electrons in reduction reaction.
 The electrochemical cells consists of two half cells, both are connected with an electrode (anode
and Cathode) and each electrode is dipped in electrolytic solution which is ZnSO, at Anode and
CLASOI at cathode.
 The half cells are connected by means of salt bridge (NaCI) which provides a platform for ionic
connectivity without mixing, as we discuss that one of half cell losses electron due to oxidation and
other half gains electrons in reduction process.
POTENTIOMETRY
 Potentiometry is method used in electroanalytical chemistry to find the concentration of solute in solution
in potentiometric measurement.
 The potential between two electrodes is measured by voltmeter.
 There is no any flow of current.
 Potentiometric analysis is used in analysis of pollutant in water, pharmaceutical and drugs, quality control in food
industry and clinical chemistry.
CONDUCTOMETRY
 Conductometry is one of the important analytical technique which is used in physico —chemical analysis.
 It can be defined as a technique of analysis which is based on the measurement of electrical
conductance.
 It is done by the help of conductivity meter.
CHAPTER 08
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY
INTRODUCTION
 Almost everything used in human life for the human survival is made up of chemical products.
 In the modem world Chemical industries play an important role.
 In every industrial process chemical products are involved which play an essential vital role.
 The Chemical industry is the one responsible industry for converting raw materials like Petroleum, water, air,
minerals, crops, metals and etc into more valuable products.
 There are several chemical products which have assumed the status of integral part of our daily life some of
them are soaps, sugar, soft drinks, Medicines and several petroleum like Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG),
natural gas (stove gas) or compressed natural gas (CNG), polymers, petrol, diesel, lubricating oils and bitumen
(damar).
 There are more than 70,000 different products that are manufactured through chemical industries.
PREPARATION OF SOAP
What is saponification?
 Saponification is the reaction of triglycerides with sodium or potassium hydroxide to create glycerol and 'soap,'
a fatty acid salt.
 Animal fats or vegetable oils are the most common sources of triglycerides.
 A hard soap is created when sodium hydroxide is used.
 The use of potassium hydroxide produces a soft soap.
 When soap is dissolved in water, grime may be washed away.
 It may be used to treat skin lesions cleansing your body in some situations.
 However, we now use soap mostly for its aroma and as a cleaning.
 Household uses for soaps include washing, bathing, and other types of housekeeping, where soaps act as
surfactants, emulsifying oils to enable them to be carried away by water.
 In industry, they are used as thickeners, components of some lubricants, and precursors to catalysts.
MATERIAL NEEDED FOR SOAP PREPARATION:
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The raw material needed for the preparation of soap are as follows:
• Animal Fat
• Plant Oil
• Caustic Soda
• Potassium hydroxide
• Additives (color, texture, scent )
• Abrasives (silica, talc, marble)
ANIMAL FAT:
 Animal fat tallows from cows, such as lard, are often used for soap making.
PLANT OIL:
 Soybean oil, like canola, safflower, and sunflower, is often used as a portion of a soap making recipe
in combination with other 'core' oils like coconut, olive, and palm. It's pretty unremarkable, but if
you have it on hand, use it 5-15% of your soap recipe.
 It is mild, moisturizing and gives a low creamy lather.
CAUSTICSODA/ POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE (ALKALI)
 Caustic soda (NaOH) causes saponification and is an essential ingredient in soap-making.
 When flakes or beads of sodium hydroxide get added to a liquid, it forms a lye solution.
 This solution, when mixed with oils or fats, will lead to the chemical reaction called saponification.
SODIUM HYDROXIDE:
 Sodium hydroxide is employed as alkali for the saponification of soap now a days.
 Soap may also be manufactured with potassium hydroxide (caustic potash) as the alkali.
 Potassium soaps are more soluble in water than sodium soaps; in concentrated form, they are
called soft soap.
ADDITIVES:
 The major raw materials for soap manufacture are fat and alkali.
 Other substances, such as optical brighteners, colour, texture, scent, water softeners, are known
as additives.
ABRASIVE:
 Water-insoluble minerals such as talc, diatomaceous earth, silica, marble, volcanic ash (pumice), chalk,
feldspar, quartz, and sand are often powdered and added to soap or synthetic detergent
formulations. Abrasives of an organic nature, such as sawdust, are also used. Abrasives help in
removing grease and dirt from skin.
PREPARATION OF SUGAR FROM SUGAR CANE
 The preparation of sugar from sugar cane composed of following steps.
 Harvesting and delivery
 Juice extraction
 Clarification
 Concentration
 Crystallization
 Crystal separation and drying
MATERIAL NEEDED FOR SUGAR PREPARATION
The raw material needed for the preparation of sugar from sugar cane are as follows: • Sugar cane beads
• Lime
• Water
PREPARATION OF SOFT DRINKS
 The basis of soft drinks, the syrup, is made up of water, sugar, acid, coloring and flavoring agents. This syrup
is prepared by dissolving these ingredients into water to 65° Brix.
MATERIAL REQUIRED FOR PREPARATION OF SOFT DRINK
The preparation of sugar from soft drinks compose of following steps.
 Water
 Cal c iu m an d oth er m in e ral s
 Co lor in g an d fl a vor in g a gen t
 Su gar for microb ial growth.
 Citric acid for sour taste.

PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
PETROLEUM
 Petroleum is a natural substance trapped in rocks beneath the Earth's crust.
 The term "petroleum" refers to rock oil.
 Water; salts, and earth particles are all present in this complex combination of gaseous,
liquid, and solid hydrocarbons.
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 It is a liquid that is lighter than water yet insoluble in it.

FORMATION OF PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS
 Oil and gas are made up of organic material that is deposited on the seafloor as
sediments, then broken down and altered over millions of years.
 The presence of an appropriate mix of source rock, reservoir rock, cap rock, and a trap in
a given location may lead to the discovery of viable oil and gas resources.
 The majority of the oil and gas resources on the Norwegian shelf are formed by a thick
layer of black clay that lies thousands of meters beneath the seabed.
 The black clay is a source rock, which indicates it came from a deposit with a lot of
organic waste.
COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM
 Petroleum is mostly mode up of hydrogen and carbon, but it also includes trace
amounts of oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and metals including vanadium, cobalt, and nickel.
Alkanes (paraffins), naphthenes, aromatics, and heterocompounds are some of the
most prevalent organic substances.
 The exact molecular composition of crude oil varies widely from formation to formation
but the proportion of chemical elements varies over fairly narrow limits as fo llows:
COMPOSITION BY WEIGHT ELEMENT PERCENTAGE
 Carbon 83 to 85%
 Hydrogen 10 to 14%
 Nitrogen 0.1 to 2%
 Oxygen 0.05 to 105%
 Sulfur 0.05 to 6.0%
 Metals < 0.1%
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION OF PETROLEUM
 This is done in oil refineries with the use of massive fr actionating columns (also known
as fractionating towers).
 These are frequently found near to the crude oil source.
 The industrial fractionating column is intended to be cold at the top and hot at the
bottom, allowing It to cool and condense crude all vapor at distinctively different
temperature ranges defined by the column's temperature gradient.
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
 The process of separating the constituents of a liqu id mixtu re by h eating it and separating the
components according to their different boiling point.

PHYSICS CLASS 09
CHAPTER 01
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
AND MEASUREMENT
 Physics is the branch of science which observes the nature represents it mathematically and conclude with the
experiment.
 Physics Derived from Ancient Greek ‘physicos’ meaning ‘knowledge of nature’.
 It basically deals with the behavior and structure of matter and the energy that derives the matter.
 Physics is the branch of natural science that studies matter, its motion, its behavior through space and time and
the related entities of energy and force.
 MECHANICS
This branch of physics is mainly concerned with the laws of motion and gravitation.
 THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics deals with heat and temperature and their relation to energy and work.
 ELECTRICITY
Electricity is the study of properties of charges in rest and motion
 MAGNETISM
Magnetism is the study of magnetic properties of materials
 ATOMIC PHYSICS
Atomic physics deals with the composition structure and properties of the atom.
 OPTICS
Optics studies physical aspects of light and its properties with the help of optical instruments.
 SOUND
 165

Sound is the study of production, properties and applications of sound waves.

 NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Nuclear physics deals with the constituents, structure, behavior and interactions of atomic nuclei.
 PARTICLE PHYSICS
Particle Physics studies the elementary constituents of matter and radiation, and the interactions between
them.
 ASTROPHYSICS
The study of celestial objects with the help of laws of physics is known as Astrophysics.
 PLASMA PHYSICS
The study of ionized state of mater and its properties is known as Plasma Physics.
 GEO PHYSICS
The study of internal structure of earth is known as Geo physics.

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
 A physical quantity is a physical property of a phenomenon, body, or substance that canbe quantified by
measurement.
 A physical quantity can be expressed as the combination of a magnitude expressed by a number –usually a real
number – and a unit.
 Physical quantities are classified into two categories:
1. Fundamental quantities
2. Derived physical quantities.
 Physical quantities which cannot be explained by other physical quantities are called fundamental physical
quantities.
Fundamental quantities S.I Unit Symbol of Unit
Length meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd
 Physical quantities which are explained on the basis of fundamental physical quantities are called derived physical
quantities.
Derived Quantities S.I Unit Symbol of Unit
Volume Cubic meter m3
Velocity meter per second m/s
Force Newton N
Density kilogram per cubic meter kg/m3
Acceleration meter per second square m/s2
 The notion of physical dimension of a physical quantity was introduced by Joseph Fourier in 1822 by convention,
physical quantities are organized in a dimensional system built upto base quantities, each of which is regarded as
having its own dimension.
 Use of every instrument is restricted by smallest measurement that it can perform which is called least count.
THE STANDARD OF LENGTH
 The length is defined as the minimum distance between two points lying on same plane.
 For examples units of length include the inch, foot, yard, mile, meter etc.
 The meter (m) is the SI unit of length and is defined as:
 The length of the path traveled by light in vacuum during the time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.
 The basic measurement of length can be obtained with the help of a meter rod or an inch tape.
 1000m = 1km
 100cm =1m
 1cm = 10mm
 1inch = 2.53cm
 12 inch = 1 ft
 1 yard = 3ft
METER RULE
 A meter rule is a device which is used to measure length of different objects. A meter rule of length 1m is equal
to 100 centimeters (cm). On meter rule each cm is divided further in to 10 divisions which are called millimeters
(mm). So, a meter rule can measure up to 1mm as smallest reading.
VERNIER CALIPER
 The Vernier Caliper is a precision instrument that can be used to measure internal and external distance extremely
 166

accurate. It has both an imperial and metric scale. A Vernier caliper has main jaws that are used for measuring
external diameter, as well as smaller jaws that are used for measuring the internal diameter of objects. Some
models also have a depth gauge. The main scale is fixed in place, while the Vernier scale is the name for the sliding
scale that opens and closes the jaws.
MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE
 Screw gauge in extensively used in engineering field for obtaining precision measurements.
 Micrometer screw gauge is used for measuring extremely small dimensions.
 Micrometer Screw gauge works on the simple principle of converting small distances into larger ones by measuring
the rotation of the screw. This “screw" principle facilitates reading of smaller distances on a scale after amplifying
them.
THE STANDARD OF MASS
 The kilogram is the SI unit of mass and is equalto the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram, a
platinum-iridium standard that is kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures.
 The kilogram is a cylinder of special metal about 39 millimeters wide by 39 millimeters tall that serves as the
world's mass standard.
 The kilogram, originally defined as: The mass of one cubic decimeter of water at the temperature of maximum
density. It was replaced after the International Metric Convention in 1875 by the international Prototype Kilogram.
 1000g = 1kg
 1g = 1000mg
 1g= 1000000mg
 1g=1000000000ng
 1g=0.002lb
THE PHYSICAL BALANCE
 The Physical balance is an instrument used for measurement of mass. It is mostly used in laboratory. It works on
the principle of moments. It consists of a light and rigid beam of brass, a metallic pillar, a wooden base, two pans,
a metallic pointer and an ivory scale.
THE ELECTRONIC BALANCE
 The digital mass meter is an electronic instrument configured with integrated circuits and it works on the principal
of balancing the forces.
 The device is turned on and set to zero then object is placed on the plate. The reading on the screen gives the
mass of object.
THE STANDARD OF TIME
 Before 1960, the standard of time was defined in terms of the mean solar day for the year 1900.
 In 1967, the second was redefined to take advantage of the high precision attainable in a device known as an
atomic clock, which uses the characteristic frequency of the cesium-133 atom as the “reference clock”.
 The second is now defined as 9 192 631 770 times the period of vibration of radiation from the cesium atom.
STOP WATCH
 A stopwatch is used to measure the time interval between two events. There are two types of stopwatch :
Mechanical stopwatch and Digital stopwatch.
MECHANICAL / ANALOGUE STOPWATCH
 A mechanical stop watch can measure a time interval up to 0.1 second.
DIGITAL STOPWATCH
 A digital stop watch can measure a time interval up to 0.01 second.
HUMAN REACTION TIME
 As analogue or digital or watch is operated by human manually i.e., they have to be started or stopped by hand.
This causes a random error in measurement of time i.e called human reaction time.
 1 hour = 60 min
 1 hour = 3600 sec
 1min=60sec
 1sec=1000ms
 1sec=1000000ms
PREFIXES
 167

 Prefixes are the words or letters added before SI units such as kilo, mega, giga and milli.
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
 A simple but scientific way to write large or small numbers is to express them in some power of ten.
 The Moon is 384000000 meters away from the Earth.
8
 Distance of the moon from the Earth can also be expressed as 3.84 x10 m.
 This form of expressing a number is called the standard form or scientific notation. This saves writing down or
interpreting large numbers of zeros.
 Thus, In scientific notation a number is expressed as some power of ten multiplied by a number between 1
and 10.
3 4 5
 For example, a number 62750 can be expressed as 62.75x10 or 6.275x10 or 0.6275x10 .
4
 All these are correct. But the number that has one non-zero digit before the decimal i.e. 6.275x10 preferably
be taken as the standard form.
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
 The significant figures are all the digits that are known accurately and the one estimated digit.
 More significant figure means greater precision.
 The following rules are helpful in identifying significant figure:
1. Non-zero digits are always significant.
2. Zeros between two significant figures are also significant.
3. Final or ending zeros on the right in decimal fraction are significant.
4. Zeros written on the left side of the decimal point for the purpose of spacing the decimal
point are not significant.
5. In whole numbers that end in one or more zeros without a decimal point. These zeros may
or may not be significant. In such cases, it is not clear which zeros serve to locate the position
value and which are actually parts of the measurement. In such a case, express the quantity using
scientific notation to find the significant zero.

RULES TO FIND THE SIGNIFICANT DIGITS IN A MEASUREMENT

(i) Digits other than zero are always significant.
27 has 2 significant digits.
275 has 3 significant digits.
(ii) Zeros between significant digits are also significant.
2705 has 4 significant digits.
 168

(iii) Final zero or zeros after decimal are significant.

275.00 has 5 significant digits.
(iv) Zeros used for spacing the decimal point are not significant. Here zeros are placeholders only.
0.03 has 1 significant digit.
0.027 has 2 significant digits.
ROUNDING THE NUMBERS
 lf the last digit is less than 5 then it is simply dropped. This decreases the number of significant digits in the figure.
For example, 1.943 is rounded to 1.94 (3 significant figure)
 If the last digit is greater than 5, then the digit on its left is increased by one. This also decreases the number of
significant digits in the figure. For example, 1.47 is rounded to two significant digits 1.5
 If the last digit is 5, then it is rounded to get nearest even number. For example, 1.35 is rounded to 1.4 and 1.45
is also rounded to 1.4.
CHAPTER 02
KINEMATICS
REST AND MOTION
 A body is said to be at rest, if it does not change its position with respect to its surroundings.
 Similarly, a body is said to be in motion, if it changes its position with respect to its surroundings.
 The state of rest or motion of a body is relative.
TYPES OF MOTION
 There are three types of motion.
1. Translatory motion (linear, random and circular)
2. Rotatory motion
3. Vibratory motion (to and fro motion)
TRANSLATORY MOTION
 A car moving in a straight line has translational motion. Similarly, an aeroplane moving straight is in translational
motion.
 In translational motion, a body moves along a line without any rotation. The line may be straight or curved.
 Translatory motions can be divided into linear motion, circular motion and random motion.
LINEAR MOTION
 The motion of objects such as a car moving on a straight and level road is linear motion.
 Straight line motion of a body is known as its linear motion.
 Aero planes flying straight in air and objects falling vertically down are also the examples of linear motion.
CIRCULAR MOTION
 A stone tied at the end of a string can be made to whirl. What type of path is followed by the stone? The stone
moves in a circle and thus has circular motion.
 The motion of an object in a circular path is known as circular motion.
 A bicycle or a car moving along a circular track possesses circular motion.
 Motion of the Earth around the Sun and motion of the moon around the Earth are also the examples of circular
motions.
RANDOM MOTION
 The disordered or irregular motion of an object is called random motion.
 Thus, motion of insects and birds is random motion.
 The motion of dust or smoke particles in the air is also random motion.
 The Brownian motion of a gas or liquid molecules along a zig-zag path is also an example of random motion.
ROTATORY MOTION
 Study the motion of a top. It is spinning about an axis.
 Particles of the spinning top move in circles and thus individual particles possess circular motion. Does the top
possess circular motion?
 An axis is a line around which a body rotates.
 In circular motion, the point about which a body goes around, is outside the body.
 In rotatory motion, the line, around which a body moves about, is passing through the body itself.
 The spinning motion of a body about its axis is called its rotatory motion.
 The motion of a wheel about its axis and that of a steering wheel are the examples of rotatory motion.
 The motion of the Earth about its geographic axis that causes day and night is rotatory motion.
VIBRATORY MOTION
 To and fro motion of a body about its mean position is known as vibratory motion.
 Motion of the pendulum of a clock about its mean position, it is called vibratory motion.
 169

 See-saw is an example of vibratory Motion.

 A baby in a cradle moving to and fro, to and fro motion of the hammer of a ringing electric bell and the motion of
the string of a sitar are some of the examples of vibratory motion.
SCALARS AND VECTORS
SCALARS
 A physical quantity which can be completely described by its magnitude is called a scalar.
 The magnitude of a quantity means its numerical value with an appropriate unit such as 2.5 kg, 40 s, 1.8 m, etc.
 Examples of scalars are mass, length, time, speed, volume, work and energy.
VECTORS
 A vector can be described completely by magnitude along with its direction. Examples of vectors are
velocity, displacement, force, momentum, torque, etc.
 To differentiate a vector from a scalar quantity, we generally use bold letters to represent vector quantities, such
as F, a, d or a bar or arrow over their symbols such as F, a, d or F , a and d.
TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH MOTION
POSITION
 The term position describes the location of a place or a point with respect to some reference point called origin.
DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT
 Length of a path between two points is called the distance between those points.
 Displacement is the shortest distance between two points which has magnitude and direction.
SPEED AND VELOCITY
 Speed of an object is the rate at which it is moving.
 In other words, the distance moved by an object in unit time is its speed.
 This unit time may be a second, an hour, a day or a year.
-1
 Falcon can fly at a speed of 200 kmh
 Cheetah can run at a speed of 70 kmh"1
Speed = Distance covered/time taken
Distance = speed x time or S = v t
 Here S is the distance covered by the object, v is its speed and t is the time taken by it. Distance is a scalar; therefore,
speed is also a scalar.
-1
 SI unit of speed is metre per second (ms ).
UNIFORM SPEED
 A body has uniform speed if it covers equal distances in equal intervals of time however short the interval may be.
VELOCITY
 The rate of displacement of a body is called its velocity.
Velocity = Displacement/time taken
Or v = d/t, D= vt
 Here d is the displacement of the body moving with velocity v in time t.
-1
 SI unit of velocity is the same as speed i.e., metre per second (ms )
 A paratrooper attains a uniform velocity called terminal velocity with which it comes to ground,
UNIFORM VELOCITY
 A body has uniform velocity if it covers equal displacement in equal intervals of time however short the interval
may be.
ACCELERATION
 Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity of a body.
Acceleration = change in velocity/time taken
Acceleration = final velocity – initial velocity/time taken
a = vf – vi/t
 Taking acceleration as a, initial velocity as Vi, final velocity as vf and t is the time interval.
-2
 SI unit of acceleration is metre per second per second (ms ).
UNIFORM ACCELERATION
 If the rate of change of velocity during all these intervals remains constant then the acceleration a also remains
constant. Such a body is said to possess uniform acceleration.
 Acceleration of a body is positive if its velocity increases with time.
 170

 The direction of this acceleration is the same in which the body is moving without change in its direction.
Acceleration of a body is negative if velocity of the body decreases.
 The direction of negative acceleration is opposite to the direction in which the body is moving.
 Negative acceleration is also called deceleration or retardation.
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
 There are three basic equations of motion for bodies moving with uniform acceleration. These equations relate
initial velocity, final velocity, acceleration, time and distance covered by a moving body.
 To simplify the derivation of these equations, we assume that the motion is along a straight line.
 Hence, we consider only the magnitude of displacements, velocities, and acceleration.
 Consider a body moving with initial velocity vi in a straight line with uniform acceleration a.
 Its velocity becomes vf after time t.
 The motion of body is described by speed-time graph as shown in figure by line AB.
 The slope of line AB is acceleration a.
 The total distance covered by the body is shown by the shaded area under the line AB. Equations of motion can
be obtained easily from this graph.FIRST EQUATION OF MOTIONSpeed-time graph for the motion of a body is
shown in figure.
 Slope of line AB gives the acceleration a of a body.
𝐵𝐶 𝐵𝐷−𝐶𝐷 𝑉𝑓−𝑉𝑖
Slope of line AB = a = = , As BD = Vf , CD = Vi and OD = t, Hence a = Or Vf – Vi = at,  Vf = Vi + at
𝐴𝐶 𝑂𝐷 𝑡
SECOND EQUATION OF MOTION
 In speed-time graph shown in figure. The total distance S travelled by the body is equal to the total area OABD
under the graph. That is Total distance S= area of (rectangle OACD + triangle ABC), Area of rectangle OACD = OA x
OD, = Vi x t
1 1
Area of triangle ABC = (AC x BC), = t x at
2 2
Since total area = area of rectangle OACD
OABD + area of triangle ABC
1 1
Putting values in the above equation , we get; S = V it + t x at , S = Vit + at2
2 2

Speed

Gain in
speed=at
Area = t  at

Area = vi  t

t
Time
Speed-time graph. Area under
the graph gives the distance
covered by the body.

THIRD EQUATION OF MOTION

 In speed-time graph shown in figure 2.26, the total distance S travelled by the body is given by the total area OABD
under the graph.
𝑂𝐴+𝐵𝐷 𝐵𝐶
Total area of OABD = S = x OD, Or 2S = (OA+BD)x OD, Multiply both sides by ,
2 𝑂𝐷
𝐵𝐶
We get; ( =a
𝑂𝐷
𝐵𝐶 𝐵𝐶
2S x = (𝑂𝐴 + 𝐵𝐷) x OD x
𝑂𝐷 𝑂𝐷
𝐵𝐶
2S x = (OA+BD) x BC …….(1)
𝑂𝐷
Putting the value in the above equation (1) , we get; 2S x a = (Vi + Vf) x (Vf - Vi)
2aS = V2f – V2i………….……(2)
MOTION OF FREELY FALLING BODIES
 Drop an object from some height and observe its motion. Does its velocity increase, decrease or remain constant
as it approaches the ground?
 Galileo was the first scientist to notice that all the freely falling objects have the same acceleration independent
 171

of their masses.
 He dropped various objects of different masses from the leaning tower of Pisa.
 He found that all of them reach the ground at the same time.
 The acceleration of freely falling bodies is called gravitational acceleration.
-2
 It is denoted by g. On the surface of the Earth, its value is approximately 10 ms .
 For bodies falling down freely g is positive and is negative for bodies moving up.
EQUATIONS OF MOTION FOR BODIES MOVING UNDER GRAVITY
 Vt = V1 + gt

H = V1t = ½ gt2
 2gh = Vt2 – V12
CHAPTER 03
DYNAMICS
 The branch of mechanics that deals with the study of motion of an object and the cause of its motion is called
dynamics.
FORCE, INERTIA AND MOMENTUM
FORCE
 We can open a door either by pushing or pulling.
 The push may move an object or change the direction of its motion or may stop the moving object.
 A force may not always cause a body to move.
 A force moves or tends to move, stops or tends to stop the motion of a body. The force can also change the
direction of motion of a body.
 Force can also change the shape or size of a body on which it acts.
INERTIA
 Inertia of a body is its property due to which it resists any change in its state of rest or motion.
 Galileo observed that it is easy to move or to stop light objects than heavier ones.
 Heavier objects are difficult to move or if moving then difficult to stop.
 Newton concluded that everybody resists to the change in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line.
 He called this property of matter as inertia.
 He related the inertia of a body with its mass; greater is the mass of a body greater is its inertia.
MOMENTUM
 Momentum of a body is the quantity of motion it possesses due to its mass and velocity.
 The momentum P of a body is given by the product of its mass m and velocity v. Thus P = mv
 Momentum is a vector quantity.
-1
 Its SI unit is kgms .
NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION

 Newton was the first to formulate the laws of motion known as Newton's laws of motion.
NEWTON'S FIRST LAW OF MOTION
 First law of motion deals with bodies which are either at rest or moving with uniform speed in a straight line.
 According to Newton's first law of motion, a body at rest remains at rest provided no net force acts on it.
 A body continues its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line provided no net force acts on it.
 Newton's first law of motion is also known as law of inertia.
 For example, a book lying on a table remains at rest as long as no net force acts on it.
 Similarly, a moving object does not stop moving by itself.
NEWTON'S SECOND LAW OF MOTION
 Newton's second law of motion deals with situations when a net force is acting on a body.
 When a net force acts on a body, it produces acceleration in the body in the direction of the net force.
 The magnitude of this acceleration is directly proportional to the net force acting on the body and inversely
proportional to its mass.
 Newton’s second law of Motion states; If a force produces an acceleration a in a body of mass m, then we can
1 𝐹
state mathematically that a ∝ F And; a=∝ OR a = ∝ , F ∝ ma
𝑚 𝑚
Putting k as proportionality constant, we get F = kma ……………………(3.2)
 In SI units, the value of k comes out to be 1. Thus Eq. 3.2 becomes F = ma ……………….. (3.3)
 SI unit of force is newton (N).
-2
 One newton (1 N) is the force that produces an acceleration of 1 ms in a body of mass of 1 kg.
 According to Newton's second law of motion:
 Thus, a force of one newton can be expressed as 1N = 1kg x 1 ms-2 , Or 1N = 1 kg ms-2 ………(3.4)
 172

MASS AND WEIGHT

 Mass of a body is the quantity of matter possessed by the body.
 It is a scalar quantity and does not change with change of place.
 It is measured by comparison with standard masses using a beam balance.
 Weight of a body is the force equal to the force with which Earth attracts it.
 It varies depending upon the value of g, acceleration due to gravity.
 Weight m of a body of mass m is related by the equation
w = mg ............... (3.5)
 Weight is a force and thus it is a vector quantity.
 Its SI unit is newton (N); the same as force.
 Weight is measured by a spring balance.
NEWTON'S THIRD LAW OF MOTION
 Newton's third law of motion deals with the reaction of a body when a force acts on it.
 Let a body A exerts a force on another body B, the body B reacts against this force and exerts a force on body A.
 The force exerted by body A on B is the action force whereas the force exerted by body B on A is called the
reaction force.
 Newton's third law of motion states that: To every action there is always an equal but opposite reaction.
 According to this law, action is always accompanied by a reaction force and the two forces must always be equal
and opposite.
 Note that action and reaction forces act on different bodies.
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
 Momentum of a system depends on its mass and velocity.
 A system is a group of bodies within certain boundaries. An isolated system is a group of interacting bodies on
which no external force is acting.
 If no unbalanced or net force acts on a system, then according to equation 3.14 its momentum remains constant.
 Thus the momentum of an isolated system is always conserved.
 The Law of Conservation of Momentum states that: The momentum of an isolated system of two or more than two
interacting bodies remains constant.
Examples of Law of Conservation of Momentum
Following are the examples of law of conservation of momentum:
 Air-filled balloons
 System of gun and bullet
 Motion of rockets
 Consider an isolated system of two spheres of masses m1 and m2.
 They are moving in a straight line with initial velocities u1 and u2 respectively, such that u1 is greater than u2.
Sphere of mass m1 approaches the sphere of mass m2 as they move.

 Initial momentum of mass m1 = m1u1 Initial momentum of mass m2 = m2u2

 Total initial momentum of the system before collision = m1u1+m2u2 ... (3.15)
 After sometime mass m1 hits m2 with some force. According to Newton's third law of motion, m2 exerts an
equal and opposite reaction force on m1.
 Let their velocities become v1and v2 respectively after collision. Then
 Final momentum of mass m1 = m1v1

 Final momentum of mass m2= m2v2Total final momentum of the system after collision =
m1v1+m2v2 ………………3.16)
According to the law of conserv=a tion of momentum
(Total initial momentum of the system before collision) = (Total final momentum the system after collision
M1U1 + m2U2 = m2V2 ………………………..(3.17)
FRICTION
 The force that opposes the motion of moving objects is called friction.
 Friction is a force that comes into action as soon as a body is pushed or pulled over a surface.
 The contact points between the two surfaces form a sort of coldwelds.
 Greater is the pressing force greater will be the friction between the sliding surfaces.
 Friction is equal to the applied force that tends to move a body at rest.
 It increases with the applied force.
 Friction can be increased to certain maximum value.
 173

 The maximum value of friction is known as the force of limiting friction (Fs).
 It depends on the normal reaction (pressing force) between the two surfaces in contact.
 The ratio between the force of limiting friction Fs and the normal reaction R is constant. This constant is called the
coefficient of friction and is represented by µ

𝐹𝑠
Thus µ = ……………. (3.20)
𝑅
or Fs = µR ……………. (3.21)
If m be the mass of the block, then for horizontal surface;
R = mg ………………….. (3.22)
Hence Fs = µmg …………………

METHODS OF REDUCING FRICTION

 The friction can be reduced by:
 Making the sliding surfaces smooth.
 Making the fast moving objects a streamline shape (fish shape) such as cars, aero planes, etc. This causes the smooth
flow of air and thus minimizes air resistance at high speeds.
 Lubricating the sliding surfaces.
 Using ball bearings or roller bearings .Because the rolling friction is lesser than the sliding friction.
CIRCULAR MOTION
 The motion of an object in a circular path is known as circular motion.
 The motion of stone will be called as circular motion.
 Similarly, motion of the moon around the Earth is circular motion.
CENTRIPETAL FORCE
 Centripetal force is a force that keeps a body to move in a circle.
 This pulling force continuously changes the direction of motion and remains towards the centre of the circle.
 This centre seeking force is called the centripetal force.
 It keeps the body to move in a circle. Centripetal force always acts perpendicular to the motion of the body.
 Centripetal force is always directed towards the centre and has no component in the direction of motion.
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
 Consider a stone tied to a string moving in a circle.
 The necessary centripetal force acts on the stone through the string that keeps it to move in a circle.
 According to Newton's third law of motion, there exists a reaction to this centripetal force.
 Centripetal reaction that pulls the string outward is sometimes called the centrifugal force.
CHAPTER 04
TURNING EFFECTS OF FORCE
LIKE AND UNLIKE PARALLEL FORCES
 Like parallel forces are the forces that are parallel to each other and have the same direction.
 Unlike parallel forces are the forces that are parallel but have directions opposite to each other.
ADDITION OF FORCES
 When forces are added, we get a resultant force.
 A resultant force is a single force that has the same effect as the combined effect of all the forces to be added.
 One of the methods for the addition of forces is a graphical method. In this method forces can be added by head to
tail rule of vector addition
 It should be noted that head to tail rule can be used to add any number of f o r c e s . T h e v e c t o r representing
resultant force gives the magnitude and direction of the resultant force.
RESOLUTION OF FORCES
 The process of splitting up vectors (forces) into their component forces is called resolution of forces.
 If a force is formed from two mutually perpendicular components then such components are called its
perpendicular components.
 Splitting up of a force into two mutually perpendicular components is called the resolution of that force.

Some Trigonometric
Ratios
 174

Ratio/ 0 30 45 60 90

0.5

0.707

0.866
0

1
sin

0.866

0.707

0.5
cos

0
0.577

1.732
tan
0

1
TORQUE OR MOMENT OF A FORCE
 We open or close a door by pushing or pulling it.
 Here push or pull turn the door about its hinge or axis of rotation.
 The door is opened or closed due to the turning effect of the force acting on it.
 The turning effect of a force is called torque or moment of the force.
RIGID BODY
 A body is composed of large number of small particles. If the distances between all pairs of particles of the body
do not change by applying a force then it is called a rigid body.
 In other words, a rigid body is the one that is not deformed by force or forces acting on it.
AXIS OF ROTATION
 Consider a rigid body rotating about a line. The particles of the body move in circles with their centers all lying
on this line. This line is called the axis of rotation of the body.
 Turning pencil in a sharpener, turning stopcock of a water tap, turning doorknob and so on are some of the examples
where a force produces turning effect.
LINE OF ACTION OF A FORCE
 The line along which a force acts is called the line of action of the force.
MOMENT ARM
 The perpendicular distance between the axis of rotation and the line of action of the force is called the moment
arm of the force.
 It is represented by the distance L .
 The torque or moment of a force depends upon the force F and the moment arm L of the force.
 Greater is a force, greater is the moment of the force. Similarly, longer is the moment arm greater is the moment
of the force.
 Thus the moment of the force or torque 𝜏 is determined by the product of force F and its moment arm
 L. Mathematically, Torque𝜏 = 𝐹 × 𝐿
 SI unit of torque is newton-metre (Nm).
 A torque of 1 N m is caused by a force of 1 N acting perpendicular to the moment arm 1 m long.
PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS
 A force that turns a spanner in the clockwise direction is generally used to tighten a nut.
 The torque or moment of the force so produced is called clockwise moment.
 On the other hand, to loosen a nut, the force is applied such that it turns the nut in the anticlockwise direction.
The torque or moment of the force so produced is called anticlockwise moment.
 A body initially at rest does not rotate if sum of all the clockwise moments acting on it is balanced by the sum of all the
anticlockwise moments acting on it. This is known as the principle of moments. According to the principle of
moments: A body is balanced if the sum of clockwise moments acting on the body is equal to the sum of
anticlockwise moments acting on it.
CENTRE OF MASS
 It is observed that the centre of mass of a system moves as if its entire mass is confined at that point.
 Centre of mass of a system is such a point where an applied force causes the system to move without rotation.
CENTRE OF GRAVITY
 A point where the whole weight of the body appears to act vertically downward is called centre of gravity of a
body.
 175

CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF AN IRREGULAR SHAPED THIN LAMINA

 A simple method to find the centre of gravity of a body is by the use of a plumbline.
 A plumb line consists of a small metal bob (lead or brass) supported by a string.
 When the bob is suspended freely by the string, it rests along the vertical direction due to its weight acting
vertically downward.
 In this state, centre of gravity of the bob is exactly below its point of suspension.
COUPLE
 A couple is formed by two unlike parallel forces of the same magnitude but not along the same line.
 When a driver turns a vehicle, he applies forces that produce a torque. This torque turns the steering wheel. These
forces act on opposite sides of the steering wheel and are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. These
two forces form a couple.
EQUILIBRIUM
 A body is said to be in equilibrium if no net force acts on it.
 A body in equilibrium thus remains at rest or moves with uniform velocity
CONDITIONS FOR EQUILIBRIUM
 There are two conditions for a body to be in equilibrium.
FIRST CONDITION FOR EQUILIBRIUM
 A body is said to satisfy first condition for equilibrium if the resultant of all the forces acting on it is zero. Let n
number of forces F1, F2, F3…….,Fn are acting on a body such that F1+F2+F3+………….+Fn = 0 or ∑F=0
 The symbol ∑ is a Greek letter called sigma used for summation. Equation is called the first condition for
equilibrium.
 The first condition for equilibrium can also be stated in terms of x and y-components of the forces acting on the
body as: F1x + F2x + F3x + …………..+Fnx = 0 | And F1y + F2y+ F3y + …………+Fny | Or ∑Fx = o And ∑Fy = 0

SECOND CONDITION FOR EQUILIBRIUM

 According to this, a body satisfies second condition for equilibrium when the resultant torque acting on it is zero.
Mathematically, ∑ = 0
STATES OF EQUILIBRIUM
 There are three states of equilibrium; stable equilibrium, unstable equilibrium and neutral equilibrium.
 A body may be in one of these three states of equilibrium.
STABLE EQUILIBRIUM
 A body is said to be in stable equilibrium if after a slight tilt it returns to its previous position.
 When a body is in stable equilibrium, its centre of gravity is at the lowest position.
 When it is tilted, its centre of gravity rises.
 It returns to its stable state by lowering its centre of gravity. A body remains in stable equilibrium as long as the centre
of gravity acts through the base of the body.
UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM
 If a body does not return to its previous position when sets free after a slightest tilt is said to be in unstable
equilibrium.
 The centre of gravity of the body is at its highest position in the state of unstable equilibrium.
 As the body topples over about its base (tip), its centre of gravity moves towards its lower position and does not
return to its previous position.
NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM
 If a body remains in its new position when disturbed from its previous position, it is said to be in a state of
neutral equilibrium.
 In neutral equilibrium, all the new states in which a body is moved, are the stable states and the body, remains in
its new state.
 In neutral equilibrium, the centre of gravity of the body remains at the same height, irrespective to its new
position.
 There are various objects which have neutral equilibrium such as a ball, a sphere, a roller, a pencil lying
horizontally, an egg lying horizontally on a flat surface etc.

CHAPTER 05
FORCES AND MATTER
 176

PRESSURE
 The force acting normally per unit area on the surface of a body is called pressure.
 Pressure is a scalar quantity.
-2 -2
 In SI units, the unit of pressure is Nm also called pascal (Pa). Thus 1 Nm = 1 Pa
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
 The Earth is surrounded by a cover of air called atmosphere.
 It extends to a few hundred kilometers above sea level.
 Air is a mixture of gases.
 The density of air in the atmosphere is not uniform.
 It decreases continuously as we go up.
 Atmospheric pressure acts in all directions.
MEASURING ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
-2
 At sea level, the atmospheric pressure is about 101,300 Pa or 101,300 Nm .
 The instruments that measure atmospheric pressure are called barometers.
 One of the simple barometers is a mercury barometer.
 It consists of a glass tube 1m long closed at one end.
 At sea level the height of mercury column above the mercury in the trough is found to be about 76 cm.
-2
 Pressure exerted by 76 cm of mercury column is nearly 101,300 Nm equal to atmospheric pressure.
 It is common to express atmospheric pressure in terms of the height of mercury column.
 As the atmospheric pressure at a place does not remains constant, hence, the height of mercury column also
varies with atmospheric pressure.
 Mercury is 13.6 times denser than water.
 Atmospheric pressure can hold vertical column of water about 13.6 times the height of mercury column at a
place.
 Thus, at sea level, vertical height of water column would be 0.76 m x 13.6 = 10.34 m.
 Thus, a glass tube more than 10 m long is required to make a water barometer.
VARIATION IN ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
 The atmospheric pressure decreases as we go up.
 The atmospheric pressure on mountains is lower than at sea level.
 At a height of about 30 km, the atmospheric pressure becomes only 7 mm of mercury which is approximately
1000 Pa. It would become zero at an altitude where there is no air. Thus, we can determine the altitude of a
place by knowing the atmospheric pressure at that place.
 Atmospheric pressure may also indicate a change in the weather.
 On a hot day, air above the Earth becomes hot and expands. This causes a fall of atmospheric pressure in that
region.
 On the other hand, during cold chilly nights, air above the Earth cools down. This causes an increase in
atmospheric pressure.
 The changes in atmospheric pressure at a certain place indicate the expected changes in the weather conditions of
that place.
PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS
 Liquids exert pressure.
 The pressure of a liquid acts in all directions.
 If we take a pressure sensor (a device that measures pressure) inside a liquid, then the pressure of the liquid
varies with the depth of sensor.
 Consider a surface of area A in a liquid at a depth h. The length of the cylinder of liquid over this surface will be h.
The force acting on this surface will be the weight w of the liquid above this surface. If is the density of the liquid
and m is mass of liquid above the surface, then
 Mass of the liquid cylinder m = volume x density = (A x h) x 𝜌
 Force acting on area A F = w = mg
=Ah𝜌
 177

 As pressure P = F/A
𝐴ℎ𝜌𝑔
=
𝐴
 Liquid pressure at depth h  = P = 𝜌 g h………….. (1)
 Equation (1) gives the pressure at a depth h in a liquid of density .
 It shows that its pressure in a liquid increases with depth.
PASCAL'S LAW
 Pascal's law which is stated as: Pressure, applied at any point of a liquid enclosed in a container, is transmitted
without loss to all other parts of the liquid.
 In general, this law holds good for fluids both for liquids as well as gases.
APPLICATIONS OF PASCAL'S LAW
 Pascal's law finds numerous applications in our daily life such as automobiles, hydraulic brake system, hydraulic
jack, hydraulic press and other hydraulic machine.
HYDRAULIC PRESS
 Hydraulic press is a machine which works on Pascal's law.
 It consists of two cylinders of different cross sectional areas. They are fitted with pistons of cross-sectional
areas a and A.
ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE
 Archimedes principle states that: When an object is totally or partially immersed in a liquid, an up thrust acts on it
equal to the weight of the liquid it displaces.
 Archimedes principle is applicable on liquids as well as gases. We find numerous applications of this principle in
our daily life.
DENSITY OF AN OBJECT
 Archimedes principle is also helpful to determine the density of an object. The ratio in the weights of a body with an
equal volume of liquid is the same as in their densities.
 Let Density of the object = D Density of the liquid = Weight of the object = w1
 Weight of equal volume of liquid = w = w1 - w2
 Here w2 is the weight of the solid in liquid.
 According to Archimedes principle, w2 actual weight w1 by an amount w.
𝐷 𝑤1 𝑊1 𝑊1
Since = is less than its D = × 𝜌 Or D = = × 𝜌…………………(2)
𝜌 𝑤 𝑊 𝑤2−𝑤1
 Thus, finding the weight of the solid in air w1 and its weight in water w2, we can calculate the density of the solid
by using equation 2.
PRINCIPLE OF FLOATATION
 The principle of floatation states that: A floating object displaces a fluid having weight equal to the weight of
the object.
SHIPS AND SUBMARINES
 According to the principle of floatation, a body floats if it displaces water equal to the weight of the body when it
is partially or completely immersed in water.
 Ships and boats are designed on the same principle of floatation. They carry passengers and goods over water. It
would sink in water if its weight including the weight of its passengers and goods becomes greater than the up
thrust of water.
 A submarine can travel over as well as under water.
 It also works on the principle of floatation.
 It floats over water when the weight of water equal to its volume is greater than its weight.
 It has a system of tanks which can be filled with and emptied from seawater.
 When these tanks are filled with seawater, the weight of the submarine increases.
 As soon as its weight becomes greater than the up thrust, it dives into water and remains under water.
 To come up on the surface, the tanks are emptied from seawater.
STRESS
 Stress is related to the force producing deformation. It is defined as: The force acting on unit area at the
surface of a body is called stress
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
 Thus Stress =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
-2
 In SI, the unit of stress is newton per square metre (Nm ).
STRAIN
 Stress acts on a body, it may change its length, volume, or shape.
 178

 A ratio of such a change caused by the stress with the original length, volume or shape is called as strain. If
stress produces a change in the length of an object then the strain is called tensile strain.
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
 Tensile strain =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
 Strain has no units as it is simply a ratio between two similar quantities.
HOOKE'S LAW
 Hooke's law states that: The strain produced in a body by the stress applied to it is directly proportional to the
stress within the elastic limit of the body.
Thus; Stress strain or Stress = constant x strain or Stress/strain = constant
 Hooke's law is applicable to all kinds of deformation and all types of matter i.e., solids, liquids or gases within
certain limit.
 This limit tells the maximum stress that can be safely applied on a body without causing permanent deformation
in its length, volume or shape.
 In other words, it is a limit within which a body recovers its original length, volume or shape after the deforming
force is removed.
 When a stress crosses this limit, called the elastic limit, a body is permanently deformed and is unable to restore
its original state after the stress is removed.
YOUNG'S MODULUS
 The ratio of stress to tensile strain is called Young's modulus.
 Mathematically, Y = Stress/Tensile strain
-2
 SI unit of Young's modulus is newton per square metre (Nm )
CHAPTER 06
GRAVITATION
 The first man who came up with the idea of gravity was Isaac Newton in 1665.
THE FORCE OF GRAVITATION
 Newton concluded that the force which causes an apple to fall on the Earth and the force which keeps the moon in
its orbit are of the same nature.
 He further concluded that there exists a force due to which everybody of the universe attracts every other body.
He named this force the force of gravitation.
LAW OF GRAVITATION
 According to Newton's law of universal gravitation: Everybody in the universe attracts every other body with a
force which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between their centers.
 According to the law of gravitation, the gravitational force of attraction F with which the two masses m1 and m2
1 𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑚1 𝑚2
separated by a distance d attract each other is given by: F ∝ 𝑚1 𝑚2, F ∝ , F∝ ,F=G
𝑑2 𝑑2 𝑑2
 Here G is the proportionality constant. It is called the universal constant of gravitation. Its value is same
-11 2 -2
everywhere. In SI units its value is 6.673x1 10 Nm kg .
 The weight of an object on the Earth is the result of gravitational force of attraction between the Earth and the
object.
LAW OF GRAVITATION AND NEWTON'S THIRD LAW OF MOTION
 The action and reaction due to force of gravitation are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
 This is consistent with Newton's third law of motion which states, to every action there is always an equal but
opposite reaction.
 According to the Newton's law of gravitation, the gravitational force between a body of mass m and the Earth is
𝑚𝑀
given by F = G 2 𝑒
𝑟
 Where Me is the mass of the Earth and r is the distance of the body from the centre of the Earth.
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD
 The region of space surrounding a body in which another body experiences a force of gravitational attraction is
called gravitational field.
 It is assumed that a gravitational field exists all around the Earth.
 This field is directed towards the centre of the Earth.
 The gravitational field becomes weaker and weaker as we go farther and farther away from the Earth.
 In the gravitational field of the Earth, the gravitational force per unit mass is called the gravitational field
 179

strength of the Earth.

 At any place its value is equal to the value of g at that point. Near the surface of the Earth, the gravitational field
-1
strength is 10 N kg .
MASS OF THE EARTH
 Consider a body of mass m on the surface of the Earth as shown in figure 5.4. Let the mass of the Earth be Me and
radius of the Earth be R. The distance of the body from the centre of the Earth will also be equal to the radius R of the
Earth. According to the law of gravitation, the gravitational force F of the Earth acting on a body is given by F = G
𝑚𝑀𝑒
𝑅2
 But the force with which Earth attracts a body towards its centre is equal to its weight w. Therefore,
𝑚𝑀𝑒 𝑚𝑀𝑒 𝑅2 𝑔
F = w = mg Or mg = F = G g= G And Me = ………..(1)
𝑅2 𝑅2 𝐺
 Mass Me of the Earth can be determined on putting the values in equation (1).
Me = (6.4 x 106 m )2 x (10ms)-2 / 6.673 x10-11 Nm2kg-2 = 6.0 x 1024kg
 Thus, mass of the Earth is 6 x 10 kg.
VARIATION OF G WITH ALTITUDE
 Equation (5.6) shows that the value of acceleration due to gravity g depends on the radius of the Earth at its
surface.
 The value of g is inversely proportional to the square of the radius of the Earth.
 But it does not remain constant. It decreases with altitude.
 Altitude is the height of an object or place above sea level.
 The value of g is greater at sea level than at the hills.
 Consider a body of mass m at an altitude h .The distance of the body from the centre of the Earth becomes R +
𝑀𝑒
h. Therefore, gh = G
(𝑅+ℎ)2
 According to the above equation, we come to know that at a height equal to one Earth radius above the surface of
the Earth, g becomes one fourth of its value on the Earth.
 Similarly at a distance of two Earths radius above the Earth's surface, the value of g becomes one ninth of its
value on the Earth.
ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES
 An object that revolves around a planet is called a satellite. The moon revolves around the Earth so moon is a
natural satellite of the Earth.
 Moon is nearly 3,80,000 km away from the Earth. I t completes its one revolution around the Earth in 27.3 days.
 Scientists have sent many objects into space. Some of these objects revolve around the Earth. These are called
artificial satellites.
 Most of the artificial satellites, orbiting around the Earth are used for communication purposes.
 Artificial satellites carry instruments or passengers to perform experiments in space.
 The height of a geostationary satellite is about 42,300 km from the surface of the Earth. Its velocity with respect
to Earth is zero.
 Communication satellites take 24 hours to complete their one revolution around the Earth. As Earth also completes
its one rotation about its axis in 24 hours, hence, these communication satellites appear to be stationary with
respect to Earth. It is due to this reason that the orbit of such a satellite is called geostationary orbit.
 Dish antennas sending and receiving the signals from them have fixed direction depending upon their location
on the Earth.
MOTION OF ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES
 A satellite requires centripetal force that keeps it to move around the Earth.
 The gravitational force of attraction between the satellite and the Earth provides the necessary centripetal force.
CHAPTER 07
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
 Matter exists in three states, solid, liquid and gas.
 Matter has weight and occupies space.
 Solids have shape of their own while liquids and gases do not.
 Liquids on the other hand have definite volume while gases do not have.
 180

 Various materials differ in their hardness, density, solubility, flow, elasticity, conductivity and many other
qualities.
KINETIC MOLECULAR MODEL OF MATTER
 The kinetic molecular model of matter has some important features. These are
 Matter is made up of particles called molecules.
 The molecules remain in continuous motion.
 Molecules attract each other.
 Kinetic molecular model is used to explain the three states of matter - solid, liquid and gas.
SOLIDS
 Solids such as a stone, metal spoon, pencil, etc. have fixed shapes and volume.
 Their molecules are held close by strong forces of attraction.
 However, they vibrate about their mean positions but do not move from place to place.
LIQUIDS
 The distances between the molecules of a liquid are more than in solids.
 Thus, attractive forces between them are weaker.
 Like solids, molecules of a liquid also vibrate about their mean position but are not rigidly held with each other.
 Due to the weaker attractive forces, they can slide over one another. Thus, the liquids can flow.
 The volume of a certain amount of liquid remains the same but because it can flow hence, it attains the shape of
a container to which it is put.
GASES
 Gases such as air have no fixed shape or volume. They can be filled in any container of any shape.
 Their molecules have random motion and move with very high velocities.
 In gases, molecules are much farther apart than solids or liquids.
 Thus, gases are much lighter than solids and liquids. They can be squeezed into smaller volumes.
 The molecules of a gas are constantly striking the walls of a container.
 Thus, a gas exerts pressure on the walls of the container.
PLASMA - THE FOURTH STATE OF MATTER
 The kinetic energy of gas molecules goes on increasing if a gas is heated continuously. This causes the gas
molecules to move faster and faster. The collisions between atoms and molecules of the gas become so strong
that they tear off the atoms. Atoms lose their electrons and become positive ions. This ionic state of matter is
called plasma.
 Plasma is also formed in gas discharge tubes when electric current passes through these tubes.
 Plasma is called the fourth state of matter in which a gas occurs in its ionic state.
 Positive ions and electrons get separated in the presence of electric or magnetic fields.
 Plasma also exists in neon and fluorescent tubes when they glow.
 Most of the matter that fills the universe is in plasma state.
 In stars such as our Sun, gases exist in their ionic state.
 Plasma is highly conducting state of matter. It allows electric current to pass through it.
DENSITY
 Density of a substance is defined as its mass per unit volume.
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
 Density =
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
-3
 SI unit of density is kilogramme per cubic metre (kgm ).
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
 Density equations: Density = Mass = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 Volume =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
DENSITIES OF COMMON SUBSTANCES
Material Density (g/cm3) State of Matter
Hydrogen (At STP) 0.00009 Gas
Helium (At STP) 0.000178 Gas
Carbon Monoxide (At STP) 0.00125 Gas
Nitrogen (At STP) 0.001251 Gas
Air (At STP) 0.001293 Gas
Carbon Dioxide (At STP) 0.001977 Gas
Lithium 0.534 Solid
 181

Material Density (g/cm3) State of Matter

Ethanol (Grain Alcohol) 0.810 Liquid
Benzene 0.900 Liquid
Ice 0.920 Solid
Water At 20°C 0.998 Liquid
Water At 4°C 1.000 Liquid
Seawater 1.03 Liquid
Milk 1.03 Liquid
Coal 1.1-1.4 Solid
Blood 1.600 Liquid
Magnesium 1.7 Solid
Granite 2.6-2.7 Solid
Aluminum 2.7 Solid
Steel 7.8 Solid
Iron 7.8 Solid
Copper 8.3-9.0 Solid
Lead 11.3 Solid
Mercury 13.6 Liquid
Uranium 18.7 Solid
Gold 19.3 Solid
Platinum 21.4 Solid
Osmium 22.6 Solid
Iridium 22.6 Solid
7
White Dwarf Star 10 Solid

 Earth's atmosphere extends upward about a few hundred kilometers with continuously decreasing density. Nearly
half of its mass is between sea level and 10 km. Up to 30 km from sea level contains about 99% of the mass of the
atmosphere.
 The air becomes thinner and thinner as we go up.

CHAPTER 08
ENERGY SOURCES AND TRANSFER OF ENERGY
 Generally, work refers to perform some task or job.
 Scientifically, work is done only when an effort or force moves an object.
 When work is done, energy is used.
 Thus, work and energy are related to each other.
 The concept of energy is an important concept in Physics, it helps to identify the changes that occur when work
is done.

WORK
 In Physics, work is said to be done when a force acts on a body and moves it in the direction of the force.
 Naturally, greater is the force acting on a body and longer is the distance moved by it, larger would be the work
done.
 Mathematically, Work is a product of force F and displacement S in the direction of force. Thus
 Work done = Force x displacement
 W = FS…………. (6.1)
 Work is a scalar quantity.
 It depends on the force acting on a body, displacement of the body and the angle between them.
 SI unit of work is joule (J). It is defined as the amount of work is one joule when a force of one newton displaces
 182

a body through one metre in the direction of force.

o Thus 1 J = 1 N x 1 m
3 6
 Joule is a small unit of work. Its bigger units are: 1 kilo joule (kJ) = 1000 J = 10 J , 1 mega joule (MJ) =1000 000 J = 10 J
ENERGY
 A body has energy, it mean that it has the ability to do work.
 For example Water running down the stream has the ability to do work, so it possesses energy.
 Energy exists in various forms such as mechanical energy, heat energy, light energy, sound energy, electrical
energy, chemical energy and nuclear energy etc.
 Energy can be transformed from one form into another.
 A body possesses energy if it is capable to do work.
 Mechanical energy possessed by a body is of two types: kinetic energy and potential energy.

KINETIC ENERGY
The energy possessed by a body due to its motion is called its kinetic energy.
A moving body has kinetic energy, because it can do work due to its motion.
The body stops moving as soon as all of its kinetic energy is used up.
K.E. of the body = Work done by it due to motion K.E = FS
POTENTIAL ENERGY
 The energy possessed by a body due to its position is known as its potential energy.
 Often a body has the ability to do work although it is at rest. For example, an apple on a tree is capable to do work as
it falls.
Potential energy (P.E) = F x h = w x h
(Here weight of the body = w = P.E = wh = mgh
 Thus, the potential energy possessed by the body with respect to the ground is mgh and is equal to the work done
in lifting it to height h
FORMS OF ENERGY
MECHANICAL ENERGY
 The energy possessed by a body both due to its motion or position is called mechanical energy.
 Water running down a stream, wind, a moving car, a lifted hammer, a stretched bow, a catapult or a
compressed spring etc. possess mechanical energy.
HEAT ENERGY
 Heat is a form of energy given out by hot bodies.
 Large amount of heat is obtained by burning fuel.
 Heat is also produced when motion is opposed by frictional forces.
 The foods we take provide us heat energy.
 The Sun is the main source of heat energy.
ELECTRICAL ENERGY
 Electrical energy can be supplied easily to any desired place through wires.
 We get electrical energy from batteries and electric generators.
 These electric generators are run by hydro power, thermal or nuclear power.
SOUND ENERGY
 Sound is a form of energy.
 It is produced when a body vibrates; such as vibrating diaphragm of a drum, vibrating strings of a sitar and
vibrating air column of wind instruments such as flute pipe etc.
LIGHT ENERGY
 Light is an important form of energy. Name some sources of light that you come across.
 Plants produce food in the presence of light.
 We also need light to see things.
 We get light from candles, electric bulbs, and fluorescent tubes and also by burning fuel.
 However, most of the light comes from the Sun.
CHEMICAL ENERGY
 Chemical energy is present in food, fuels and in other substances.
 We get other forms of energy from these substances during chemical reactions.
 The burning of wood, coal or natural gas in air is a chemical reaction which releases energy as heat and light.
 Electric energy is obtained from electric cells and batteries as a result of chemical reaction between various
 183

substances present in them.

 Animals get heat and muscular energy from the food they eat.
NUCLEAR ENERGY
 Nuclear energy is the energy released in the form of nuclear radiations in addition to heat and light during nuclear
reactions such as fission and fusion reactions.
 Heat energy released in nuclear reactors is converted into electrical energy.
 The energy coming from the Sun for the last billions of years is the result of nuclear reactions taking place on the
Sun
INTERCONVERSION OF ENERGY
 Energy cannot be destroyed however it can be converted into some other forms.
 For example, rub your hands together quickly. You will feel them warm.
 You have used your muscular energy in rubbing hands as a result heat is produced. In the process of rubbing
hands, mechanical energy is converted into heat energy.
 Processes in nature are the results of energy changes.
 Thermal energy causes water to evaporate from the surface to form water vapours. Potential energy changes to
kinetic energy as the rain falls.
 As the rain water flows down, its kinetic energy changes into thermal energy while parts of the kinetic energy of
flowing water is used to wash away soil particles of rocks known as soil erosion.
 During the interconversion of energy from one form to other forms, the total energy at any time remains
constant.
MAJOR SOURCES OF ENERGY
 The energy we use comes from the Sun, wind and water power etc.
 Actually, all of the energy we get comes directly or indirectly from the Sun.
FOSSIL FUELS
 We use fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas to heat our houses and run industry and transport.
 In case of coal: The fossil fuels took millions of years for their formation. They are known as non-renewable
resources.
NUCLEAR FUELS
 In nuclear power plants, we get energy as a result of fission reaction.
 During fission reaction, heavy atoms, such as Uranium atoms, split up into smaller parts releasing a large amount
of energy.
 Nuclear power plants give out a lot of nuclear radiations and vast amount of heat.
 A part of this heat is used to run power plants while lot of heat goes waste into the environment.
RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
 Sunlight and water power are the renewable sources of energy. They will not run out like coal, oil and gas.
 ENERGY FROM WATER
 ENERGY FROM THE SUN
 SOLAR HOUSE HEATING
 WIND ENERGY
 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
 ENERGY FROM BIOMASS
 Biomass is plant or animal wastes that can be burnt as fuel.
SOLAR CELLS
 Solar energy can also be converted directly into electricity by solar cells.
 A solar cell also called photo cell is made from silicon wafer.
 When sunlight falls on a solar cell, it converts the light directly into electrical energy.
 Solar cells are used in calculators, watches and toys.
 Large numbers of solar cells are wired together to form solar panels.
 Solar panels can provide power to telephone booths, light houses and scientific research centers.
 Solar panels are also used to power satellites.
MASS - ENERGY EQUATION
 Einstein predicted the interconversion of matter and energy.
 According to him, a loss in the mass of a body provides a lot of energy.
 This happens in nuclear reactions. The relation between mass m and energy E is given by Einstein's mass-energy
equation. E = mc2
 184

8 -1
 Here c is the speed of light (3x10 ms ).
 The above equation shows that tremendous amount of energy can be obtained from small quantity of matter.
 It appears that matter is a highly concentrated form of energy.
 The process of getting energy from our nuclear power plants is based on the above equation.
 The process is taking place on the Sun and stars for the last millions of years.
ELECTRICITY FROM FOSSIL FUELS
 Fossil fuels are burnt in thermal power stations to produce electricity.
 Various energy conversion processes involved in producing electricity from coal.
EFFICIENCY
 The efficiency of a machine defined as “Efficiency of a system is the ratio of required form of energy obtained
from a system as output to the total energy given to it as input.”
𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
 Efficiency = OR % Efficiency = x 100
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
POWER
 Power is defined as the rate of doing work.
 Mathematically, Power (P) = (𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒)/(𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛) OR P = 𝑊/𝑡
 Since work is a scalar quantity, therefore, power is also a scalar quantity.
 SI unit of power is watt (W).
-1
 It is defined as the power of a body is one watt if it does work at the rate of 1 joule per second (1 Js ).
 Bigger units of power are kilowatt (kW), megawatt (MW) etc.
 1Kw = 1000 W = 103 W , 1MW = 1000000W = 106W ,1 Horse power = 1hp
CHAPTER 09
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
 Temperature of a body is the degree of hotness or coldness of the body.
 To understand the concept of temperature, it is useful to understand the terms, thermal contact and thermal
equilibrium.
 To store ice in summer, people wrap it with cloth or keep it in wooden box or in thermos flask. In this way, they
avoid the thermal contact of ice with its hot surroundings otherwise ice will soon melt away.
 Heat flows from a hot body to a cold body until thermal equilibrium is reached.
 The form of energy that is transferred from a hot body to a cold body is called heat.
 Heat is the energy that is transferred from one body to the other in thermal contact with each other as a result of the
difference of temperature between them.
 Heat is therefore, called as the energy in transit. Once heat enters a body, it becomes its internal energy and no
longer exists as heat energy.
 The sum of kinetic energy and potential energy associated with the atoms, molecules and particles of a
body is called its internal energy.
 Internal energy of a body depends on many factors such as the mass of the body, kinetic and potential energies of
molecules etc.
 Kinetic energy of an atom or molecule is due to its motion which depends upon the temperature.
 Potential energy of atoms or molecules is the stored energy due to intermolecular forces.
 The crocus flower is a natural thermometer. It opens when the temperature is precisely 23°C and closes when
the temperature drops.
THERMOMETER
 A device that is used to measure the temperature of a body is called thermometer.
 Some substances have property that changes with temperature.
 Substances that show a change with temperature can be used as a thermometric material.
 A thermometric liquid should have the following properties:
 It should be visible.
 It should have uniform thermal expansion.
 It should have a low freezing point.
 It should have a high boiling point.
 It should not wet glass.
 It should be a good conductor of heat.
 It should have a small specific heat capacity.
 185

LIQUID-IN-GLASS THERMOMETER
 A liquid-in-glass thermometer has a bulb with a long capillary tube of uniform and fine bore.
 A suitable liquid is filled in the bulb. When the bulb contacts a hot object, the liquid in it expands and rises in the
tube.
 The glass stem of a thermometer is thick and acts as a cylindrical lens. This makes it easy to see the liquid level in
the glass tube.
 Mercury freezes at-39 °C and boils at 357 °C.
 Mercury is one of the most suitable thermometric material. Mercury-in-glass thermometers are widely used in
laboratories, clinics and houses to measure temperatures in the range from -10 °C to 150 °C.
LOWER AND UPPER FIXED POINTS
 A thermometer has a scale on its stem.
 This scale has two fixed points. The lower fixed point is marked to show the position of liquid in the
thermometer when it is placed in ice.
 Upper fixed point is marked to show the position of liquid in the thermometer when it is placed in steam at
standard pressure above boiling water.
SCALES OF TEMPERATURE
 A scale is marked on the thermometer.
 The temperature of the body in contact with the thermometer can be read on that scale. Three scales of
temperature are in common use. These are:
1. Celsius scale or centigrade scale
2. Fahrenheit scale
3. Kelvin scale
 On Celsius scale, the interval between lower and upper fixed points is divided into 100 equal parts.
 The lower fixed point is marked as 0 °C and the upper fixed point is marked as 100 °C.On Fahrenheit scale, the
interval between lower and upper fixed points is divided into 180 equal parts.
 Its lower fixed point is marked as 32 °F and upper fixed point is marked as 212 °F.
 In SI units, the unit of temperature is kelvin (K) and its scale is called Kelvin scale of temperature.
 The interval between the lower and upper fixed points is divided into 100 equal parts. Thus, a change in 1°C is
equal to a change of 1K.
 The lower fixed point on this scale corresponds to 273 K and the upper fixed point is referred as 373 K.
 The zero on this scale is called the absolute zero and is equal to - 273 °C.
 A clinical thermometer is used to measure the temperature of human body. It has a narrow range from 35 °C to
42 °C. It has a constriction that prevents the mercury to return. Thus, its reading does not change until reset.
Do You Know?

CONVERSION OF TEMPERATURE FROM ONE SCALE INTO OTHER TEMPERATURE SCALE

FROM CELSIUS TO KELVIN SCALE
 The temperature T on Kelvin scale can be obtained by adding 273 in the temperature C on Celsius scale. Thus T(K)
= 273 + C
FROM KELVIN TO CELSIUS SCALE
The temperature on Celsius scale can be found by subtracting 273 from the temperature in Kelvin Scale. Thus C = T(K) - 273
FROM CELSIUS TO FAHRENHEIT SCALE
 Since 100 divisions on Celsius scale are equal to
 180 divisions on Fahrenheit scale.
 Therefore, each division on Celsius scale is equal to 1.8 divisions on Fahrenheit scale. Moreover, 0°C corresponds
to 32°F. F = 1.8C + 32
 186

 Here F is the temperature on Fahrenheit scale and C is the temperature on Celsius scale.
S P E C I F I C H E AT C A PA C I T Y
 The specific heat of a substance is defined as Specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of 1 kg mass of that substance through 1K.
△𝑄
 Mathematically, C =
𝑚△𝑇
 Generally, when a body is heated, its temperature increases. Increase in the temperature of a body is found to
be proportional to the amount of heat absorbed by it. It has also been observed that the
quantity of heat △Q required to raise the temperature △T of a body is proportional to the mass m of the body.
 Thus △Q ∝ m △T or △Q = c m △ T
 Here △Q is the amount of heat absorbed by the body and c is the constant of proportionality called the specific
heat capacity or simply specific heat.
 In SI units, mass m is measured in kilogramme (kg), heat △Q is measured in joule (J) and temperature
-1 -1
increase △T is taken in kelvin (K). Hence, SI unit of specific heat is Jkg K .

IMPORTANCE OF LARGE SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF WATER

-1 -1 -1 -1
 Specific heat of water is 4200 Jkg K and that of dry soil is about 810 Jkg K .
 As a result the temperature of soil would increase five times more than the same mass of water by the same
amount of heat.
 Thus, the temperature of land rises and falls more rapidly than that of the sea.
 Hence, the temperature variations from summer to winter are much smaller at places near the sea than land far
away from the sea.
 Water has a large specific heat capacity. For this reason, it is very useful in storing and carrying thermal energy
due to its high specific heat capacity.
 The cooling system of automobiles uses water to carry away unwanted thermal energy.
 In an automobile, large amount of heat is produced by its engine due to which its temperature goes on
increasing.
 The engine would cease unless it is not cooled down. Water circulating around the engine maintains its
temperature. Water absorbs unwanted thermal energy of the engine and dissipates heat through its radiator.
 In central heating systems, hot water is used to carry thermal energy through pipes from boiler to radiators.
These radiators are fixed inside the house at suitable places.
HEAT CAPACITY
Heat capacity of a body is the quantity of thermal energy absorbed by it for one kelvin (1 K) increase in its temperature.
 How much heat a body can absorb depends on many factors. Here we define a quantity called heat capacity of a
body as:
Thus, if the temperature of a body increases through △T on adding △Q amount of heat, then its
△Q
heat capacity will be
△𝑇
△𝑄 𝑚𝑐△𝑇
Putting the value of △Q, we get Heat capacity = =  Heat capacity = mc … (1)
△𝑇 △𝑇
Equation (1) shows that heat capacity of a body is equal to the product of its mass of the body and its specific heat
capacity.
CHANGE OF STATE
 Matter can be changed from one state to another.
 For such a change to occur, thermal energy is added to or removed from a substance.
LATENT HEAT OF FUSION
 187

 Heat energy required to change unit mass of a substance from solid to liquid state at its melting point without
change in its temperature is called its latent heat of fusion.
 When a substance is changed from solid to liquid state by adding heat, the process is called melting or fusion.
 The temperature at which a solid starts melting is called its fusion point or melting point.
 When the process is reversed i.e. when a liquid is cooled, it changes into solid state. The temperature at which a
substance changes from liquid to solid state is called its freezing point.
 Different substances have different melting points. However, the freezing point of a substance is the same as its
melting point.
△𝑄𝑓
 Latent heat of fusion is denoted by Hf HF = , △Qf= m Hf
𝑚
o
 Ice changes at 0 C into water.
5 -1 5
 Latent heat of fusion of ice is 3.36 x10 Jkg . That is; 3.36x10 joule heat is required to melt 1 kg of ice into
water at 0 °C.
LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION
 The quantity of heat that changes unit mass of a liquid completely into gas at its boiling point without any change
in its temperature is called its latent heat of vaporization.
 When heat is given to a liquid at its boiling point, its temperature remains constant.
 The heat energy given to a liquid at its boiling point is used up in changing its state from liquid to gas without any
increase in its temperature.
△𝑄𝑣
 Latent heat of vaporization is denoted by Hv. Hv = or △Qv = mHv
𝑚
 When water is heated, it boils at 100°C under standard pressure. Its temperature remains 100°C until it is changed
6 -1
completely into steam. Its latent heat of vaporization is 2.26 x10 J kg . That is; one kilogramme of water
6
requires 2.26x10 joule heat to change it completely into gas (steam) at its boiling point.

EVAPORATION
 Evaporation is the changing of a liquid into vapours (gaseous state) from the surface of the liquid without heating
it.
 Evaporation takes place at all temperature from the surface of a liquid.
 The rate of evaporation is affected by various factors.
 Temperature
 Surface Area
 Wind
 Nature of the Liquid
 Cooling is produced in refrigerators by evaporation of a liquefied gas.
 This produces cooling effect.
 Freon, a CFC, was used as a refrigerant gas. But its use has been forbidden when it was known that CFC is the
cause of ozone depletion in the upper atmosphere which results increase in amount of UV rays from the Sun.
 The rays are harmful to all living matter. Freon gas is now replaced by Ammonia and other substances which are
not harmful to the environment.
THERMAL EXPANSION
 Most of the substances solids, liquids and gases expand on heating and contract on cooling.
 The kinetic energy of the molecules of an object depends on its temperature.
 The molecules of a solid vibrate with larger amplitude at high temperature than at low temperature.
 Thus, on heating, the amplitude of vibration of the atoms or molecules of an object increases. They push one
 188

another farther away as the amplitude of vibration increases.

 Thermal expansion results an increase in length, breadth and thickness of a substance.
LINEAR THERMAL EXPANSION IN SOLIDS
 It has been observed that solids expand on heating and their expansion is nearly uniform over a wide range of
temperature. Consider a metal rod of length L0 at certain temperature To. Let its length on heating to a
temperature T becomes L Thus
 Increase in length of the rod = △L = L - Lo, Increase in temperature = △L = T - To
 It is found that change in length AL of a solid is directly proportional to its original length L0, and the change in
temperature △ T.
 That is; △L ∝ Lo△T or △L = α Lo△T ……….. (1) Or L-Lo = αLo△T or L = Lo(1+α△T)……………(2)

Where α is called the coefficient of linear thermal expansion of the substance.

△𝐿
From equation (1), we get α = …………… (3)
𝐿𝑜△𝑇
Thus, we can define the coefficient of linear expansion of a substance as the fractional increase in its length per
kelvin rise in temperature.

VOLUME THERMAL EXPANSION

 The volume of a solid also changes with the change in temperature and is called volume thermal expansion or
cubical thermal expansion. Consider a solid of initial volume V0 at certain temperature T0. On heating the solid
to a temperature T, let its volume becomes V, then
 Change in the volume of a solid △V = V=Vo
 And change in temperature △T = T-To

 Like linear expansion, the change in volume △V is found to be proportional to its original volume V0 and change in
temperature △ T. Thus △V ∝ Vo△T Or β V-Vo = βVo△T  V= Vo(1+β△T)……………….. (1)
△𝑉
Where β is the temperature coefficient of volume expansion. Using equation 1, we get β = ……(2)
𝑉𝑜△𝑇
 Thus, we can define the temperature coefficient of volume expansion as the fractional change in its volume per
kelvin change in temperature.
 The coefficients of linear expansion and volume expansion are related by the equation: Β = 3α
o -3 3
 Hence, the volume of brass cube at 100 C will be 1.0057 x 10 m .
CONSEQUENCES OF THERMAL EXPANSION
 Why gaps are left in railway tracks? The expansion of solids may damage the bridges, railway tracks and roads as
they are constantly subjected to temperature changes. So provision is made during construction for expansion
and contraction with temperature. For example, railway tracks buckled on a hot summer day due to expansion if
gaps are not left between sections.
 Bridges made of steel girders also expand during the day and contract during night. They will bend if their ends are
fixed. To allow thermal expansion, one end is fixed while the other end of the girder rests on rollers in the gap
left for expansion. Overhead transmission lines are also given a certain amount of sag so that they can contract
in winter without snapping.
APPLICATIONS OF THERMAL EXPANSION
 In thermometers, thermal expansion is used in temperature measurements.
 To open the cap of a bottle that is tight enough, immerse it in hot water for a minute or so. Metal cap expands and
becomes loose. It would now be easy to turn it to open.
 Iron rims are fixed on wooden wheels of carts. Iron rims are heated. Thermal expansion allows them to slip over
the wooden wheel. Water is poured on it to cool. The rim contracts and becomes tight over the wheel.
BIMETAL STRIP
 A bimetal strip consists of two thin strips of different metals such as brass and iron joined together.
 On heating the strip, brass expands more than iron. This unequal expansion causes bending of the strip.
 Bimetal thermometers are used to measure temperatures especially in furnaces and ovens.
 189

 Bimetal strips are also used in thermostats.

 Bimetal thermostat switch is used to control the temperature of heater coil in an electric iron.
THERMAL EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS
 The molecules of liquids are free to move in all directions within the liquid. On heating a liquid, the average
amplitude of vibration of its molecules increases.
 The molecules push each other and need more space to occupy. This accounts for the expansion of the liquid
when heated.
 The thermal expansion in liquids is greater than solids due to the weak forces between their molecules.
Therefore, the coefficient of volume expansion of liquids is greater than solids.
 Liquids have no definite shape of their own.
 A liquid always attains shape of the container in which it is poured. Therefore, when a liquid is heated, both
liquid and the container undergo a change in their volume. Thus, there are two types of thermal volume
expansion for liquid.
 Apparent volume expansion
 Real volume expansion
 Water on cooling below 4°C begins to expand until it reaches 0°C. On further cooling its volume increases
suddenly as it changes into ice at 0°C. When ice is cooled below 0°C, it contracts i.e. its volume decreases like
solids. This unusual expansion of water is called the anomalous expansion of water.

PHYSICS CLASS 10
CHAPTER 11
GENERAL WAVE PROPERTIES
WAVES
 Waves are carrier of energy and information over large distances.
 Waves require some oscillating or vibrating source.
 A wave is a disturbance in the medium which causes the particles of the medium to undergo vibratory
motion about their mean position in equal intervals of time.
 There are two categories of waves:
1. Mechanical waves
2. Electromagnetic waves
 Mechanical Waves: Waves which require any medium for their propagation are called mechanical waves.
 Examples of mechanical waves are water waves, sound waves and waves produced on the strings and
springs.
 Electromagnetic Waves: Waves which do not require any medium for their propagation are called
electromagnetic waves.
 Radio waves, television waves, X-rays, heat and light waves are some examples of electromagnetic waves.
 Electromagnetic waves consist of electric and magnetic fields oscillating perpendicular to each other.
TYPES OF MECHANICAL WAVES
 Depending upon the direction of displacement of medium with respect to the direction of the propagation
of wave itself, mechanical waves may be classified as longitudinal or transverse.
 Longitudinal waves can be produced on a spring (slinky) placed on a smooth floor or a long bench.
 A series of disturbances in the form of waves will start moving along the length of the slinky. Such a wave consists of
regions called compressions, where the loops of the spring are close together, alternating with regions called
rarefactions (expansions), where the loops are spaced apart.
 The distance between two consecutive compressions is called wavelength.
 The compressions and rarefactions move back and forth along the direction of motion of the wave. Such a wave is
called longitudinal wave.
 In longitudinal waves the particles of the medium move back and forth along the direction of propagation of wave.
 Longitudinal waves move faster through solids than through gases or liquids.
 Transverse waves move through solids at a speed of less than half of the speed of longitudinal waves.
 Transverse wave is defined as: In case of transverse waves, the vibratory motion of particles of the
medium is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of waves.
 The crests are the highest points while the troughs are the lowest points of the particles of the medium from the
mean position.
 The distance between two consecutive crests or troughs is called wavelength.
 The crests and troughs move perpendicular to the direction of the wave.
 Waves on the surface of water and light waves are examples of transverse waves.
 190

 Generating a high frequency wave, requires more energy per second than to generate a low frequency wave. Thus,
a high frequency wave carries more energy than a low frequency wave of the same amplitude.
 Earthquake produces waves through the crust of the Earth in the form of seismic waves. By studying such waves,
the geophysicists learn about the internal structure of the Earth and information about the occurrence of future
Earth activity.
RELATION BETWEEN VELOCITY, FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH
 Wave is a disturbance in a medium which travels from one place to another and hence has a specific velocity of
travelling. This is called the velocity of wave which is defined by Velocity = distance/time, V = d/t
 If time taken by the wave in moving from one point to another is equal to its time period T, then the distance covered
𝝀
by the wave will be equal to one wavelength λ, hence we can write: V =
𝐼
1
 But time period T, is reciprocal of the frequency f, i.e., T= Therefore, v= 𝑓𝝀………………….(1)
𝑓
 Eq. (1) is true both for longitudinal and transverse waves.
RIPPLE TANK
 Ripple tank is a device to produce water waves and to study their characteristics.
 This apparatus consists of a rectangular tray having glass bottom and is placed nearly half metre above the surface
of a table.
 Waves can be produced on the surface of water present in the tray by means of a vibrator (paddle).
 This vibrator is an oscillating electric motor fixed on a wooden plate over the tray such that its lower surface just touches
the surface of water.
 Reflection of waves defined as: when waves moving in one medium fall on the surface of another medium they
bounce back into the first medium such that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
 The speed of a wave in water depends on the depth of water.
 Refraction of waves defined as: When a wave from one medium enters into the second medium at some
angle, its direction of travel changes.
 The bending or spreading of waves around the sharp edges or corners of obstacles or slits is called diffraction.
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM)
 A body is said to be vibrating if it moves back and forth or to and fro about a point. Another term for vibration is
oscillation. A special kind of vibratory or oscillatory motion is called the simple harmonic motion (SHM).
 Simple harmonic motion (SHM) is a to and fro oscillatory motion in which acceleration of the body is directly
proportional to the displacement of the body from the mean position and is always directed towards the
mean position.
 Time taken by the simple pendulum to complete one cycle is called its time period. It depends upon the length of the
pendulum and is independent of the mass and amplitude of the pendulum.
 The motion of mass attached to a spring on a horizontal frictionless surface, the motion of a ball placed in a
bowl and the motion of a bob attached to a string are examples of SHM.
 Important features of SHM are summarized as:
 A body executing SHM always vibrates about a fixed position.
 Its acceleration is always directed towards the mean position.
 The magnitude of acceleration is always directly proportional to its displacement from the
mean position i.e., acceleration will be zero at the mean position while it will be maximum at
the extreme positions.
 Its velocity is maximum at the mean position and zero at the extreme positions.
DIFFERENT TERMS WHICH CHARACTERIZE SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
 Vibration: One complete round trip of a vibrating body about its mean position is called one vibration.
 Time Period (T ): The time taken by a vibrating body to complete one vibration is called time period.
 Frequency ( f ): The number of vibrations or cycles of a vibrating body in one second is called its frequency. It is
reciprocal of time period i.e., f = 1/T
 Amplitude (A): The maximum displacement of a vibrating body on either side from its mean position is called its
amplitude.
 Christian Huygens invented the pendulum clock in 1656. He was inspired by the work of Galileo who had discovered
that all pendulums of the same length took the same amount of time to complete one full swing. Huygens
developed the first clock that could accurately measure time
DAMPED OSCILLATIONS
 Practically, in all systems, the force of friction retards the motion, so the systems do not oscillate indefinitely.
The friction reduces the mechanical energy of the system as time passes, and the motion is said to be damped.
 This damping progressively reduces the amplitude of the vibration of motion.
 Shock absorbers in automobiles are one practical application of damped motion.
 The oscillations of a system in the presence of some resistive force are damped oscillations.
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CHAPTER 12
SOUND
 All sounds are produced by the vibrations of objects.
 Sound is a form of energy that travels in the form of waves from one place to another.
 SOUND WAVES
 Like other waves, sound is also produced by vibrating bodies.
 Due to vibrations of bodies the air around them also vibrates and the air vibrations produce sensation of sound in
our ear.
 Sound Requires Material Medium for its Propagation.
 Sound waves are longitudinal in nature.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND
Loudness:
 Loudness is the characteristic of sound by which loud and faint sounds can be distinguished.
 Loudness of a sound depends upon a number of factors.
Amplitude of the vibrating body:
 The loudness of the sound varies directly with the amplitude of the vibrating body.
 The sound produced by a sitar will be loud if we pluck its wires more violently.
 Similarly, when we beat a drum forcefully, the amplitude of its membrane increases and we hear a loud sound.
Area of the vibrating body:
 The loudness of sound also depends upon the area of the vibrating body.
 For example, sound produced by a large drum is louder than that by small one because of its large vibrating area.
 Loudness increases with the area of the vibrating body and vice versa.
 Some people use silent whistle to call dogs whose frequency lies between 20,000 Hz to 25,000 Hz. It is silent for
human but not for dogs because the audible frequency range for dogs is much higher.
Distance from the vibrating body:
 Loudness of sound also depends upon the distance of the vibrating body from the listener.
 It is caused by the decrease in amplitude due to increase in distance.
 Loudness also depends upon the physical condition of the ears of the listener.
 A sound appears louder to a person with sensitive ears than to a person with defective ears.
 However, there is a characteristic of sound which does not depend upon the sensitivity of the ear of the listener and
it is called intensity of sound.
Pitch:
 Pitch is the characteristic of sound by which we can distinguish between a shrill and a grave sound.
 It depends upon the frequency.
 A higher pitch means a higher frequency and vice versa.
 The frequency of the voice of ladies and children is higher than that of men. Therefore, the voice of ladies and children
is shrill and of high pitch.
Quality:
 The characteristic of sound by which we can distinguish between two sounds of same loudness and pitch is called
quality.
Intensity:
 The intensity of sound depends on the amplitude of sound wave.
 Sound energy passing per second through a unit area held perpendicular to the direction of propagation of sound
waves is called intensity of sound.
 Intensity is a physical quantity and can be measured accurately.
-2
 The unit of intensity of sound is watt per square metre (W m ).
SOUND INTENSITY LEVEL
-12 -2 -2
 The human ear responds to the intensities ranging from 10 W m to more than 1 W m (which is loud
enough to be painful). Because the range is so wide, intensities are scaled by factors of ten.
-12 -2
 The barely audible and the faintest intensity of sound i.e., 10 W m is taken as reference intensity, called zero bel
(a unit named after Alexander Graham Bell).
 The loudness of a sound depends not only on the intensity of sound but also on the physical conditions of the ear.
 The human ear is more sensitive to some frequencies rather than the others.
 The loudness (L) of a sound is directly proportional to the logarithm of intensity.
 192

 A sound wave with a frequency of 3500 Hz and an intensity of 80 dB sounds about twice as loud to us as a sound
of 125 Hz and 80 dB. It is because our ears are more sensitive to the 3500 Hz sound than to the 125 Hz.
Therefore intensity by itself does not mean loudness. Loudness is how our ears detect and our brain perceives the
intensity of sound waves.
REFLECTION (ECHO) OF SOUND
 An echo and is a result of reflection of sound from the surface.
 When sound is incident on the surface of a medium it bounces back into the first medium. This
phenomenon is called echo or reflection of sound.
 The sensation of sound persists in our brain for about 0.1 s. To hear a clear echo, the time interval between our
sound and the reflected sound must be at least 0.1 s.
-1
 If we consider speed of sound to be 340 ms at a normal temperature in air, we will hear the echo after 0.1 s.
 The total distance covered by the sound from the point of generation to the reflecting surface and back should be
-1
at least 340 m s × 0.1 s = 34.0 m.
 Thus, for hearing distinct echoes, the minimum distance of the obstacle from the source of sound must be half
of this distance, i.e., 17 m. Echoes may be heard more than once due to successive or multiple reflections.
 A blue whale's 180 dB rumble is the loudest animal sound ever recorded.
 Whale sounds also appear to be a part of a highly evolved communication system. Some whales are thought to
communicate over hundreds and may be thousands of kilometres.
 This is possible, in part, because sound waves travel five times faster in water than in air.
 In addition, the temperature characteristics of ocean water — decrease in temperature with depth — create a
unique sound phenomenon.
 Elephants use low frequency sound waves to communicate with one another. Their large ears enable them to
detect these low frequency sound waves, which have relatively long wavelengths.
 Elephants can effectively communicate in this way, even when they are separated by many kilometers.
SPEED OF SOUND
 Sound waves can be transmitted by any medium containing particles that can vibrate.
 They cannot pass through vacuum.
 However, the nature of the medium will affect the speed of the sound waves.
 In general, the speed of sound in a liquid is five times that in gases; the speed of sound in solid is about fifteen
times that in gases.
 The speed of sound in air is affected by changes in some physical conditions such as temperature, pressure and
humidity etc.
-1
 The speed of sound in air is 343 m s at one atmosphere of pressure and room temperature (21°C).
 The speed varies with temperature and humidity.
 The speed of sound in solids and liquids is faster than in air. Following relation can be used to find the speed of
sound: v = f λ , where v is the speed, f is the frequency and λ is the wavelength of sound wave.
 The speed of sound in air was first accurately measured in 1738 by members of the French Academy.
 Two cannons were setup on two hills approximately 29 km apart.
 By measuring the time interval between the flash of a cannon and the “boom”, the speed of sound was calculated.
 Two cannons were filled alternatively to minimize errors due to the wind and to delayed reactions in the observers.
0
From their observations, they deduced that sound travels at about 336 m s-1 at 0 C.

Table 11.1
Speed of sound in various
media
Medium -
Speed (m s
1
)
Gases
o
Air(0 C) 331
0
Air (25 C) 346
o
Air(100 C) 386
o
Hydrogen (0 C) 1290
o
Oxygen (0 C) 317
o
Helium (0 C) 972
0
Liquids at 25 C
Distilled water 1498
Sea water 1531
0
Solids 25 C
Wood 2000
 193

Aluminium 6420
Brass 4700
Nickel 6040
Iron 5950
Steel 5960
Flint Glass 3980

NOISE POLLUTION
 Sound which has jarring and unpleasant effect on our ears is called noise.
 Noise corresponds to irregular and sudden vibrations produced by some sounds.
 Noise pollution has become a major issue of concern in big cities.
 A safe level of noise depends on two factors: the level (volume) of the noise; and the period of exposure to the
noise.
 The level of noise recommended in most countries is usually 85-90 dB over an eight-hour workday.
IMPORTANCE OF ACOUSTICS
 The technique or method used to absorb undesirable sounds by soft and porous surfaces is called acoustic
protection.
AUDIBLE FREQUENCY RANGE
 A normal human ear can hear a sound only if its frequency lies between 20Hz and 20,000 Hz.
 In other words, a human ear neither hears a sound of frequency less than 20 Hz nor a sound of frequency more
than 20,000 Hz.
 Different people have different range of audibility.
 It also decreases with age.
 Young children can hear sounds of 20, 000 Hz but old people cannot hear sounds even above 15, 000 Hz.
 The range of the frequencies which a human ear can hear is called the audible frequency range.
 Bats can hear frequencies up to 120,000 Hz. Other animals cannot hear such high-pitched sound s.
 Mice can hear frequencies up to 100,000 Hz, dogs up to 35,000 Hz, and cats up to 25,000 Hz.
 Humans hear soundsonlyuptoabout20,000Hz, but children can usually hear higher-frequency sounds than adults.
ULTRASOUND
 Sounds of frequency higher than 20, 000 Hz which are inaudible to normal human ear are called ultrasound
or ultrasonics.
USES OF ULTRASOUND
 Ultrasonic waves carry more energy and higher frequency than audible sound waves.
 Therefore, according to the wave equation v = f λ,the wavelength of ultrasonic waves is very small and is very useful
for detecting very small objects.
 Ultrasonics are utilized in medical and technical fields.
 In medical field, ultrasonic waves are used to diagnose and treat different ailments.
 For Diagnosis of different diseases, ultrasonic waves are made to enter the human body through transmitters. These
waves are reflected differently by different organs, tissues or tumors etc. The reflected waves are then amplified
to form an image of the internal organs of the body on the screen.
 Powerful ultrasound is now being used to remove blood clots formed in the arteries.
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 Ultrasound can also be used to get the pictures of thyroid gland for diagnosis purposes.
 Ultrasound is used to locate underwater depths or is used for locating objects lying deep on the Ocean floor,
etc. The technique is called SONAR, (sound navigation and ranging). The sound waves are sent from a
transmitter, and a receiver collects the reflected sound.
 The time-lapse is calculated, knowing the speed of sound in water, the distance of the object from the ocean
surface can be estimated.
 SONAR ranging is also used to see the shape and the size of the object.
 Cracks appear in the interior of moving parts of high speed heavy machines such as turbines, engines of
ships and airplanes due to excessive use. These cracks are not visible from outside but they can be very
dangerous. Such cracks can be detected by ultrasonics. A powerful beam of ultrasound is made to pass through
these defective parts. While passing, these waves are reflected by the surface of these cracks and flaws.
The comparison of the ultrasonic waves reflected from cracks and from the surfaces of these parts can give a clue of
the existence of the cracks.
 Germs and bacteria in liquids can also be destroyed by using high intensity ultrasonic waves.
CHAPTER 13
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
DISPERSION OF LIGHT
 Have you ever seen the rainbow?
 What the physics behind this phenomenon is; Let us learn it by using a glass prism.
 Suppose a narrow beam of white light entering from the air is passed through a prism of the denser medium.
 A prism refracts the light at both the refracting surfaces, and it produces a range of colors called a spectrum.
Splitting white light into its constituent colors when it passes through a glass prism is called dispersion of white
light.
 White light is not a single color but a mixture of all the spectrum colors.
 The prism refracts each individual color differently depending on their refractive index.
THE SPECTRUM OF WHITE LIGHT
 When a narrow beam of white light splits, the color sequence produced in the spectrum is indicated by the
acronym V I G Y O R, which stands for Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, and Red.
 The speed and direction of white light vary depending on the wavelength.
 The red color has a maximum speed in the glass prism, with the slightest deviation.
 In contrast, the violet color has minimum speed, which with most deviation because color has its own refracted
path in the air and becomes distinct on the spectrum.
 The color pattern produced in the dispersion is called a spectrum of light.
 The red color is used in the traffic signals.
 Red light has the highest wavelength of all the colors, and the as molecules least scatter it.
 So, it can travel the longest distance and penetrate through rain, mist, and fog.
 This is why red is being used in traffic signals to make the stop signal visible from a far distance.

DISPERSION OF LIGHT THROUGH WATER DROPLETS

 The rainbow is one of nature’s most beautiful creations.
 When a rainbow appears, it serves as an excellent demonstration of light dispersion and further evidence that
visible light has a spectrum of wavelengths, each of which is associated with a distinct color.
 At an angle of approximately 40 degrees above ground level, you must look into an area of atmosphere with
suspended droplets of water, or even a light mist, in order to see a rainbow in the sky.
 Every droplet of water acts as a tiny prism, dispersing and reflecting light to your eye.
 When you look at the sky, droplets emit wavelengths of light associated with a color.
 There are several ways sun rays can enter through a drop.
 The bending toward and away from the normal is a defining characteristic of each and every path.
 The path of light as it enters the droplet, internally reflects, and then refracts out of the droplet is an important
consideration when discussing rainbows.
SPEED OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
 Electromagnetic waves are radiated out when charged particles oscillate.
 195

 For example, vibrating atoms in a hot, glowing bulb filament emit infrared and visible light in the house. An
oscillating electric current sends out radio waves from a radio station.
 The other types of EM radiation that make up the electromagnetic spectrum are microwaves, ultraviolet light, X-
rays, and gamma rays that radiate out from their respective sources.
 Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves.
 It is electric and magnetic fields that are oscillating, not material.
 Thus, they can travel through a vacuum or space.
 Like all other waves, it obeys the equation
 Speed = frequency x wavelength
 c = fx ,
 All electromagnetic waves travel through the space or vacuum at the same speed of 300000 kilometers per sec or
3 a lOg
 Light-year is the distance that light travels in one year.
 Light travels through interstellar space at 300,000 kilometers per second.
 I year = 365 days
=365x24 days
= 365x 24x60 minutes.
=365x 20x 60x 60 seconds
= 31536000seconds
1 light year = Velocity x Time
= 3003001m/s x 31536000s
= 9.46x1012m
CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
 Some of the common characteristics of electromagnetic waves are given as under;
I. Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves in nature. They are composed of varying electric and magnetic
fields that oscillate perpendicularly. The direction of wave motion is perpendicular to both electric and magnetic
fields.
2. It cannot carry electric charge.
3. It can travel through space, traveling at the speed of c= 3 x 108 ms-1
4. It will travel through a transparent medium; however, they will slow down when traveling through a denser
medium like water or glass.
5. It obeys the laws of reflection, refraction, and diffraction.
6. Its frequencies depend only on the source that produces the wave. Thus, frequencies do not change when it
travel from one medium to another (air to glass).
MAIN COMPONENTS OF THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
 The electromagnetic spectrum has a wide range of frequencies, wavelengths, and energies.
 The spectrum covers the range of all electromagnetic radiation and consists of many sub-ranges that are generally
referred to as components, such as visible light or ultraviolet radiation.
 There are no precise accepted boundaries between these continuous portions, so the ranges may tend to overlap.
 The electromagnetic spectrum is the entire distribution of electromagnetic waves according to their frequencies
or wavelengths.
 From the lowest to the highest frequency or longest to shortest wavelength, the entire electromagnetic spectrum
contains all radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma
rays.
 Radio waves have the longest wavelength, and gamma rays have the shortest wavelength.
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USES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

 Electromagnetic waves have many advanced technological uses in our day-to-day life.
 Some of the implied uses of the main components of the spectrum are given shortly below;
RADIO WAVES — RADIO AND TELEVISION COMMUNICATIONS
 Radio waves have the longest wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum. Stars are natural transmitters of
radio waves. However, radio waves can be artificially generated by oscillating the current in a transmitting
antenna.
 In a radio system, a microphone controls the current to the antenna so that the radio waves pulsate.
 The incoming pulsations in the radio receiver control a loudspeaker to create a copy of the original sound.
 Radio waves can diffract around hills, so radio can receive signals even if a hill blocks the direct route from the
transmitting antenna.
 Long waves will also diffract around the curved surface of the Earth.
 Radio waves are also used in televisioncommunication.
 Radio waves of very high-frequency VHF and ultra-high-frequency UHF waves are used to telecast television
programs.
 These waves have shorter wavelengths, and they do not diffract around hills.
 So, there must be a straight path between the transmitting and receiving antenna for good reception.
MICROWAVES — SATELLITE TELEVISION AND TELEPHONE,
 Microwaves have a shorter wavelength in the micrometer range and a higher frequency than all radio waves.
 These are usually generated inside the specialized oven by an electron tube.
 Satellite phones use microwaves for communication, and satellite television uses microwaves to receive satellite
television programs.
 Microwaves can penetrate haze, light rain, clouds, and smoke as they have a higher frequency of all ranges of
radio waves.
 However, because these waves are highly directional, the satellite dish and related components must be aligned
appropriately, without any obstruction between the transmitted satellite signals and receiving satellite dish.
INFRA-RED — HOUSEHOLD ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES, TELEVISION CONTROLLERS AND INTRUDER ALARMS,
 Infrared (IR), or infrared light, is electromagnetic radiation (EMR) with wavelengths longer than visible light.
 Infrared radiation is radiated or absorbed by molecules when they change their rotational-vibrational movements.
 Infra-red wireless remote controllers control various household electrical appliances that send invisible signals to
an infrared receiver on a device such as televisions, video recorders, or hi-fi (High fidelity) systems.
 The human body also gives out infrared radiations because of the rotational-vibrational motion of its atoms or
molecules that motion sensors can detect.
 Intruder alarms use these motional sensors that detect the changing pattern of infrared radiations emitted by a
warm body of an approaching person.
 This characteristic of infrared waves has been used for security purposes, particularly in military technology.
LIGHT — OPTICAL FIBERS IN MEDICAL USES AND TELEPHONE,
 The high flexibility of optical fibers makes them also ideal for use in the medical industry.
 An endoscope, a medical device, is a long rube consisting of optical fibers that enable doctors to see abnormalities
in organs such as the stomach intestines inside a human body.
ULTRA-VIOLET — SUNBEDS, FLUORESCENT TUBES, STERILIZATION,
 Very hot objects, such as the film, emit radiations beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum, known as
ultraviolet radiations.
 The ultraviolet W also produced by passing an electric current through the mercury vapors in the tube.
 Ultraviolet radiation is further divided into three bands in order of increasing energy UV-A type, UV-B type, and
UV-C.
 In fair skin, the rays can penetrate deeper and are harmful to live cells. Excess ultraviolet exposure can result in
several skin diseases.
 Sunbeds: Ultraviolet lamps that emit UVA and UVB radiation are used in sunbeds for artificial tanning. It is popular
in countries with long periods of limited sunlight.
 Under medically controlled supervision, sunbeds beautify, provide the body with vitamin D, and treat certain skin
conditions.
 Fluorescent: When absorbed in ultraviolet, some materials convert their energy into light and glow. This
phenomenon is called fluorescence.
 In fluorescent lamps, the inside of the tube is coated with white powder (fluoresce), which gives off light when it
absorbs ultraviolet.
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 They are commonly used in lighting houses, shops, and offices for decorating purposes.
 Sterilization; as ultraviolet kills harmful bacteria, strong UVB and UV radiations are used to sterilize food and
medical equipment in hospitals.
APPLICATIONS OF X -RAYS
 X-rays are produced when fast-moving electrons lose their energy quickly.
 For example, in an x-ray tube, the radiation is given off when a beam of fast-moving electrons hits the metal target.
 The long-wavelength or low-frequency x-rays are highly penetrating that can pass through flesh but not bones.
 In the medical imaging field, radiologists use low-frequency x-rays lo produce the x-ray images to diagnose the
fracture in the bones or even tooth decay, tumors, and abnormal masses inside the body.
 Computed Tomography (CT) scan is a computational diagnostic tool for detecting diseases and injuries. It uses a
series of low-frequency X-rays and a computer to produce a 3D image of soft tissues and bones.
 Radiation Therapy is a cancer treatment that uses controlled doses of high-frequency x-rays to kill cancerous cells
and shrink tumors.
 Industrial radiography is a technique of inspecting materials to detect inside defects by using high-frequency X-
rays. In this method, a beam of x-rays points at the tested item.
 A detector is aligned with the beam on the other side of the item.
 The detector records x-rays that pass through the material. The thicker the material, the fewer x-rays can pass
through.
 More rays move through that region because the material is thinner with a crack or flaw.
 The detector computes a picture from the rays that pass through, which shows cracks or flaws in that material.
APPLICATIONS OF GAMMA RAYS
 Gamma rays come from radioactive materials.
 They are produced when the nuclei of unstable atoms decay into a stable nucleus or lose energy. They tend to
have high energy than x-rays.
 Gamma rays are used to treat cancer.
 These high-energy rays are directed at the cancerous tumor to kill cancer cells in oncology.
 The Gamma Knife Radiosurgery is a medical procedure that uses gamma rays to destroy small tumors in the brain
with less damage to surrounding cells.
 Positron Emission Tomography (PET) is a functional medical imaging method.
 In a PET scan, a short-lived positron-emitting radioactive sampling taken suitable for a particular function (e.g.,
brain function) is injected into the body.
 Radiated positrons quickly fuse with nearby electrons and lead to two gamma rays of 511-keV traveling in opposite
directions.
 After detecting the gamma rays, a computer generates an image that highlights the location of the biological
process being examined.
 Gamma rays are highly penetrating and can pass through metals; because of their extreme power, gamma rays
used to radiograph holes and defects in metal castings and other structural parts.
CHAPTER 14
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS
REFLECTION OF LIGHT
 When a ray of light approaches a smooth polished surface and the light ray bounces back, it is called the reflection
of light.
 The ray of light that hits the polished surface is called the incident ray.
 The ray that gets reflected away is called the reflected ray.
 The point at which the light hits the surface is called the point of incidence.
 If a line is drawn perpendicular to that point, it is called the normal.
 If a perpendicular were drawn on a reflecting surface, it would be called normal. The figure
below shows the reflection of an incident beam on a plane mirror.
 Here, the angle of incidence and angle of reflection are with respect to normal and the reflective surface.

 The angle formed between the normal and the incident ray at the point of incidence is called the angle of
incidence.
 Similarly, the angle formed between the normal and the reflected ray at the point of incidence is called the angle
of reflection.
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LAWS OF REFLECTION
 The laws of reflection determine the reflection of incident light rays on reflecting surfaces, like mirrors, smooth
metal surfaces and clear water.
 Let’s consider a plane mirror as shown in the figure above. The law of reflection states that
1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie in the same plane
2. The angle of incidence = Angle of reflection
TYPES OF REFLECTION OF LIGHT
1. Regular reflection is also known as specular reflection
2. Diffused reflection
3. Multiple reflection
REGULAR/ SPECULAR REFLECTION
 Specular Reflection refers to a clear and sharp reflection, like the ones you get in a mirror.
 A mirror is made of glass coated with a uniform layer of a highly reflective material such as powder. This
reflective surface reflects almost all the light incident on it uniformly.
 There is not much variation in the angles of reflections between various points.
 This means that the haziness and the blurring are almost entirely eliminated.

DIFFUSED REFLECTION
 Reflective surfaces other than mirrors, in general, have a very rough finish.
 This may be due to wear and tear such as scratches and dents or dirt on the surface.
 Sometimes even the material of which the surface is made of matters.
 All this leads to a loss of both the brightness and the quality of the reflection.
 In the case of such rough surfaces, the angle of reflection when compared between points is completely
haphazard.
 For rough surfaces, the ray’s incident at slightly different points on the surface is reflected in completely
different directions.
 This type of reflection is called diffused reflection and is what enables us to see non-shiny objects.

SPHERICAL MIRRORS
 A mirror whose polished, reflecting surface is a part of a hollow sphere of glass or plastic is called a spherical mirror.
 In a spherical mirror, one of the two curved surfaces is coated with a thin layer of silver followed by a coating of
red lead oxide paint.
 Thus, one side of the spherical mirror is opaque and the other side is a highly polished reflecting surface.
Depending upon the nature of reflecting surface, there are two types of spherical mirrors.
 Concave Mirror:
 A spherical mirror whose inner curved surface is reflecting is called concave mirror.
 In concave mirror the size of the image depends on the position of the object.
 Both virtual and real images can be formed by a concave mirror.
 Convex Mirror:
 A spherical mirror whose outer curved surface is reflecting is called convex mirror.
 In convex mirror the size of the image is always smaller than the object.
 Only virtual and erect image is formed by a convex mirror.
TERMINOLOGIES
 Pole: It is the midpoint of the curved surface of spherical mirror. It is also called vertex.
 Centre of Curvature (C): A spherical mirror is a part of a sphere. The centre of this sphere is called centre of
curvature.
 Radius of Curvature (R): It is the radius of the sphere of which spherical mirror is a part.
 Principal Axis: It is the line joining centre of curvature and pole of the spherical mirror.
 The Principal focus (F): After reflection from a concave mirror, rays of light parallel to the principal axis converge
to a point F. This point is called “The Principal Focus” of the mirror.
 Hence, Concave mirrors are also called converging mirrors. Since rays actually pass through this point,
therefore, it is called real focus.
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 Focal length ( f ): It is the distance from the pole to the principal focus measured along the principal axis..
 The focal length is related to the radius of curvature by f =R/2.
 This means that as the radius of curvature is reduced, so too is the focal length of the reflecting surface.
CHARACTERISTICS OF FOCUS OF A CONCAVE AND A CONVEX MIRROR
CONVEX MIRROR:
 The Focus lies behind the mirror.
 The focus is virtual as the rays of light after reflection appear to come from the focus..
CONCAVE MIRROR:
 The focus is in front of the mirror.
 The focus is real as the rays of light after reflection converge at the focus.
THE MIRROR FORMULA:
 Mirror formula is the relationship between object distance p image distance q from the mirror and focal length f
of the mirror.
 Thus we can write mirror formula as: 1/f = 1/p + 1/q ………………(1)
 Equation (1) is true for both concave and convex mirrors.

QUANTITY WHEN POSITIVE (+ ) WHEN NEGATIVE ( – )

Object distance p Real object Real Image Virtual object Virtual image
Image distance q Concave mirror Convex mirror
Focal length f

REFRACTION OF LIGHT
 The bending of light as it passes from one transparent medium into another is called refraction.
 The process of bending of light as it passes from air into glass and vice versa is called refraction of light.
Substance Index of Refraction
(n)
Diamond 2.42
Cubic Zirconia 2.21
Glass (flint) 1.66
Glass(crown) 1.52
Ethyl Alcohol 1.36
Ice 1.31
Water 1.33
Air 1.00
LAWS OF REFRACTION
 The incident ray, the refracted ray, and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
 The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence ‘i’ to the sine of the angle of refraction ‘r’ is always equal to a
constant i.e., sin i / sin r = constant = n.
 Where the ratio sin i / sin r is known as the refractive index of the second medium with respect to the first
medium. So we have sin I / sin r = n. It is called Snell's law.
SPEED OF LIGHT IN A MEDIUM
 Refraction of light is caused by the difference in speed of light in different media.
8 -1
 For example, the speed of light in air is approximately 3.0 × 10 m s However, when light travels through a
medium, such as water or glass, its speed decreases.
8 -1 8 -1
 The speed of light in water is approximately 2.3×10 m s ,while in glass, it is approximately 2.0 × 10 m s .
To describe the change in the speed of light in a medium, we use the term index of refraction or refractive index.
REFRACTIVE INDEX
 The refractive index ‘n’ of a medium is the ratio of the speed of light ‘c’ in air to the speed ‘v’ of light in the
medium:
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑐
 Refractive index = or n =
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑣
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
 When a ray of light travelling in denser medium enters into a rarer medium, it bends away from the normal.
 If the angle of incidence ‘i’ increases, the angle of refraction ‘r’ also increases.
o
 For a particular value of the angle of incidence, the angle of refraction becomes 90 .
 200

o
 The angle of incidence that causes the refracted ray in the rarer medium to bend through 90 is called critical
angle
 When the angle of incidence becomes larger than the critical angle, no refraction occurs.
 The entire light is reflected back into the denser medium. This is known as total internal reflection of light.
APPLICATIONS OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
Totally Internal Reflecting Prism
o o
 Many optical instruments use right-angled prisms to reflect a beam of light through 90 or 180 (by total internal
reflection) such as cameras, binoculars, periscope and telescope.
o
 One of the angles of a right-angled prism is 90 .
 When a ray of light strikes a face of prism perpendicularly, it enters the prism without deviation and strikes the
o
hypotenuse at an angle of 45 .
o o
 Since the angle of incidence 45 is greater than critical angle of the glass which is 42 , the light is totally reflected
o
by the prism through an angle of 90 . Two such prisms are used in periscope.
o
 The light is totally reflected by the prism by an angle of 180 . Two such prisms are used in binoculars.
Optical Fibre
 Total internal reflection is used in fibre optics which has number of advantages in telecommunication field. Fibre
optics consists of hair size threads of glass or plastic through which light can be travelled. The inner part of the
fibre optics is called core that carries the light and an outer concentric shell is called cladding.
 The core is made from glass or plastic of relatively high index of refraction.
 The cladding is made of glass or plastic, but of relatively low refractive index.
 Light entering from one end of the core strikes the core-cladding boundary at an angle of incidence greater than
critical angle and is reflected back into the core.
 In this way light travels many kilometers with small loss of energy.
 In Pakistan, optical fibre is being used in telephone and advanced telecommunication systems.
Light Pipe
 Light pipe is a bundle of thousands of optical fibres bounded together.
 They are used to illuminate the inaccessible places by the doctors or engineers.
 For example, doctors view inside the human body. They can also be used to transmit images from one place to
another.
Endoscope
 An endoscope is a medical instrument used for exploratory diagnostics, and surgical purposes.
 An endoscope is used to explore the interior organs of the body.
 Due to its small size, it can be inserted through the mouth and thus eliminates the invasive surgery.
 The endoscopes used to examine the stomach, bladder and throat are called Gastroscope, Cystoscope and
Bronchoscope respectively.
 An endoscope uses two fibre-optic tubes through a pipe.
 A medical procedure using any type of endoscope is called endoscopy.
 The light shines on the organ of patient to be examined by entering through one of the fibre tubes of the
endoscope. Then light is transmitted back to the physician’s viewing lens through the other fibre tube by total
internal reflection.
 Flexible endoscopes have a tiny camera attached to the end. Doctor can see the view recorded by the camera on
a computer screen.
REFRACTION THROUGH PRISM
 Prism is a transparent object (made of optical glass) with at least two polished plane faces inclined
towards each other from which light is refracted.
 In case of triangular prism the emergent ray is not parallel to the incident ray. It is deviated by the prism from its
original path.
 The incident ray PE makes an angle of incidenace ‘i’ at point E and is refracted towards the normal N as EF.
 The refracted ray EF makes an angle ‘r’ inside the prism and travels to the other face of the prism.
 This ray emerges out from prism at point F making an angle ‘e’.
 Hence the emerging ray FS is not parallel to the incident ray PE but is deviated by an angle D which is
called angle of deviation.
LENSES
 A lens is any transparent material having two surfaces, of which at least one is curved.
 Lenses refract light in such a way that an image of the object is formed.
 Lenses of many different types are used in optical devices such as cameras, eyeglasses, microscopes, telescopes,
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and projectors.
 They also enable millions of people to see clearly and read comfortably.
TYPES OF LENSES
 There are different types of lenses.
 The lens which causes incident parallel rays to converge at a point is known as convex or converging lens. This
lens is thick at the centre but thin at the edges.
 Another type of lens causes the parallel rays of light to diverge from a point. This is called concave or diverging
lens. This lens is thin at the centre and thick at the edges.
LENS TERMINOLOGY
 Principal Axis: Each of the two surfaces of a spherical lens is a section of a sphere. The line passing through the
two centres of curvatures of the lens is called principal axis.
 Optical Centre, C: A point on the principal axis at the centre of lens is called optical centre.
 Principal Focus, F: The light rays travelling parallel to the principal axis of a convex lens after refraction meet at a
point on the principal axis, called principal focus or focal point F. Hence, convex lens is also called converging lens.
For a concave lens, the parallel rays appear to come from a point behind the lens called principal focus F .Hence
concave lens is also called diverging lens.
 Focal Length, f : This is the distance between the optical centre and the principal focus.
POWER OF A LENS
 Power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length in metres. Thus
 Power of a lens = P = 1 / focal length in metres
 The SI unit of power of a lens is “Dioptre”, denoted by a symbol D.
-1
 If f is expressed in metres so that 1 D = 1 m . Thus, 1 Dioptre is the power of a lens whose focal length is 1 metre.
 Because the focal length of a convex lens is positive, therefore, its power is also positive.
 Whereas the power of a concave lens is negative, for it has negative focal length.
IMAGE FORMATION BY LENSES
 In mirrors images are formed through reflection, but lenses form images through refraction.
 Image formation in convex lens can be explained with the help of three principal rays.
1. The ray parallel to the principal axis passes through the focal point after refraction by the lens.
2. The ray passing through the optical centre passes straight through the lens and remains undeviated.
3. The ray passing through the focal point becomes parallel to the principal axis after refraction by the lens.
The study of light behavior is called optics.
 The branch of optics that focuses on the creation of images is called geometrical optics, because it is based on
relation sh ip s between angles and lines that describe light rays.
 With a few rules from geometry, we can explain how images are formed by devices like lenses, mirrors, cameras,
telescopes, and microscopes.
 Optics also includes the study of the eye itself because the human eye forms an image with a lens.
LENS FORMULA
 The relation between the object and image distance from the lens in terms of the focal length of the lens is
called lens formula. 1/f = 1/p + 1/q
SIGN CONVENTIONS FOR LENSES
Focal length:
 f is positive for a converging lens
 f is negative for a diverging lens.
Object Distance:
 p is positive, if the object is towards the left side of the lens. It is called a real object.
 p is negative, if the object is on the right side of the lens. It is called virtual object.
Image Distance:
 q is positive for a real image made on the right side of the lens by real object.
 q is negative for a virtual image made on the left side on the lens by real object.
APPLICATION OF LENSES
 Cameras, telescopes, microscopes, and film projectors all use lenses.
 There are also two lenses in our eyes that allow us to see the world around us.
 Many different types of lenses are used in optical devices such as cameras, spectacles, microscopes, telescopes,
and projectors.
 Convex lenses are used in eyeglasses to correct farsightedness, which occurs when the distance between the eye's
lens and retina is too short, causing the focal point to be behind the retina.
 Concave lenses are used to magnify objects in telescopes and binoculars.
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SIMPLE MICROSCOPE
 A magnifying glass is a convex lens which is used to produce magnified images of small objects. Hence, it is also
called simple microscope.
 The object is placed nearer to the lens than the principal focus such that an upright, virtual and magnified image
is seen clearly at 25cm from the normal eye.
RESOLVING POWER
 The resolving power of an instrument is its ability to distinguish between two closely placed objects
or point sources.
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
 Compound microscope has two converging lenses, the objective and the eyepiece and is used to investigate
structure of small objects.
 Following are some features of compound microscope:
 It gives greater magnification than a single lens.
 The objective lens has a short focal length, ƒo< 1 cm.
 The eyepiece has a focal length, ƒe of a few cm.
USES OF COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
 A compound microscope is used to study bacteria and other micro objects.
 It is also used for research in several fields of sciences like, Microbiology, Botany, Geology, and Genetics.
TELESCOPE
 Telescope is an optical instrument which is used to observe distant objects using lenses or mirrors. A telescope
that uses two converging lenses is called refracting telescope.
 In refracting telescope, an objective lens forms a real image of the distant object, while an eyepiece forms a
virtual image that is viewed by the eye.
THE HUMAN EYE
 Human eye acts like a camera. In place of the film, the retina records the picture.
 The eye has a refracting system containing a converging lens.
 The lens forms an image on the retina which is a light sensitive layer at the back of the eye.
 In the camera, the distance of lens from film is adjusted for proper focus but in the eye, the lens changes focal
length.
 Light enters the eye through a transparent membrane called the cornea.
 The iris is the colored portion of the eye and controls the amount of light reaching the retina.
 It has an opening at its centre called the pupil. The iris controls the size of the pupil. In bright light, iris contracts
the size of the pupil while in dim light pupil is enlarged.
 The lens of the eye is flexible and accommodates objects over a wide range of distances.
 The variation of focal length of eye lens to form a sharp image on retina is called accommodation.
 The near point of the eye is the minimum distance of an object from the eye at which it produces a sharp image on
the retina.
 The far point of the eye is the maximum distance of a distant object from the eye on which the fully relaxed eye
can focus.
DEFECTS OF VISION
 The inability of the eye to see the image of objects clearly is called defect of vision.
 The defects of vision arise when the eye lens is unable to accommodate effectively. The images formed are
therefore blurred.
NEARSIGHTEDNESS (MYOPIA)
 Some people cannot see distant objects clearly without the aid of spectacles. This defect of vision is known as
short sight or nearsightedness and it may be due to the eyeball being too long.
 Light rays from a distant object are focused in front of the retina and a blurred image is produced.
 The nearsighted eye can be corrected with glass or contact lenses that use diverging lenses.
FARSIGHTEDNESS (HYPERMETROPIA)
 The disability of the eye to form distinct images of nearby objects on its retina is known as farsightedness.
 This defect can be corrected with the aid of a suitable converging lens.
 The lens refracts the light rays and they converge to form an image on the retina.
 To an observer, these rays appear to come from near point to form a sharp virtual image on the retina.
CHAPTER 14
ELECTROSTATICS
 The study of charges while they are not moving is referred to as electrostatistics or static electricity.
ELECTRIC CHARGE
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 Charge is a basic characteristic of matter that causes electrical processes.

 Charged particles are found in most materials.
 Protons and electrons have opposing unit charges.
 Neutral atoms have the same number of electrons and protons.
 In the 18th century, Benjamin Franklin experimented with charges. Franklin was the one who came up with the
terms "positive" and "negative" to describe the two distinct types of electricity.
 He also used a kite's wet line to collect electricity from stormy clouds.
 Electric charge is a fundamental feature of matter that is carried by some elementary particles and governs how
the particles react to an electric or magnetic field.
 The charge is a scalar quantity with the coulomb as its SI unit.
PRODUCTION OF ELECTRIC CHARGE
 The electric charges that are imparted to things through the process of rubbing are the cause of the properties of
attraction and repulsion that are exhibited by different types of matter.
 A static electric charge can be generated by rubbing together two neutral bodies.
 The experiments below demonstrate that rubbing can generate two distinct forms of electric charge.
 The results of these experiments lead us to the following conclusions:
 Charge is a fundamental property of a material body that determines whether or not it attracts
or repels another object.
 Two distinct types of charge are produced by friction on two distinct types of materials (such as
glass and plastic).
 Charges that are identical to one another always repel one another.
 Charges that are not similar to one another always attract one another.
 The only reliable indicator of charge on a body is repulsion.
TYPES OF CHARGES
 Electric charge, whether positive or negative, exists in discrete natural units and cannot be created or destroyed.
Electric charge is a characteristic shared by many fundamental, or subatomic, matter particles.
 Electrons, for example, have a negative charge, while protons have a positive charge, but neutrons have no charge.
 The negative charge of each electron has the same magnitude as the positive charge of each proton charge is
measured in natural units, which are equivalent to the charge of an electron or a proton, which is a fundamental
physical constant.
 In the MKS and SI systems, the coulomb is the unit of electric charge.
 When the current in an electric circuit is one ampere, it is defined as the amount of electric charge that flows
through a cross-section of a conductor in one second.
 A coulomb is made up of 6.24 .10' natural units of electric charge, such as single electrons or protons.
 According to the definition of an ampere, the electron has a negative charge of 1.602176634.109 coulomb.
METHODS OF CHARGE FORMATION
 There are three methods of formation of charges on a body as given below: 1. Induction 2. Conduction 3. Friction
 Induction: It is a charging method in which a neutral object is charged without actually touching another charged
object.
 Conduction: It is charging by contact where charge is transferred to the object.
 Friction: The imbalance of electrons and protons can be easily created by fraction when two objects rubbing over
one another. This process of charging is called charging by friction.
ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION
 The formation of a charge through the influence of a nearby charged object, rather than the actual object, called
electrostatic induction (Here induction means to influence without contact).
ELECTROSCOPE
 In 1600, British physician William Gilbert constructed the first electroscope with a pivoting needle, called
versorium.
 An electroscope is a scientific instrument for detecting the presence of an electric charge on a body.
 Electroscope detects test charge based on Coulomb electrostatic force.
 Because the electric charge of an item is proportional to its capacitance, an electroscope may be thought of as a
rudimentary kind of voltmeter.
 Quantitative measurement of charge is performed with an electrometer.
CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF THE ELECTROSCOPE.
 The operation of an electroscope is based on the atomic structure of elements; charge induction, the internal
structure of metal elements, and the concept that similar charges repel each other while unlike charges attract
each other.
COULOMB'S LAW
 A French physicist Charles Augustin de Coulomb in 1785 coined a tangible relationship in mathematical form
between two bodies that have been electrically charged.
 The force causing the bodies to attract or repel each other which is known as Coulomb's law or Coulomb's inverse-
square law.
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 This law states that the magnitude of electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges is
directly proportional to the product of magnitudes of charges and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.
 Consider two point charges q1 and q2 which are (r) distance a part, than according to coulomb's law.
1
 F∝ 𝑞1𝑞2, …………….(1) and F∝ ………………(2)
𝑟2
 By combining the equation (1) and (.2) F ∝ q1q2/r2 or F= K q1q2/r2 …………….(3)
 Where k is the constant of proportionality
 1 𝑞1𝑞2 1
K= , = 8.99 x 109N-m2/C2 , K ≅ 9.0 x 109N-m2/C2 , 𝜀 = 8.85 x 10-12C2/N-m2
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟2 4𝜋𝜀
ELECTRIC FIELD AND ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY
 Positively charged particle exerts a force of attraction on negatively charged while exerts a force of repulsion on
positively charged particle. It is important to remember that the second charged particle also exerts an
electrostatic force on the first one.
 As a result, it may be deduced that the area surrounding the charge is constantly under stress and exerts a force
on another charge put around it.
 The area or space surrounding a charge or charged body where electrostatic force or stress occurs is termed
electric field, dielectric field, or electrostatic field.
 A region around the charged particle or object within which a force would be exerted on other charged particles
or objects.
 An electric field is often referred to as the electric force per unit of charge.
𝐹
 The formula of electric field is given as; E =
𝑄
 Whereas, E is the electric field.
 F is a force.
 Q is the charge.
 Changing magnetic fields or electric charges are the most common causes of electric fields.
 The magnitude of an electric field is expressed using the SI unit is N/C.
 The force acting on the positive charge is assumed to be pointing in the same direction as the field's direction.
 The electric field extends outwards radially from the positive point charge and inwards radially toward the
negative point charge.
ELECTRIC FIELD LINES
 The electric field that surrounds a charge may be imagined as the existence of a line of force all the way around
it. Electric or electrostatic lines of force refer to a system of imaginary lines around a charged object and indicating
while the arrangement of lines of force around an isolated negative charge.
 Such lines of force originate from the positive charge and terminate on the negative charge, when these charges
are placed near each other.
 They exert the force of attraction on each other.
 When two like charges are near each other, such lines will be in opposite direction.
 There exists a force of repulsion between them.
ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL
 The electrostatic potential, also known as the electric field potential, electric potential, or potential drop, is
defined as; the amount of work that is done in order to transport a unit charge from a reference point to a given
location within the field without causing an acceleration.
 The volt is the standard SI unit for measuring electrostatic potential.
 Electric potential energy is possessed by an object by the virtue of two elements, those being, the charge
possessed by an object itself and the relative position of an object with respect to other electrically charged
objects.
 The magnitude of electric potential depends on the amount of work done in moving the object from one point to
another against the electric field.
 When an object is moved against the electric field it gains some amount of energy which is defined as the electric
potential energy.
 For any charge, the electric potential is obtained by dividing the electrical potential energy to the quantity of
𝑊 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
charge. V = =
𝑞 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
VOLT
 Volt is the unit of electrical potential, potential difference, and electromotive force in the SI system.
 The potential difference that exists across a resistance of one ohm while a current of one ampere is flowing
through it.
 The unit of voltage known as the volt was named after the Italian scientist Alessandro Volta (1745-1827).
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
 The energy possessed by Electric charges is known as electrical energy. A charge with higher potential will have
more electric potential energy and the charge with lesser potential will have less electric potential energy.
 The current always moves from higher electric potential to lower electric potential. The difference in these
energies per unit charge is known as the electric potential difference.
 It is the work done per unit charge to move a unit charge from one point to another in an electric field.
 Electric potential difference is usually referred as Voltage difference.
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APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROSTATICS.
 There are many applications of electrostatics which are given below:
 The Van de Graaff generator.
 Xerography.
 Laser Printers.
 Ink Jet Printers and Electrostatic Painting.
 Smoke Precipitators and Electrostatic Air Cleaning.
CAPACITOR AND CAPACITANCE
 The capacitor is a simple electronic device or component and is used to store charge.
 It is a system of two isolated conductors that can store electric charge.
 A Capacitor stores a large amount of charge per volt in a very small area of the conductor.
 Two conductors of any shape (plates) carrying equal and opposite charges, separated from each other by an
insulating material medium called Dielectric formed a Capacitor.
 Different types of capacitors categorized according to the shape of plates.
CAPACITANCE
 The ability of storing charges in a Capacitor is known as Capacitance.
 When the Capacitor is connected to a battery of V volts, one plate draws positive charge and the other plate draws
negative charge from the battery till the potential difference between the plates also becomes V volts.
 Charge Q which resides on any one of the plate is directly proportional to the potential difference between the
plates.
 Q∝V Or Q = CV
 The constant C is called Capacitance of the Capacitor and the equation Q = CV is called equation of Capacitor.
𝑄
 So, C =
𝑉
 This shows that unit of capacitance is Coul/Volt and this unit is also called Farad because 1 farad = 1 Caoul/Volt.
FACTORS ON WHICH CAPACITANCE DEPENDS
 Capacitance depends on these factors:
 Area of the plate. Capacitance increases if area of the plate increases. Hence C ∝A.
 Distance between the plates. Capacitance increases if the separation distance between the plates
1
decreases. Hence C ∝
𝑑
 Dielectric Constant (𝜖𝑟) capacitance increases if insulating medium of high dielectric constant is used.
Hence C ∝ 𝜖𝑟.
COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS
 For a circuit the capacitance of a desired value can be obtained by different combination of capacitors and that
combination may be:
 Parallel combination
 Series combination
 Series Parallel combination.
USES OF CAPACITORS
 They are utilized, for instance, in the process of tuning transmitters, receivers, and transistor radios.
 Also, they are utilized to run table fans, ceiling fans, exhaust fans, air conditioner motors, coolers, washing
machines, air conditioners, and many other appliances to keep them running at a high efficiency.
 It is also common to find capacitors in the electronic circuitry of computers and other products like smartphones.
It is possible to utilize capacitors to distinguish between high and low frequency signals, which makes them
valuable in electronic circuits.
 For instance, resonant circuits, which are responsible for tuning radios to specific frequencies, require the use of
variable capacitors.
 These kinds of circuits are referred to as filter circuits.
 One capacitor may not work in all situations.
 In general, ceramic capacitors outperform other types and can be found M a wide variety of applications.
CHAPTER 15
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
 Charges in motion constitute electric current.
ELECTRIC CURRENT
 The rate of flow of electric charge through any cross-sectional area is called current.
 If the charge Q is passing through any area in time t, then current I flowing through it will be given by Current =
charge / time or I = Q/T
 SI unit of current is ampere (A).
 Smaller Unitsof current are milli ampere (mA), micro ampere (µA), which are defined below as:
-3 -6
 1 mA = 10 A, 1 µA = 10 A
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 Battery is one of the sources of current. The electrochemicalreaction inside a battery separates positive and
negative electric charges.
CONVENTIONAL CURRENT
 Current flowing from positive to negative terminal of a battery due to the flow of positive charges is called
conventional current.
 Conventional current produces the same effect as the current flowing from negative terminal to the positive
terminal due to the flow of negative charges.
THE MEASUREMENT OF CURRENT
 Galvanometer and ammeter are some common examples ofcurrent measuring instruments.
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
 Potential difference across the two ends of a conductor causes the dissipation of electrical energy into other
formsof energy as charges flow through the circuit.
 SI unit of potential difference is volt.
 A potential difference of 1 V across a bulb means that each coulombof charge or 1 ampere of current that
passes through the bulb consumes 1 joule of energy.
 When a bulb is lit, the energy is taken from the current and is transformed into light and heat energy.
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (e.m.f)
 It is the energy supplied by a battery to a unit positive charge when it flows through the closed circuit. Or the energy
converted from non-electrical forms to electrical form when one coulomb of positive charge passes through the
battery.
 emf = energy / charge or E = W/Q
 Where E is the e.m.f., W is energy converted from non- electrical forms to electrical form and Q is positive charge.
-1
 The unit for e.m.f. is JC which is equal to volt (V) in SI system.
 Hence, if the e.m.f. of the battery is 2 V, the total energy supplied by the battery is 2 joules when one coulomb
of charge flows through the closed circuit.
THE MEASUREMENT OF POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
 The potential difference across a circuit component (e.g. lightbulb) can be measured by a voltmeter, connected
directly across the terminals of the component.
 The positiveterminalof the battery is connected to the positive terminal ofthe voltmeter and the negative terminal of the
battery is connected to the negative terminal of the voltmeter.
OHM'S LAW
 The amount of current passing through a conductor is directlyproportional to the potential difference applied across
its ends, provided the temperature and the physical state of theconductor does not change. i.e., IV or VI or
V = IR
 Where R is the constant of proportionality, and is the resistance of the conductors. Its SI unit is ohm,
denoted by a symbol Ω. If a graph is plotted between the current I and thepotential difference V, a straight line will
be obtained.
RESISTANCE
 The property of a substance which offers opposition to the flow of current through it is called itsresistance.
 This opposition comes from the collisions of moving electrons with atoms of the substance.
 The SI unit of resistance R is ohm. If we put V = 1 V, and I = 1 A,the value of R will be 1 Ω. Thus
 When a potential difference of one volt is applied across theends of a conductor and one ampere of current passes
through it, then its resistance will be one ohm.
CONDUCTORS
 A conductor, or electrical conductor, is a substance or material that allows electricity to flow through it.
 In a conductor, electrical charge carriers, usually electrons or ions, move easily from atom to atom
when voltage is applied.
 Most metals like copper are considered good conductors, while nonmetals are considered bad conductors -- that
is, insulators.
INSULATORS
 Insulator, any of various substances that block or retard the flow of electrical or thermal currents.
COMBINATION OF RESISTORS
(i) Series combination (ii) Parallel combination
RESISTORS IN SERIES COMBINATION
 Two or more resistances are said to be connected in series when they are connected end to end and the same
current flows through each of them in turn. In this case, the equivalent or the total resistance equals the sum
of the number of individual resistances present in the series combination.
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 Mathematically, the equivalent resistance of any number of resistances (R 1, R2, R3, R4, R5…) connected in
series is given as: Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5 + ……..
RESISTORS IN PARALLEL COMBINATION
 Two or more resistances are said to be connected in parallel connected when they are connected between
two points and each has a different current direction. The current is branched out and recombined as the
branches intersect at a common point in such circuits.
 Mathematically, the equivalent resistance of any number of resistances (R1, R2, R3, R4, R5…) connected in
parallel is given as: 1/R eq = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + 1/R4 + 1/R5 + ……..
ELECTRICAL ENERGY AND JOULE'S LAW
 The Joule’s law defined as the amount of heat generated in a resistance due to flow ofcharges is equal to the
product of square of current I, resistance R and the time duration t.
ELECTRIC POWER
 The amount of energy supplied by current in unit time is knownas electric power.
 Hence power P can be determined by the formula Electric power P = electrical energy/time = W/t
 Where W is the electrical energy given by W = QV
 Therefore, above equation becomes
𝑄𝑉
 Electric power P = = 𝐼𝑉 = 𝐼 2R
𝑡
-1
 The unit of electric power is watt which is equal to one jouleper second (1 Js ). It is represented by the symbol W.
Electricbulbs commonly used in houses consume 25 W, 40 W, 60 W,75 W and 100 W of electric power.
KILOWATT-HOUR
 The amount of energy delivered by a power of one kilowatt in one hour is called kilowatt-hour.
5
 One kilowatt-hour1 kWh= 1000 W ×1 hour =1000 W × (3600 s) = 36 × 10 J=3.6 M J
 The energy in kilowatt-hour can be obtained by the followingformula:
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 ×𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
 The amount of energy in kilowatt-hour =
1000
DIRECT CURRENT AND ALTERNATINGCURRENT
 The current derived from a cell or a battery is direct current(D.C) - since it is unidirectional.
 The positive and negative terminals of D.C sources have fixed polarity, therefore, level of
 D.C remains constant with time.
 On the contrary,there is also a current which changes its polarity again and again.
 Such a current that changes direction after equal intervals oftime is called alternating current or A.C.
 This type ofcurrent is produced by AC generators.
 The time interval after which the a.c voltage or current repeats its value is known as its time period.
SUPPLY TO A HOUSE
 The electric power enters our house through three wires.
 One is called earth wire or ground wire (E). This carries no electricity.
 The earth wire is connected to a large metal plate buried deep in the ground near the house.
 The other wire is maintained at zero potential by connecting it to the Earth at the power station itself andis
called neutral wire (N).
 This wire provides the returnpath for the current. The third wire is at a high potential and is called livewire (L).
The potential difference between the livewire and the neutral wire is 220V.
FUSE
 A fuse is a safety device that is connected in series with thelivewire in the circuit to protect the equipments when
excesscurrent flows.
CIRCUIT BREAKER
 The circuit breaker acts as a safety device in thesame way as a fuse. It disconnects the supply automatically ifcurrent
exceeds the normal value.
CHAPTER 16
ELECTROMAGNETISM
 Electromagnetism is the study of magnetic effects of current.
 Electromagnetic force acts between charged particles.
 The direction of magnetic field around a current carrying wire can be determined by using the Flemings right hand
rule for conductors.
 The region in which the influence of magnetism may be felt is known as magnetic field.
 Magnetic field is strongest near the poles and weakest in the centre.
 A current carrying wire has a magnetic field around it, when this field interacts with external magnetic field there
is a force on it. Which is given by F = I L x B.
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MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF A STEADY CURRENT

 Ampere discovered that when a current passes through a conductor, it produces magnetic field around it.
 Connect the two ends of the conductor wire with the terminals of the battery so that current flows through the
circuit in the clockwise direction.
 The lines of force of the magnetic field produced around the wire would be in the form of concentric circles.
 If we place a compass needle at different points in the region of magnetic field, it will align along the direction of
magnetic field.
 If we reverse the direction of the current by reversing the terminals of the battery, the compass needle also reverses
its direction. Now the magnetic field lines will align in the anticlockwise direction
 The magnetic field produced is stronger near the current-carrying conductor and weaker farther away from it.
DIRECTION OF MAGNETIC FIELD
 The direction of the magnetic field is governed by the direction of the current f lowing through
the conductor.
 A simple method of finding the direction of magnetic field around the conductor is the Right Hand
Grip Rule.
 The type of temporary magnet, which is created when current flows through a coil, is called an electromagnet.
 If we grip the coil with our right hand by curling our fingers in the direction of the conventional current, our thumb
will indicate the north pole of the coil.
 Since a magnetic field exerts force on a permanent magnet, it implies that current- carrying wire should also
experience a force when placed in a magnetic field.
 A battery produces current in a wire placed inside the magnetic field of a permanent magnet.
 Current-carrying wire produces its own magnetic field which interacts with the field of the magnet. As a result,
a force is exerted on the wire.
 Depending on the direction of the current, the force on the wire either pushes or pulls it towards right or
towards left.
 Michael Faraday discovered that the force on the wire is at right angles to both the direction of the
magnetic field and the direction of the current. The force is increased if
 The current in the wire is increased
 Strength of magnetic field is increased
 The length of the wire inside the magnetic field is increased
DETERMINING THE DIRECTION OF FORCE
 The direction of the force on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field can be found by using Fleming's
left hand rule stated as:
 Stretch the thumb, forefinger and the middle finger of the left hand mutually perpendicular to each other. If
the forefinger points in the direction of the magnetic field, the middle finger in the direction of the current,
then the thumb would indicate the direction of the force acting on the conductor.
D. C. MOTOR
 An electric motor, which is a device that converts electric energy into rotational kinetic energy.
 When a current-carrying coil is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a couple due to which the coil begins to
rotate. A D.C motor operates on this principle. It converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
 In a practical electric motor, the coil, called the armature, is made of many loops mounted on a shaft or axle.
 The magnetic field is produced either by permanent magnets or by an electromagnet, called a field coil.
 The torque on the armature, and, as a result, the speed of the motor, is controlled by varying the current
through the motor.
 The total force acting on the armature can be increased by
 Increasing the number of turns of the coil
 Increasing the current in the coil
 Increasing the strength of the magnetic field
 Increasing the area of the coil
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
 Hans Christian Oersted and Ampere discovered that an electric current through a conductor produces a
magnetic field around it.
 Michael Faraday thought that the reverse must also be true; that a magnetic field must produce an electric
current.
 Faraday found that he could induce electric current by moving a wire through a magnetic field. In the same year,
Joseph Henry also showed that a changing magnetic field could produce electric current.
 The strength of magnetic field is defined as the number of magnetic lines of force passing through any surface.
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 The number of lines of force is maximum when the surface is held perpendicular to the magnetic lines of force.
 It will be minimum when surface is held parallel to the magnetic lines of force.
 If we place a coil in the magnetic field of a bar magnet, some of the magnetic lines of force will pass through it. If the coil is
far away from the magnet, only a few lines of force will pass through the coil. However, if the coil is close to the magnet, a
large number of lines of force will pass through it.
 This means, we can change the number of magnetic lines of force through a coil by moving it in the magnetic
field. This change in the number of magnetic field lines will induce an e.m.f. in the coil. This is the basic
principle of the production of electricity.
 The process of generating an induced current in a circuit by changing the number of magnetic lines of force
passing through it is called electromagnetic induction.
 The value of induced e.m.f. in a circuit is directly proportional to the rate of change of number of magnetic lines
of force through it. This is called Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
FACTORS AFFECTING INDUCED E.M.F
 The magnitude of induced e.m.f. in a circuit depends on the following factors:
 Speed of relative motion of the coil and the magnet
 Number of turns of the coil
DIRECTION OF INDUCED E.M.F. – LENZ’S LAW
 Lenz devised a rule to find out the direction of a current induced in a circuit.
 The direction of an induced current in a circuit is always such that it opposes the cause that produces it.
A.C. GENERATOR
 If a coil is rotated in a magnetic field, a current will be induced in the coil. The strength of this induced current
depends upon the number of magnetic lines of force passing through the coil. The number of lines of magnetic
force passing through the coil will be maximum when the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the lines of
magnetic force. The number of lines of magnetic force will be zero when plane of the coil is parallel to the lines
of force. Thus, when a coil rotates in a magnetic field, the induced current in it continuously changes from
maximum to minimum value and from minimum to maximum value and so on. This is the basic principle on
which an A.C generator works.
 The e.m.f. developed by the generator depends on the length of the wire rotating in the field. Increasing the
number of loops in the armature, increases the wire length, thereby increasing the induced e.m.f.
MUTUAL INDUCTION
 The phenomenon of production of induced current in one coil due to change of current in a neighboring coil is
called mutual induction.
TRANSFORMER
 The transformer is a practical application of mutual induction.
 Transformers are used to increase or decrease AC voltages.
 Usage of transformers is common because they change voltages with relatively little loss of energy.
 In fact, many of the devices in our homes, such as game systems, printers, and stereos use transformers for
their working.
APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNET
 Magnetic effect of current is called electromagnet.
 This effect is used in many devises like relay, electric bell, etc. Soft iron can easily be magnetized and
demagnetized.
CHAPTER 17
INTRODUCTORY ELECTRONICS
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS
 In 1897 electron was identified.
 Vacuum tube was invented in the same period of time.
 Vacuum tube can amplify and rectify small electrical signals.
 The invention of vacuum tube opens up a new field of technology called electrons.
 Electrons comprises the physics, engineering and technology.
 Electrons also has applications that deal with the emission, flow and control of electrons in vacuum and
matter using different devices.
 Electrons may have two fields i) Analogue and ii) Digital
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ANALOGUE AND DIGITAL ELECTRONS:
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 Analogue electrons deals with circuits which have continuously varying signals, for example; radio television ,
oscillator etc.
 The term digital derived from a Latin word Digitus means for fingers. This is because fingers are usually used
for discrete counting.
 Digital electrons deals with circuits which have discrete signals. For example; computers, calculators, MP3
Players etc.
THERMIONIC EMISSION
 In the 1850's, physicists started to examine the passage of electricity through a vacuum by putting two
electrodes in a sealed vacuum tube. Some kind of rays were emitted from the cathode or the negative electrode.
These rays were called cathode rays. J.J. Thomson in 1897 observed the deflection of cathode rays by both
electric and magnetic fields. From these deflection experiments, he concluded that cathode rays must carry a
negative charge. These negatively charged particles were given the name electrons.
 The process of emission of electrons from the hot metal surfaces is called thermionic emission. Metals
contain a large number of free electrons. At room temperature electrons cannot escape the metal
surface due to attractive forces of the atomic nucleus.
 If the metal is heated to a high temperature, some of the free electrons may gain sufficient energy to
escape the metal surface.
 Thermionic emission can also be produced by electrically heating a fine tungsten filament. Typical
values of the voltage and current used are 6 V and 0.3 A respectively.
PROPERTIES OF ELECTRONS
 An electron gun is used to investigate the properties of electron beam
 The electrons are produced by thermionic emission from a tungsten filament heated by 6 V supply.
 A high positive potential (several thousands) is applied to a cylindrical anode (+). The electrons are
accelerated to a high speed and pass through the hole of the anode in the form of a fine beam of electrons.
 The whole set up is fitted in an evacuated glass bulb.
CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (C.R.O)
 The cathode-ray oscilloscope is an instrument which is used to display the magnitudes of changing electric
currents or potentials.
 The information is displayed on the screen of a “cathode-ray tube”.
 This screen appears as a circular or rectangular window usually with a centimeter graph superimposed on it.
 For example, the picture tube in our TV set and the display terminal of most computers are cathode-ray tubes.
 The cathode-ray oscilloscope (C.R.O) consists of the following components:
 The electron gun with control grid
 The deflecting plates
 A fluorescent screen
THE ELECTRON GUN
 The electron gun consists of an electron source which is an electrically heated cathode that ejects electrons.
 Electron gun also has an electrode called grid G for controlling the flow of electrons in the beam. The grid is
connected to a negative potential.
 The more negative this potential, the more electrons will be repelled from the grid and hence fewer
electrons will reach the anode and the screen.
 The number of electrons reaching the screen determines the brightness of the screen.
 Hence, the negative potential of the grid can be used as a brightness control.
 The anode is connected to positive potential and hence is used to accelerate the electrons.
 The electrons are focused into a fine beam as they pass through the anode.
THE DEFLECTING PLATES
 After leaving the electron gun, the electron beam passes between a pair of horizontal plates.
 A potential difference applied between these plates deflects the beam in a vertical plane.
 This pair of plates provides the Y-axis or vertical movement of the spot on the screen.
 A pair of vertical plates provides the X-axis or horizontal movement of the spot on the screen.
THE FLUORESCENT SCREEN
 The screen of a cathode-ray tube consists of a thin layer of phosphor, which is a material that gives light as a
result of bombardment by fast moving electrons.
 The CRO is used in many fields of science; displaying waveforms, measuring voltages, range-finding (as in radar),
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echo-sounding (to find the depth of seabeds).

 The CRO is also used to display heartbeats.
ANALOGUE AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
 The branch of electronics consisting of circuits which process analogue quantities is called analogue electronics.
 For instance, the public address system is an analogue system in which the microphone converts sound into a
continuously varying electric potential. This potential is an analogue signal which is fed into an amplifier.
 Amplifier is an analogue circuit which amplifies the signal without changing its shape to such an extent that it
can operate a loudspeaker. In this way, loud sound is produced by the speaker. Radios, televisions and
telephones are a few common devices that process analogue signals.
 The quantities whose values vary in non-continuous manner are called digital quantities. Digital quantities are
expressed in the form of digits or numbers.
 The branch of electronics which deals with digital quantities is called digital electronics.
 Digital electronics uses only two digits ‘0’ (zero) and ‘1’ (one) and the whole data is provided in binary form due
to which processing of data becomes easy.A continuously varying signal is called an analogue signal.
 For example, an alternating voltage varying between the maximum value of +5V and the minimum value
of -5V is an analogue signal.
 A signal that can have only two discrete values is called a digital signal.
 For example, a voltage with square waveform is a digital signal.
 This signal has only two values i.e., +5 V and 0 V.
 The High voltage is +5 V and the low voltage is 0 V. It can be seen that digital signal provides the data by a
maximum and a minimum voltage level.
 The changes occurring in the digital signal are not continuous.
 For quite a long period, the use of digital electronics was limited to computers only, but now-a-days its
application is very wide spread.
 Modern telephone system, radar system, naval and other systems of military importance, devices to control
the operation of industrial machines, medical equipments and many household appliances are using
digital technology.
 A special circuit has been designed which converts in binary form the analogue signal into a digital one in the
form of digits in binary form.
 This circuit is known as analogue to digital converter (ADC).
 This binary output is then processed by a computer which also gives output in digital form.
 The output of the computer is again converted into an analogue form by a circuit known as digital to analogue
converter (DAC).
 As the output of DAC is an analogue signal, it can be readily sensed by us. Thus, electronic systems used at
present consist of both analogue and digital type circuits.
BASIC OPERATIONS OF DIGITAL ELECTRONICS – LOGIC GATES
 Such things which can have only two possible states are known as binary variables. The states of binary variables are
usually represented by the digits ‘0’ and ‘1’.
 Suppose we form a circuit by connecting a lamp to a battery using a switch S.We call state of switch as input and
state of current or lamp as output. When the switch is open no current passes through the circuit and lamp is
OFF. In other words, when input is zero output is also zero. When the switch is closed current passes through the
circuit and lamp is ON. Thus, the output current is also a binary variable. In case, the current is passing, we can
say the value of the output is ‘1’ and it is ‘0’ when no current is passing.
 These states are also called logic states or logic variables.
 George Boole invented a special algebra called Boolean algebra also known as algebra of logics. It is a branch of
mathematics which deals with the relationships of logic variables. Instead of variables that represent numerical
quantities as in conventional algebra, Boolean algebra handles variables that represent two types of logic
propositions; 'true' and 'false'.
 Boolean algebra has become the main cornerstone of digital electronics.
 It operates with two logic states, '1' and '0', represented by two distinct voltage levels.
 Boolean algebra's simple interpretation of logical operators AND, OR, and NOT has allowed the systematic
development of complex digital systems.
 These include simple logic gates that perform simple mathematical as well as intricate logical operations. Logic
operations may be thought of as a combination of switches.
 Since a logic gate is a switching circuit (i.e., a digital circuit), its outputs can have only one of the two possible states,
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either a high voltage ‘1’ or a low voltage ‘0’ - it is either ON or OFF. Whether the output voltage of logic gate is
high ‘1’ or low ‘0’ will depend upon the condition at its input.
AND OPERATION
 In order to understand the logic AND operation consider a lamp is connected to a battery using two switches
S1 and S2 connected in series considered as two inputs.
 There are four possible states of these two switches which are given below:
i. When S1 and S2 are both open, the lamp is OFF.
ii. When S1 is open but S2 closed, the lamp is OFF.
iii. When S1 is closed but S2 open, the lamp is OFF.
iv. When both S1 AND S2 are closed, the lamp is ON.
 Symbol for AND operation is dot (.). Its Boolean expression is: X =A. B and is read as “ X equals A AND B”.
 The circuit which implements the AND operation is known as AND gate.
 AND gate has two or more inputs and only one output.
 The value of output of AND gate is always in accordance with the truth table of AND operation.
 It means output of AND gate will be '1' only when all of its inputs are at logic '1', and for all other situations output
of AND gate will be '0'.
OR OPERATION
 In order to understand the logic OR operation consider the circuit in which a lamp is connected to a battery using
two switches S1 and S2 connected in parallel considered as two inputs. There are four possible states of
these two switches which are given below:
i. When S1 and S2 are open, the lamp is OFF.
ii. When S1 is open and S2 closed, the lamp is ON.
iii. When S1 is closed and S2 open, the lamp is ON
iv. When both S1 and S2 are closed, the lamp is ON.
 OR operation is represented by the symbol of plus (+).
 Boolean expression for OR operation is : X = A + B and is read as “ X equals A OR B”.
 The electronic circuit which implements the OR operation is known as OR gate.
 It has two or more inputs and has only one output.
 The values of output of OR gate are always in accordance with the truth table of OR operation.
 It means, the value of output of OR gate will be '1' when anyone of its inputs is at '1'.
 The output will be '0', when all inputs are at '0'.
NOT OPERATION
 In order to understand NOT operation, consider the circuit in which a lamp is connected to a battery with a switch S,
in parallel when the switch is open, current will pass through the lamp and it will glow.
 When switch is closed, no current will pass through the lamp due to large resistance of its filament and it will not
glow.
 NOT operation is represented by a line or bar over the symbol i.e., X = A and is read as “X equals A NOT”.
 It means NOT operation changes the state of a Boolean variable.
 For example, if the value of a Boolean variable is 1, then after NOT operation its value would change to ‘0’.
 Similarly, if its value before NOT operation is 0, then after NOT operation it would change to ‘1’. Thus NOT operation
inverts the state of Boolean variable.
 The electronic circuit which implements NOT operation is known as NOT gate.
 NOT gate performs the basic logical function called inversion or complementation.
 NOT gate is also called inverter.
 The purpose of this gate is to convert one logic level into the opposite logic level.
 When a HIGH level is applied to an inverter, a LOW level appears on its output and vice versa.
NAND GATE
 NAND operation is simply an AND operation followed by a NOT operation.
 For example, NAND gate is obtained by coupling a NOT gate with the output terminal of the AND gate.
 The NOT gate inverts the output of the AND gate.
 The output of the NAND equals A . B and is written as X = A . B. It is read as X equals A AND B NOT.
NOR GATE
 The NOR operation is simply an OR operation followed by a NOT operation.
 The NOR gate is obtained by coupling the output of the OR gate with the NOT gate.
 Thus, for the same combination of inputs, the output of a NOR gate will be opposite to that of an OR gate.
 Its Boolean expression is X = A + B. It is read as X equals A OR B NOT.
USES OF LOGIC GATES
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 We can use logic gates in electronic circuits to do useful tasks.

 These circuits usually use light depending resistors (LDRs) to keep inputs LOW.
 An LDR can act as a switch that is closed when illuminated by light and open in the dark.
HOUSE SAFETY ALARM
 We can use single NAND gate to make burglar alarm.
 This can be done by using NAND gate, an LDR, a push-button switch S and an alarm. Connect LDR between NAND
gate input B and the positive terminal of the battery. The LDR will cause a HIGH level input ‘1’ at B when in light
because of its Low resistance. The LDR will cause a Low level input ‘0’ at B when light is interrupted and causes
high resistance in LDR. A LOW level signal is also caused at A when burglar steps on switch S. So this burglar alarm
sounds when either burglar interrupts light falling on LDR or steps on switch S.
CHAPTER 18
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is defined as the scientific methods and means to store, process
and transmit vast amounts of information in seconds with the help of electronic equipments.
 In computer terminology, processed data is called information.
 Computer processes the data and converts it into useful information.
 This information is transmitted to distant places in the form of sound, picture and computerized data.
 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is basically an electronic based system of information
transmission, reception, processing and retrieval.
 ICT is a blend of two fields: information technology and telecommunication. The two terms are defined as
follows:
 The scientific method used to store information, to arrange it for proper use and to communicate it to others is
called information technology.
 The method that is used to communicate information to far off places instantly is called telecommunication.
COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER BASED INFORMATION SYSTEM (CBIS)
 There are five parts that must come together in order to produce a Computer-Based Information System (CBIS). These
are called the components of information technology.
Hardware:

 The term hardware refers to machinery. This includes the central processing unit (CPU), and all of its support
equipment. Among the support equipments are input and output devices, storage devices and
communication devices.
Software:

 The term software refers to computer programs and the manuals that support them. Computer programs are machine-
readable instructions that direct the circuitry within the hardware parts of the CBIS to produce useful information
from data. Programs are generally stored on some input / output medium, often a disk or tape.
Data:

 Data are facts and figures that are used by programs to produce useful information. It may be in the form of text,
graphic or figure that can be recorded and that have specific meaning. Like programs, data are generally stored in
machine-readable form on disk or tape until the computer needs them.
Procedures:

 These are set of instructions and rules to design and use information system. These are written in manuals and
documents for use. These rules or methods may change from time to time. The Information System must be flexible
to incorporate these changes.
People:

 Every CBIS needs people if it is to be useful, who influence the success or failure of information systems. People
design and operate the software, they feed input data, build the hardware for the smooth running of any CBIS.
People write the procedures and it is ultimately people who determine the success or failure of a CBIS.
FLOW OF INFORMATION
 Flow of information means the transfer of information from one place to another through different electronic and optical
equipments.
 In telephone, information is sent through wires in the form of electrical signals.
 In radio, television and cell phone information is sent either through space in the form of electromagnet waves, or
through optical fibres in the form of light.
 There are three essential parts of any communication system: transmitter, transmission channel, and receiver.
 The transmitter processes the input signal.
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 The transmission channel is the medium which sends the signal from source to destination.
 The receiver takes the output signal from the transmission channel and delivers it to the transducer after
processing it.
 The receiver may amplify the input signal to compensate for transmission loss.
TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL SIGNAL THROUGH WIRES
 Alexander Graham Bell in 1876 made a simple telephone model to send voice in the form of electrical signal
from one place to another. It consists of a metal reed, an electric coil, and a vibrating diaphragm.
 Modern telephone also uses diaphragms to turn voices into electrical signal that are transmitted over phone
lines.
 Telephone system has two parts: the mouthpiece and the earpiece.
 The mouthpiece and receiver contain carbon granules and a thin metal diaphragm.
 When we speak into the mouthpiece, the sound vibrations also vibrate the diaphragm.
 A slight vibration of the diaphragm compresses the carbon and thus an electrical current can flow through the
wire.
 This process is reversed at the other end of the line by the receiver.
 The electrical current flowing through an electromagnet in the receiver produces a varying magnetic field. This
magnetic field attracts the thin metal diaphragm in the receiver, causing it to vibrate. This vibration of the
diaphragm produces sound waves.
TRANSMISSIONS OF RADIOWAVES THROUGH SPACE
 Electrical signals representing information from a microphone, a TV camera, or a computer can be sent from
one place to another place using either cables or radio waves.
 Information in the form of audio frequency (AF) signals may be transmitted directly by cable. However, in order
to send information over a long distance, it has to be superimposed on electromagnetic waves.
 Sound waves produced at the radio station are changed into electrical signals through microphone.
 These electric signals are then fed into the transmission antenna which consists of two metal rods.
 Signals falling on the transmission antenna oscillate the charges which then emit these electrical signals in the
form of electromagnetic radio waves.
 At the receiving end, the receiver selects and amplifies the modulated signal.
 The demodulator then extracts the information signal and delivers it to the receptor.
FAX MACHINE
 Telefacsimile's or Fax machines are must for many businesses around the world.
 A fax machine basically scans a page to convert its text and graphic into electronic signals and transmits it to another
fax machine through telephone line.
 The receiving machine converts the signals and uses a printer (usually built in) to create the copy of the message
that was sent.
CELL PHONE
 Radio technology is applied in mobile phone.
 It is a type of radio having two way communications.
 A cell phone carries a radio transmitter and a receiver inside it.
 It sends and receives the message in the form of radio waves.
 Cell phone network system consists of cells and Base Stations (BSs) and Mobile Switching Centre (MSC)
 A base station is a wireless communication station set up at a particular geographical location. The geographical
area covered by a single base station is known as a cell.
 The group of cells forms a cluster.
 All BSs within a cluster are connected to a MSC using land lines.
 The MSC stores information about the subscribers located within the cluster and is responsible for directing calls
to them.
 When a caller calls another cell phone, sound waves of the caller are converted into radio waves signal.
 This radio signal of particular frequency is sent to the local base station of the caller where the signal is assigned
a specific radio frequency.
 This signal is then sent to the base station of the receiver through MSC. Then the call is transferred to the cell
phone of the receiver.
 Mobile receiver again changes the radio waves into sound.
PHOTO PHONE
 Contrary to a common telephone, users can see the pictures of each other.
 By using the photo and phone numbers of our friends or family members on this telephone, we can call them by
pressing the pad with their photos.
 Thus, we can communicate with our relatives or friends on photo phone with the physical appearance of each
other.
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TRANSMISSION OF LIGHT SIGNALS THROUGH OPTICAL FIBRES

 Waves of visible light have a much higher frequency than that of radio waves. This means, rate of sending
information with light beams is larger than that with radio waves or microwaves.
 An optical fibre has been used as transmission channel for this purpose.
 An optical fibre with a coating of lower refractive index is a thin strand of high-quality glass that absorbs very
little light.
 An optical fibre cable is a bundle of glass fibres with thickness of a human hair.
 Light that enters the core at one end of the optical fibre goes straight and hits the inner wall (the cladding) of fibre
optics.
 If the angle of incidence with cladding is less than the critical angle, some of the light will escape the fibre optics
and is lost.
 However, if the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, light is totally reflected into the fibre optics.
Then the totally reflected beam of light travels in a straight line until it hits the inner wall again, and so on.
 The advantage of optical fibre is that it can be used for sending very high data rates over long distances. This feature
of fibre optics distinguishes it from wires.
 When electrical signals are transmitted through wires, the signal lost increases with increasing data rate. This
decreases the range of the signal.
 Each optical fibre in a multi-mode cable is about 10 times thicker than fibre optics used in a single-mode cable.
This means light beams can travel through the core by following different paths, hence the name multiple-mode.
 Multi-mode cables can send information only over relatively short distances and are used to link computer
networks together.
COMPUTER
 Computer is an electronic computing machine used for adding, subtracting or multiplying. Computers work
through an interaction of hardware and software.
 Hardware refers to the parts of a computer that you can see and touch. These include CPU, monitor, keyboard,
mouse, printer, etc.
 The most important piece of hardware is the central processing unit (CPU) that contains a tiny rectangular chip
called microprocessor. It is the “brain” of computer—the part that translates instructions and performs
calculations.
 Software refers to the instructions, or programs, that tell the hardware what to do.
 A word processing program that you can use to write letters on your computer is a type of software.
 The operating system (OS) is software that manages your computer and the devices connected to it.
 Two well-known operating systems are Windows and Linux operating system.
INFORMATION STORAGE DEVICES
 A storage device is a device designed to store information in computer.
 Storage devices work on different principles using electronics, magnetism and laser technology.
PRIMARY MEMORY
 It is based on electronics and consists of integrated circuits (ICs).
 It consists of two parts; Read only memory (ROM), which starts the computer and Random access memory
(RAM), which is used in computer as temporary memory.
 RAM vanishes when the computer is switched off.
SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES
 The data storage devices are generally the secondary memory of the computer.
 It is used to store the data permanently in the computer.
 When we open a program data is moved from the secondary storage into the primary storage.
 The secondary storage devices are audio-video cassettes and hard disk etc.
AUDIO AND VIDEO CASSETTES
 These devices are based on magnetism.
 Audio cassettes consist of a tape of magnetic material on which sound is recorded in a particular pattern of a
magnetic field.
 For this purpose, microphone changes sound waves into electric pulses, which are amplified by an amplifier.
 Magnetic tape is moved across the head of audio cassette recorder which is in fact an electromagnet.
 Thus magnetic tape is magnetized in a particular pattern according to rise and fall of current. In this way, sound is
stored in a specific magnetic pattern on this tape.
 To produce the sound again, the tape is moved past the play back head.
 Changes in the magnetic field on the tape induce alternating current signals in the coil wound on the head. These
signals are amplified and sent to the loudspeakers which reproduce the recorded sound.
 In video tape/cassettes, pictures are recorded along with sound.
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MAGNETIC DISKS
 There are different types of magnetic disks coated with a layer of some magnetic material.
 The read/write head of disks are similar to the record replay head on a tape recorder. It magnetizes parts of the
surface to record information.
 The difference is that a disk is a digital medium– binary numbers are written and read.
 A floppy disc is a small magnetically sensitive, flexible plastic wafer housed in a plastic case. It is coated with a
magnetic oxide similar to the material used to coat cassettes and video tapes.
 Most personal computers include at least one disk drive that allows the computer to write it and read from
floppy disk
 Floppies are inexpensive, convenient, and reliable, but they lack the storage capacity and drive speed for many
large jobs.
 Data stored on floppy disks is also subject to loss as a result of stray magnetic fields.
 As far as floppy disks are concerned, they are reliable only for short-term storage and cannot be used longer and
no attempts should be made to save the data for a longer period.
 As the magnetic fields weaken the data will also be lost.
HARD DISK
Hard disk is a rigid, magnetically sensitive disk that spins rapidly and continuously inside the computer chassis or in a
separate box connected to the computer housing.
This type of hard disk is never removed by the user.
A typical hard disk consists of several platters, e a c h accessed via a read/write head on a moveable arm.
COMPACT DISC (CDs)
 This is based on laser technology.
 It is a molded plastic disc on which digital data is stored in the form of microscopic reflecting and non-reflecting
spots which are called “pits” and “lands” respectively.
 Pits are the spiral tracks encoded on the top surface of CD and lands are the areas between pits. A fine laser beam
scans the surface of the rotating disk to read the data.
 Pits and lands reflect different amount of the laser light falling on the surface of CD. This pattern of different amount
of the light reflected by the pits and the lands is converted into binary data.
 The presence of pit indicates ‘1’ and absence of pit indicates ‘0’.
 A CD can store over 680 megabyte of computer data.
 A DVD, the same size as traditional CD, is able to store upto 17gigabytes of data.
FLASH DRIVE
 It is also an electronic based device and consists of data storage ICs.
 A flash drive is a small storage device that can be used to transport files from one computer to another.
 They are slightly larger than a stick of gum, yet many of these devices can carry all your homework for an entire year!
DATA MANAGEMENT – MONITORING AND CONTROL
 To collect all information regarding a subject for any purpose and to store them in the computer in more than one
inter linked files which may help when needed, is called 'data managing'.
INTERNET
 Internet is basically a large computers network, which extends all across the globe.
 In Internet, millions of computers remain connected together through well-laid communication system.
INTERNET SERVICES
 The main services used on the internet include:
 Web browsing - this function allows users to view web pages.
 E-mail - Allows people to send and receive text messages.
BROWSERS
 A browser is an application which provides a window to the Web.
 All browsers are designed to display the pages of information located at Web sites around the world.
 The most popular browsers on the market today include Internet Explorer, The World, Opera, Safari, Mozilla Firefox,
Chrome, etc.
 We can search anything through search engine like Google Chrome, Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, etc.
ELECTRONIC MAIL
 One of the most widely used application of internet is electronic mail (or e-mail), which provides very fast
delivery of messages to any enabled site on the Internet.
 Communication through e-mail is more quick and reliable.
 Through our e-mail, we can communicate with our friends and institution with more ease and pace. Some
advantages of e-mail are as follows:
 Fast Communication– We can send messages anywhere in the world instantly.
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 Cost Free Service– If we have an internet access, then we can avail the e-mail service free of cost.
 Simple to Use-After initial setup of e-mail account, it is easy to use.
 More Efficient– We can send our message to many friends or people only in one action.
 Versatile- Pictures or other files can also be sent through e-mail. Internet has proved to be very beneficial to us.
Here is the list of use of internet.
 Faster Communication
 Big Source of Information
 Source of Entertainment
 Access to Social Media
 Access to Online Services
 E-commerce
 E-Learning
CHAPTER 19
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
ATOM AND ATOMIC NUCLEUS
THE STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM IN TERMS OF A NUCLEUS AND ELECTRONS.
 Atom is the smallest unit into which matter can be divided without releasing electrically charged particles.
 The simple Rutherford’s atomic model is often used to explain the basic structure of an atom.
 Every atom is composed of two parts;
 The central hard-core of an atom is the nucleus which is the small, dense region consisting of
closely packed protons and neutrons.
 Around the nucleus, electrons revolve at high speed. The number of particles (electron and
protons) depends on the type of atom.
 Most of the atom is empty space.
 The rest comprise a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged orbiting electrons.
 The nucleus is tiny and dense compared with the electrons.
 Electrons are bound by a positively charged nucleus with the electrostatic force.
NUCLEAR MODEL OF THE ATOM
 Rutherford put forward one of the earliest model of the nucleus, which he derived from experiments carried out
by Geiger and Marsden.
GEIGER AND MARSDEN α SCATTERING EXPERIMENT
 Geiger and Marsden, the two scientists, used a beam of positively charged α - particles to bombard a thin gold
foil placed in a vacuum surrounded by a ring-shaped fluorescent screen.
 After bombarding the foil, the scattered α - particles were detected using a rotating detector.
 When α - particles hit the screen of light was observed through the detector.
 Geiger and Marsden found quite unpredicted experimental results that most of the α – particles were not
deflected or only a few deflected through small angles.
 The unexpected result was that a small number of the α – particles were deflected through considerable larger
angles of more than 90 degree and few of the α – particles were even deflected back through nearly 180 degree.
 To explain these observations, Rutherford postulated an atomic model.
 The nucleus carries all the positive charge of atom and nearly all its mass, as a large number of α –particles
passing through the foil undeflected suggest that there exist large empty spaces in an atom and those positively
charged α –particles that deflected through large angles had come very close to the positively charged nucleus.
 However, a few were repelled so strongly that they bounced back or deflected through large angles.
PROTONS AND NEUTRONS
 The outermost region of the nucleus is called electron shell.
 It contains electrons.
 Electrons have a negative (-) charge.
 The nucleus contains the neutrons and the protons bound tightly together by the nuclear forces (gluons).
 Neutrons carries no charge.
 The mass of a neutron is slightly larger than that of a proton.
 Proton have an equal positive (+) charge that of an electron in magnitude.
 An atom usually has an equal number of protons as electrons, so its net charge is zero.
 Therefore atom is considered neutral.
 Atoms have different properties depending upon the arrangement and number of their elemental particles;
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 The branch of physics concerned with the study and understanding of the atomic nucleus, including its
composition and the forces which bind it together, is called nuclear physics.
ELEMENTS
 All materials are made from about 100 essential substances known as elements.
 The smallest part of an element is an atom.
 Each element have a unique number of protons.
 The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom in an element is called atomic number (Z).
 The atomic number distinguishes one element from another.
 For example, the atomic number (Z) of carbon is six because it has 6 protons, and the atomic number (Z) of
nitrogen is seven because it has 7 protons.
 There are some other examples given in table. The atomic number also tells you the number of electrons in that
atom.

NUCLIDES
 An atom of an element has all the characteristics of that element.
 The nucleus is at the center of the atom and contains the protons and neutrons, which are collectively called
nucleons.
 The number of protons in an atom of an element is called the atomic number, (Z).
 The number of neutrons in the nucleus is the neutron number, (N).
 The number of protons and neutrons is collectively known as nucleon number (A) or atomic mass (A).
 The total number of nucleons is the atomic mass, A.
 These numbers are related by the symbol A. A = Z + N
 A nucleus is represented symbolically by: zXA
 Where X represents the nuclide of a chemical element, A is the nucleon number, and Z is the atomic number.
 For example, 6C12represents the carbon nucleus with six protons and twelve nucleons. Thus, the total orbiting
electrons are also six, and the neutron number is: A = Z + N , N = A - Z ,N = 12 - 6 , N = 6
ELEMENTS AND ISOTOPES
ISOTOPES
 The atoms of an element are not exactly alike.
 Some may have more neutrons than others. These different variants of the elements are called isotopes.
 Two or more species of atoms of an element with the same atomic number, (Z) have different atomic mass, (A)
is called Isotopes.
 Most elements have mixture of two or more isotopes.
 For example, the hydrogen atom (atomic number I) has three isotopes with atomic masses 1, 2, and 3. You can
see how to represent an atom of Hydrogen using symbols and numbers in the table given below.

 Every element has a specific position in the periodic table and nearly identical chemical behavior or properties
with the same number of electrons.
 Many other essential properties of an isotope depend on its mass.
 The total number of neutrons and protons in the nucleus of mass number (symbol A) gives it different physical
properties, i.e. mass, surface area, volume, and density.
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 Isotopes are two or more species of atoms of an element with identical chemical properties that have different
physical properties.
CHAPTER 20
NUCLEAR STRUCTURE
 The nuclear structure is the area of physics that studies the nuclei of atoms.
NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY
 Atomic nuclei consist of protons and neutrons, whereby protons repel each other through electrostatic force
due to their positive charges.
 In contrast, nuclei bind the nucleons through another specific binding energy. These two forces compete with
each other, leading to various nuclei stability. There are only certain neutron-proton pairings that form stable
nuclei. As a result, an increasing ratio of neutrons to protons is required to form a stable nucleus. Some
proportions of neutrons to protons are more stable than others in a nucleus if the neutron number, N, is plotted
against the proton number, Z; for all different isotopes of all the elements.
 If an isotope undergoes radioactive decay is called radio-isotope or radioactive element.
 The emission of α, β and 𝜸 radiation with the release of energy is known as radioactivity.
TYPES OF RADIATION α, β AND 𝜸
 Salient features as given below.
 Stable isotopes lie along with the stability line.
 Isotopes above the stability line have too many neutrons to be stable. The decay for β-
(electron) emission reduces the number of neutrons.
 Isotopes below the line of stability have few neutrons to be stable. The decay for β+ (positron)
emissions increases the number of neutrons
 The heaviest isotopes (proton number, Z > 83) decay by α emissions. Many other infrequent
types of decay, such as spontaneous fission or neutron emission, are also observed.
NATURE OF RADIOACTIVE EMISSION
 To describe the nature of three types of radiation α, β and 𝜸, the radioactive source is placed inside the electric
field.
 The radiation emitted from the source breaks down into three components: α and β -radiations bend in the
opposite direction in the electric field, while 𝜸 -radiation does not change its direction.
 This result describes that.
 α deflected towards a negatively charged while the plate is positively charged,
 β deflected towards a positive plate that is negatively charged. It is deflected more in the field,
thus, much lighter than a particles.
 𝜸 rays are not deflected by the field and carry no electric charge.
 Further, it was found by further explorations that;
 An alpha particle is a helium nucleus comprising two protons and two neutrons with a charge
of +2e.
 Beta radiation is a streamlet of high-energy electrons.
 Gamma radiations are photons that are electromagnetic radiations of ultra-high frequency.
RELATIVE IONIZING EFFECTS OF RADIOACTIVE EMISSION
 Ions are charged atoms or charged molecules.
 Atoms become ions when they lose or gain electrons.
 Nuclear radiations, i.e., alpha, beta, and gamma, can knock out electrons from atoms in their paths, resulting in
an ionizing effect.
 However, alpha particles have the most significant ionization power than beta particles and gamma rays. It is
due to the large positive charge and large mass of alpha particles.
 Beta particles ionize a gas much less than alpha particles.
 The ionization power of gamma rays is even less than that of beta particles.
 The phenomenon by which radiations split matter into positive and negative ions is called ionization.
RELATIVE PENETRATING ABILITIES OF RADIOACTIVE EMISSION
 An alpha particle has the shortest penetrating ability because of its strong interacting or ionizing power.
 Alpha particle has a penetrating range of only a few centimeters in the air; they can be stopped by a thick sheet
of paper or by the skin.
 The beta radiation interacts with the matter due to its charge and has a high penetrating range compared to
alpha particles.
 Beta particles have a range of several meters in the air.
 They can penetrate through thick paper but are stopped by a few millimeters of aluminum. However, gamma
rays range several hundreds of meters in the air.
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 The gamma rays are very penetrating, never completely stopped through lead, and thick concrete will reduce
their intensity. It is due to their high speed and neutral nature.
 The strength of radiations to penetrate a certain material is called penetrating power.
NUCLEAR TRANSMUTATIONS
 If an isotope is radioactive, it has an unstable arrangement of neutrons and protons.
 The emission of alpha or beta particles makes the nucleus more stable, whereas it changes the number of
protons and neutrons.
 So it transmutes to the nucleus of a different element.
 The original nucleus before decay is called the parent nucleus.
 The nucleus formed after decay is called the daughter nucleus.
 Radioactive disintegration causes nuclear transmutation and converts one chemical element or isotope into
another chemical element or isotope.
 Now we can represent changes in the composition of the nucleus using a nuclear equation in which an unstable
parent nuclide X decays into a daughter nuclide Y by the emission of alpha, beta, and gamma decay products
with the release of energy.
Alpha (α)-decay
 In alpha decay, the proton number or atomic number, Z of the parent nuclide reduces by 2, while its atomic
mass or nucleon number, A, decreases by 4.

Beta (β)-decay
 In beta decay, the atomic number Z of the parent nuclide increases by one, and its atomic mass or nucleon
number remains unchanged.
 Its general equation is;

Beta (β)+ decay

 In positron emission/positive beta decay ((β+ decay), A proton in the parent nucleus decays into a neutron that
remains in the daughter nucleus and the nucleus emits a neutrino and a positron, which is a positive particle like
an ordinary electron in mass but of opposite charge.

BACKGROUND RADIATION
 There are a small number of radiations around us due to the radioactive elements present in the surroundings.
 These radiations mainly originate from various natural sources such as soil, rocks, air, building materials, food
and drinks, and even from space.
 These natural radiations that come from the surroundings are called background radiations.
 In some areas, over half of these radiations come from radioactive radon 86Rn222 gas, rocks seeping, and some
types of granite;
 Our planet Earth is also exposed to radiation from outer space called cosmic radiations, consisting of electrons,
protons, alpha particles, and larger nuclei.
 The cosmic radiation interacts with atoms in the atmosphere to create a shower of radiation; including X-rays,
muons, protons, alpha particles, electrons, and neutrons.
 Radioactive emissions occur randomly over space and time
 Spontaneous decay is a process in which environmental factors cannot influence.
 Radioactive decay takes place naturally (all by itself).
 There is no way of predicting when a particular nucleus will disintegrate, and the process is unaffected by
pressure, temperature, chemical conditions, and other physical conditions. However, some nuclei undergo
nuclear disintegration at different rates.
 A random decay is a process in which the exact time of decay of a nucleus cannot be predicted. A detector like a
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Geiger-Muller (GM) tube can demonstrate the random nature by observing the count rate of radioactive
disintegration.
 When a GM tube is placed near a radioactive source, the counts are irregular.
 Each count represents a decay of an unstable nucleus.
 The variation of count rate over time of a sample radioactive source is plotted on the graph.
 You can see the fluctuations in count rate against time; on the graph that provides evidence for the random
nature of radioactive decay over space and time. It can be concluded from the experiment that
• The time of each decay cannot be predicted
• The direction in which radiation is emitted is not possible to determine.
HALF-LIFE
 The half-life of a radioactive isotope is the time taken for half of the nuclei present in any given sample to decay.
 Iodine-131 is a radioactive isotope of iodine.
 Iodine-13l has an eight-day half-life, which means that half of an iodine-I31 sample will be converted to other
elements within 8 days.
 Half of the remaining iodine will decay in the next eight days, leaving eight only one-fourth of the original
amount of radium, and so on, the decaying process continues.
 Every radioactive element has its characteristics half-life.
 The half-lives of some radioactive isotopes are given in the table below.
 It might seem strange that some isotopes have short half-lives while others have long half-lives.

 Estimate the age of ancient objects by the process of carbon dating.

 Radioactive dating is a process by which the approximate age of an object is determined by using certain
radioactive nuclides.
 For example, radioisotope carbon-14 is found in a small amount in the atmosphere and is used to measure the
age of organic material.
 Living plants and animals use carbon dioxide and become slightly radioactive accordingly.
 While an organism is alive, the amount of carbon-14 remains constant because fresh carbon-14 enters whenever
the organism consumes nutrients.
 When an animal die, no more carbon is absorbed, and the radio carbon-14 present inside the animal starts
decaying to nitrogen-14.
 Since the half-life of carbon-14 is 5730 years, archeologists can estimate the age of remains by computing the
activity of carbon-14 in the live and dead animals.
RADIO-ISOTOPES
 The radioisotope is also a radioactive isotope, radionuclide, or radioactive nuclide.
 A radioisotope is a kind of the same element with different masses.
 It undergoes decay spontaneously and emits radiation to dissipate excess energy.
 For example, hydrogen, the lightest element, has three isotopes H 1. H2 and H3.
 Only H3 (tritium) is unstable.
 However, it is a radioactive isotope and undergoes nuclear decay.
 The stable and non-radioactive elements can also be transmuted into radioactive elements by exposing them to
neutrons, or alpha particles.
 Such artificially produced radioactive elements are also called radioisotopes.
 Here are some examples of the production of radioisotopes:

Applications of radioisotopes in medicine, agriculture, and industrial fields.

 Radioisotopes are often used in medicine, industry, and agriculture for various beneficial imposes. Some
practical applications of radioisotopes in different fields are given below.
Radiotracers
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 A radioactive tracer is a chemical compound in which a short-lived radioisotope has replaced a few atoms.
 Tracers monitor the metabolism of chemical reactions inside the human body, animals, or plants. Radioisotopes
are used as tracers in medicine, industry, and agriculture.
Medical treatment
 In nuclear medicines, radioisotopes are used for curing various diseases.
 For example, cobalt-60 is a strong gamma emitter.
 These rays can penetrate in-depth into the body and kill the malignant tumor cells in the patient. Treatment like
this is called radiosurgery.
Testing for cracks
 Gamma rays have high penetrating power, so they can photograph metals to check cracks.
 A cobalt-60 is a natural gamma rays source and does not need electrical power like an x-ray tube.
FISSION AND FUSION
Nuclear reactions are processes in which one or more nuclides are produced from the collisions between two atomic
nuclei.
The nuclides produced from nuclear reactions are different from the interacting nuclei or parent nuclei. Two notable
nuclear reactions are nuclear fission reactions and nuclear fusion reactions.
NUCLEAR FISSION
 Nuclear fission occurs when a heavy nucleus, such as U-235 absorbing a slow-moving neutron, splits or fissions
into two smaller nuclei with the release of energy.
For example:
 When U-235 captures a neutron, an intermediate, highly unstable nucleus, U-236 is formed that disintegrates
only for a fraction of a second into two smaller nuclei of nearly equal fragments, Kr-144 and Barium-89, called
fission fragments accompanied by two or three neutrons.

NUCLEAR FUSION
 Nuclear fusion occurs when two light nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus with the release of energy.
 For example:
 When a nucleus of Deuterium (H2) is fused with a nucleus of Tritium (H3), then a Helium nucleus or alpha particle
is formed as represented by the equation,
 The total mass of the final nuclei is always less than the mass of the original nuclei. This loss of mass produces
nuclear energy.
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CLASS – 6
 Things described in previous classes are not typed again in this class 6
 A Set is collection of well defined and distinct objects
 George cantor was mathematician who gave the concept of set in 19th century
 Symbol 𝝐 is read as “belongs to” and ∉ is read as “does not belongs to”
 Set is described in two forms Tabular form like {a,e,i,o,u} and Descriptive form is like set of vowels
 The name of set is denoted by Capital letter of English Alphabet
 A set which is limited in number of elements is finite set and unlimited elements is infinite set
 A set which has no element is called an empty or null or void set denoted by { } or ∅
 A set which has only one element is called singleton set like {5}
 All the elements of both sets are same are Equal sets and both sets are same in number are Equivalent
sets
 Equal sets are represented as A=B and equivalent are represented as A~B
 All the sets are also equivalent sets but all equivalent may not equal sets
 If each element of set A is also an element of set B then set A is called subset of set B. Denoted as A⊆B
 Every set is subset of itself
 If A is subset of B then the set B is called superset of A. Denoted as A⊃B
 If A is subset of set B and A is not equal to B then “A is proper subset of B”. Denoted as A⊂B
 If A is subset of B and A is also equal to set B then “A is improper subset of B”. Denoted a⊆B
 A number is divisible by 4 if number formed by the last two digits of the number is divisible by 4 or
two digits are zeros like 1002316 and 1002300
 A number is divisible by 6 if the number is exactly divided by 2 and 3. Like 2142
 A number is divisible by 8 if the number formed by last three digits is exactly divided by 8 or last digits
are 0.
 A number is divisible by 9 if sum of numbers is exactly divided by 9
 A number is divisible by 11 if the difference of sum of digits at odd places from the sum of its digits at
even places is either 0 or exactly divided by 11. Like 7546 and 907665(9+7+6-0-6-5=22-11=11)
 A number is divisible by 12 if the number is exactly divisible by 3 and 4 like 234084
 A number is divisible by 15 if the number is divided by 3 and 5. Like 26130
 A number is divisible by 25 if the number by last two digits is exactly divisible by 25 or last two digits
are 0.
 The natural numbers 1,2,3,….. are also called positive integers and corresponding numbers are -1,-2,-
3,…. Are negative integers while 0 is neither positive nor negative like ….,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,…...
 Integer numbers are also called directed numbers
 Absolute value or numerical value of a number is its distance from 0 on the number line and its
always positive or 0 and denoted by | | e.g. |+7|=7 or |-15|=15
 There are four kinds of brackets ̶ bar or vinculum, () parenthesis, {} curly brackets and [] square
brackets
 In proportion a:b::c:d, a and d are called extremes & b and c are called means
 Ratio of two numbers a and b, where b≠ 0 is written as a:b and a is antecedent and b is consequent
 To find quantity if percentage is given, rule is “Quantity= Percent of quantity ÷ Rate” where rate is
percent and percent of quantity is given quantity like find the quantity if 75% of it is 123. Hence it is
164 by rule “”
 Profit=Selling Price (SP) – Cost Price (CP) and Lost=Cost Price – Selling Price
 Discount percent is calculated on the marked price and not on SP or CP
 “Profit Percent = Profit / CP * 100%” and “Loss Profit = Loss / CP * 100%”
 In 820 AD, Muslim Mathematician Muhammad Ibne Mosa Al Khawarzmi wrote book algebra-wal-
almuqabila.
 The term algebra is an extension of arithmetic in which letters and symbols replace the numbers or
quantities.
 Any of the letters of English alphabet, which is used to denote number in algebra, is called variable.
E.g. x+5>2
 224

 Algebraic expression is the combination of variables, numerals and fundamental operations,

2+x,5x,6x-3y+8
 In algebraic expressions + and – used to connect terms while × and ÷ are not used for term
connections
 A number/symbol appearing as multiple of a variable used in algebraic term is called coefficient while
single term independent of a variable is called constant term. E.g 4x+5, 4 is coefficient, x is variable
and 5 is constant
 Like term can be combined to give a single term e.g 2x+3x and unlike are different terms e.g 2x+3y
 Equations are connection of algebraic expressions by sign of equality. E.g 2x+3=9 or x-y=7
 Linear equation in one variable is an equation with one variable and one variable like 2x+4, 6z, m/8,
5a/7
 Geometry is the oldest branch of mathematics
 Right bisector is also a known as perpendicular bisector
 Construction of triangle is possible only if the sum of any two sides is greater than the third side.
 Construction of triangle is possible if following set of elements are known
 Measures of three sides (SSS)
 Measures of two sides and one angle (SAS)
 Measures of two angles and one side (ASA)
 Measures of Hypotenuse and one side (RHS)
 Perimeter of rectangle is P= 2(l+b) and Square P= 4 (Sides)
 Area of square = side × side and Area of rectangle = length × breadth
 Area of path = Area of large rectangle – Area of small rectangle
 Altitude is the shortest distance from the top to the base of a geometrical figure and altitude makes
right angle
 Area of parallelogram = b (base) × h (altitude)
1
 Area of Trapezium = 2 × 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒(𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠)
 Surface area is the measurement of space occupied by surface of 3D figure measured in sq: units e.g
surface area of cube = 6×l2 and surface area of cuboid = 2 (l×b+b×h+h×l) or sum of all areas
 Volume of solid object is the measurement of the space occupied by a 3D object. V of cube= l×l×l or l3
 Volume of cuboid =l×b×h
CLASS - 7
 Things described in previous classes are not typed again in this class 7
 Set is expressed in three forms Tabular form like {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10} , Descriptive form is like set of
Ten Natural numbers and Set Builder Form is {x/x ϵ N ᴧ x ≤ 10}
 In descriptive form of sets, we describe the characteristics of members of a set in common language
 In Tabular form, we tabulate the members of a set within the braces (curly brackets) and separate
them by commas. Symbol ‘/’ is read as such that , ‘ᴧ’ is read as ‘and’ & ‘ᴠ’ is read as ‘or’ in set builder
method
 Tabular form: C = {0,1,2,3,4,5} and set builder form C = {x / x ϵ W ᴧ 0 ≤ x ≤ 5}
 Operations of a set: (1) Union of set ∪ , (2) Intersection of a set ∩ and (3) Difference of two sets
 Union of set ∪ : Its simple combination of members in result while common elements will be included
once only like A = {1,2,3,4} B = {4,8,10,12} so A∪B = {1,2,3,4,8,10,12}
 Intersection of set ∩ : only duplicate members will be in result like A = {1,2,3,4} B = {4,8,10,12} so A∩B
= {4}
 Difference of two sets will subtract the same members and remaining members of subtracted set will
be result like A = {1,2,3,4,5} & B = {2,4,6} so A-B = {1,3,5}. Denoted by A-B or A\B.
 Disjoint sets are A and B if they have no common member like A = {1,2} and B = {4,5} are disjoint sets
 Two sets have at least one common member and none of them is subset of the other set is called
Overlapping set like X = {0,1,2,4} and Y = {2,3,5,7} Both have 2 is common member hence sets are
overlapping sets
 A set that consists of all the members of the sets under consideration is Universal set. It is denoted by
U. It is generally superset of all sets
 225

 Complement of a set if U is universal set and A is subset then U-A, or A’ is called complement of the
set A.
 Commutative property of union of sets is A∪B = B∪A will get same result by solving
 Associative property of union of sets is A∪(B∪C) = (A∪B)∪C will get same result by solving
 Commutative property of Intersection of sets is A∩B = B∩A will get same result by solving
 Associative property of Intersection of sets is A∩(B∩C) = (A∩B)∩C will get same result by solving
 Venn diagrams is representation of sets through rectangle circle or oval and introduced by John Venn
𝑝 2 1 3
 Rational number is a number that can expressed in the form 𝑞 where q≠0 like 3 , 7 and 4 are rational
numbers
 Zero can never be denominator because division of zero is undefined
 Every N and Z is also a rational number and there are infinite rational numbers between any two
numbers
𝑎
 If the sum of two rational numbers is zero then they are called additive inverse of each other. (𝑏 ) +
𝑏
(− 𝑎) = 0
 If product of two non-zero rational numbers is 1 then they are multiplicative inverse of each other like
𝑎 𝑏
× =1
𝑏 𝑎
𝟏
𝑝 𝒑 𝒒
 If is non-zero rational number then is reciprocal and
𝑞 𝒒 𝒑
𝑎 𝑐 𝑐 𝑎
 Commutative property w.r.to addition of rational number 𝑏 + 𝑑 = 𝑑 + 𝑏
𝑎 𝑐 𝑐 𝑎
 Commutative property w.r.to multiplication of rational number 𝑏 × 𝑑 = 𝑑 × 𝑏
𝑎 𝑐 𝑒 𝑎 𝑐 𝑒
 Associative property w.r.to addition 𝑏 + (𝑑 + 𝑓) = (𝑏 + 𝑑) + 𝑓
𝑎 𝑐 𝑒 𝑎 𝑐 𝑒
 Associative property w.r.to multiplication 𝑏 × (𝑑 × 𝑓) = (𝑏 × 𝑑) × 𝑓
𝑎 𝑐 𝑒 𝑎 𝑐
 Distributive property of rational numbers w.r.to multiplication over addition. 𝑏 × (𝑑 + 𝑓) = 𝑏 × 𝑑 +
𝑎 𝑒
𝑏
×𝑓
𝑎 𝑐 𝑒 𝑎
 Distributive property of rational numbers w.r.to multiplication over subtraction. 𝑏 × (𝑑 − 𝑓) = 𝑏 ×
𝑐 𝑎 𝑒
− ×
𝑑 𝑏 𝑓
 Ascending and descending order of rational number is decided by 2 conditions
2 7 1 1 2 7
 If the denominator is same then numerator will decide like ascending of 5 , 5 , 5 is 5 , 5 , 5
 If the denominators are different, we get LCM and multiply & divide LCM with denominators to get
3 4 1 30 35 56 3 1 4
same denominators like , , . Hence LCM is 70 so , , is ascending , ,
7 5 2 70 70 70 7 2 5
 A decimal which contains finite number of digits after decimal point is called terminating decimal e.g
0.5, 0.25
 A decimal which contains infinite number of digits after decimal point is called non-terminating
decimal e.g 0.555…., 0.2555….. and 0.90909……… etc
 A non-terminating decimal in which a ‘single digit’ or ‘block of digits’ is repeated infinite number of
times after decimal point, is called recurring decimal e.g 0.90909…. and 0.838383……
 A number is repeatedly multiplied by itself then it can be represented in index or exponential notation
like 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 25. Hence 2 is base, 5 is exponent or index and 32 is value
 Basically exponents expresses that base is repeated number of times
 Exponents Laws: (I) when bases are same but exponents are different, then product law is: am×an=
2 2 2
am+n where a may be rational number and m , n are natural numbers e.g ( )4 × ( )5 = ( )4+5 as per
7 7 7
product law (II) when bases are different but exponents are same, then product law is: an×bn= (ab)n
3 4 3 4
where a,b are rational number and n is natural number. E.g (4)2 × (5)2 = (4 × 5)2 as per product
law
 Quotient Laws: (I) when bases are same but exponents are different, then Quotient law is: am÷an= am-n
where a may be rational number and m , n are natural numbers e.g 36÷32 = 36-2 (II) when bases are
 226
𝒂
different but exponents are same, then Quotient law is: an÷bn = (𝒃)n where a, b are rational number
𝟓
and n is natural number. E.g 52 ÷ 32 = (𝟑)2 as per quotient law.
 If a is a rational number and m, n are natural numbers, the power law is: (am)n = amn e.g (73)2= 73*2 = 76
 Value of exponential expression when exponent is Zero is 1. E.g a0=1 or 50=1, a is rational number
1 1 1
 Value of exponential expression when exponent is negative a-m = 𝑎𝑚 e.g 5-3 = 53 so a-1 = 𝑎 generally
 Negative integer in base: (-a)n = +an if, n is Even and (-a)n = -an if, n is Odd e.g (-5)11 = -511 and (-3)20 =
+320
 A positive number which is the square of any number is called perfect square. E.g 1, 4, 9, 16, 25 etc
 Properties: (I) The square of even number is even e.g 22 = 4, 42 = 16, 62 = 36, 82 = 64 etc
 (II) The square of odd number is odd e.g 12 = 1, 32 = 9, 52 = 25, 72 = 49 etc
𝟑 𝟗
 (III) The square of a proper fraction is less than itself. E.g (𝟒)2 = 𝟏𝟔
 (IV) The square of a decimal less than 1 is smaller than the given decimal e.g (0.2)2 = 0.04
 The symbol of radical sign ‘√’ is used to show square root of a number. Square root of √𝟗 = √𝟑 ∗ 𝟑 =
𝟑
 By factorization method: √3969 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 7 × 7 = 3 × 3 × 7 (Pairing factors) = 63 is square root
 The number inside radical sign is called radicand.
 There are two methods to find square root of a number (i) Factorization Method (ii) Division Method
 If two ratios containing A, B and C are A : B = x : y and B : C = y : z then their continued ratio is A : B : C
=x:y:z
 Find A : B : C if A : B = 5 : 6 and B : C = 6 : 7 then A : B : C = 5 : 6 : 7
 Share = Component of Ratio × Total quantity / Sum of Ratio
 A fee Charged (Levied) by the government on a product, income or activity is called Tax.
 Property tax (generally 2%) is levied and collected under Sindh Urban Property Tax Act 1958 in
province
 Formula for finding property tax = Rate × Value of property /100 and property tax may vary in each
province
 General Salex Tax (GST) is a tax paid to Government for the sales of certain good and services
 Total GST = Item of cost × Rate of GST e.g A seller charge Rs. 2500 for shoe with GST 17% so it will be
425.
 Markup is an additional charge by bank or organization with the borrowed amount. Markup = P × R ×
T /100 (where P = Principal amount, R = Markup Rate and T= Time period)
 The collection and distribution of zakat and Ushr system was enforced in 1980. Zakat = Annual saving
× 2.5%
 Ushr is paid by land owner & Ushr Rate is 5 % (if Land irrigates artificial) or 10% (if water of river,
stream or rain)
 In Algebra Polynomial represents an algebraic expression containing a single term as well as two or
more terms with exponents of variable must be whole numbers like 6, 2x, x2+5 and 3x3+ 3x2 are
polynomials and x2 + 1/x2 or 𝑦 3.5 + 3 are not polynomials
 An expression having one term is called monomial or simple expression i.e 2, 3x, 4ab etc
 An expression having two terms is called binomial i.e x+y and 3a-bx2, x2+x etc
 An expression having three terms is called Trinomial i.e x+y+z and 3a-bx2-2b , x3+x2+x etc
 Formula 1: (𝒂 + 𝒃)(𝒂 + 𝒃) 𝒐𝒓 (𝒂 + 𝒃)𝟐 = (𝒂𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒃 + 𝒃𝟐 )
 Formula 2: (𝒂 − 𝒃)(𝒂 − 𝒃) 𝒐𝒓 (𝒂 − 𝒃)𝟐 = (𝒂𝟐 − 𝟐𝒂𝒃 + 𝒃𝟐 )
 Formula 3: 𝒂𝟐 − 𝒃𝟐 = (𝒂 − 𝒃)(𝒂 + 𝒃)
 Factorization in Algebra can be expressed as the product of given number or expression e.g 4a2 = 2 ×
2×a×a
 Factorize = 𝑎2 + 6𝑎𝑏 + 9𝑏 2 will be (𝑎 + 3𝑏)(𝑎 + 3𝑏)
 Factorization can be done through perfect square to meet criteria of formulas like Factors of 9𝑦 2 −
81 will be 9 (𝑦 2 − 9) = 9 (𝑦 + 3)(𝑦 − 3) for formula 3
 Factorization can be done through Middle term breaking. E.g 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 will be 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 6 to
make common factor as (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥) + (3𝑥 + 6) = 𝑥 (𝑥 + 2) + 3 (𝑥 + 2). So Result is (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 2)
 227

 Four major steps to solve real life linear equation: (I) Identify, what to find and determine (II) Choose a
variable to assign to unknown quantity (III) Relationship among known & unknown quantities to form
to form equation (IV) Solve the equation. Determine value of variable and use result to find unknown
quantities in problem
 Problem 1: 20 years from now, Nazia will become three times as old as she is now, find her present
age. Solution: Nazia = 𝒙 years, 20 years from now = 𝑥 + 20, after twenty she becomes = 3𝑥 so 𝑥 +
20 = 3𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 𝟏𝟎 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑎𝑧𝑖𝑎 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛. 𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦
 Problem 2: The sum of two consecutive odd numbers is 36. Find the numbers. Solution: Odd 1 = x, odd
2 = 𝑥 + 2 so required Linear equation is 𝑥 + (𝑥 + 2) = 36 Result: 𝑥 = 17. Odd numbers are 17 and
19
 Congruent Figures: They have exactly the same size and same shape; they not need to be identical.
They may have different colors or textures. Symbol of congruent is ‘≅ ′ e.g
 Congruent figures in examination are always given for judge the size and shape
 There are two triangles of same size and shape are congruent
 In this figure, there is rectangle rounded and another is different.
 Two or more geometrical figures are said to be similar if their shape is same
 A Line segment joining any two points on the circle is called chord of circle. See Figure
 The segment of a circle is a shape whose boundary is an arc and chord of a circle. See figure
 Geometrical figures which have exactly same shape are called similar figures denoted by ‘~’
 A triangle is polygon having three sides and three angles with the sum of interior angles 180° is called
triangle.
 A quadrilateral whose opposite sides are congruent and parallel is parallelogram
 Base angle = (180° − Vertex angle)/2
 Isosceles triangle has two sides congruent and quadrilateral triangle has three sides congruent
 The circumference is slightly more than 3 times the diameter
 Surface area of cylinder = 𝟐𝝅𝐫(𝐫 + 𝐡) and Volume of cylinder = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝐡
 Base angle of an isosceles triangle is 𝟔𝟕°. When the vertex angle is 56°
CLASS - 8
 Things described in previous classes are not typed again in this class 8
 Important Sets: Natural Set N = {1,2,3,…….}, Whole numbers W = {0,1,2,3,4,…….}, Integars Z = {…..,-3,-
2,-1,0,1,2,3,…..}, Even numbers E = {….,-6,-4,-2,0,2,4,6,……}, Odd Number O = {….,-5,-3,-1,1,3,5,…..},
𝑥 𝑝
Prime number P = {2,3,5,7,11,13,17,…..}, Rational numbers Q = {𝑥 = 𝑞 ᴧ 𝑝, 𝑞 ∈ 𝑍, 𝑞 ≠ 0}
 All number of possible subsets found by formula 2n. e.g set A = {a,b,c,d} here n = 4, so 24=16 will be
subsets and 15 subsets will be proper but last subset is improper subset = {a,b,c,d}. Verify by solving
subsets
 De Morgan’s Laws (i) (AUB)’ =A’∩B’, (ii) (A∩B)’ = A’UB’. Kindly prove by U = {1,2,…,6}, A ={1,2,3} & B =
{2,4,6}
 Venn diagram is geographical representation of sets and operations using geometrical shapes.
Practice book e.g
 Real numbers are combination of rational and irrational numbers. Like 0, -1, -0.384, ¾, 12.9, 𝜋 are real
numbers
 Irrational numbers are non terminating, non-repeating decimals. Denoted by Q’ and cannot be
expressed in the form of p/q, where p, q∈ Z and q ≠ 0.
𝟏
√𝟐, √𝟑, √𝟖, 𝝅, √𝟑 , √𝟕, √𝟒𝟖 𝒂𝒏𝒅 √𝟏𝟐𝟐 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑠
 Real numbers are union of Rational and Irrational and denoted by R. R = Q U Q’
 Rule to determine number of digits in the square root of a perfect square is:
𝒏 𝒏+𝟏
𝟐
𝐷𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝟐
𝑑𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝒐𝒅𝒅. E.g Root of 240100 will be 3 digits because
n = 6 and n/2=3. Verify by finding square root through division method
 The Cube of a number is the number obtained by raising it to the power of 3. 23 = 8, 43 =
64 𝑎𝑛𝑑 63 = 216
 Perfect cube root by factorization method. E.g 1728 = 2×2×2×2×2 ×2×3×3×3 =(2×2×3)3 = 123
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 The square root of a positive number is another positive number whose square is the given number.
 A number system formed, by two digits, 0 and 1 is known as a number system (Binary number) with
base 2.
 0 is represented 02, 1 = 12, 2 = 102 and 3=112 and so on
 A number system with base 5 involve 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 numbers. 0 represents 05, 2 = 25, 4 = 45, 5 = 105 and 6
= 115
 A number system with base 8 involves 0-7 (octal numbers). 0 represents 08, 7 = 78, 8 = 108, and 9 = 118
 A number system with base 10 involves 0-9 (decimal numbers). 9+1=10 (decimal) and 45+15=105 (Base
5)
 Decimal number system is most familiar to us because we use in daily life but computer understand
Binary system. For digitalizing decimal, Octal and Base 5 must be converted to Binary number system
 To convert decimal to binary, we must divide with 2. E.g 19 is divided to save remaining are 100112
 To convert decimal to base 5, we must divide with 5. E.g 678 is divided to save remaining are 102035
 To convert decimal to octal, we must divide with 8. E.g 728 is divided to save remaining are 13308
 To convert Binary to decimal, we must multiply with 2 with highest to lowest power. E.g 1012 is
multiply by 2 as 1 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20 = 4 + 0 + 1 = 5
 To convert Octal to decimal, we must multiply with 8 with highest to lowest power. E.g 5068 is
multiply by 8 as 5 × 82 + 0 × 81 + 6 × 80 = 320 + 0 + 6 = 32610
 In Algebra, Literal is a letter used to represent a constant or a variable in an expression. E.g 2𝑥 − 5𝑦 +
𝑝, here x,y & p are literals but 2 is not a literal
 Variable is a symbol or letter used to show the unknowns, usually we write x,y,z to represent
variables.
 The father of Modern Algebra is Alkhawarzmi (780-850).
𝑥
 Polynomial whose degree is 1 are called Linear Polynomial, e.g 5x, 2x+3y, 5𝑥 − 9𝑦 − 𝑧, + 4
4
1
 Polynomial whose degree is 2 are called Quadratic Polynomial, e.g 𝑥𝑦, 3 𝑦 2 , 2𝑥𝑦 + √3, 𝑝2 + 𝑞 2 + 𝑟
 Polynomial whose degree is 3 are called Cubic Polynomial e.g 𝑥 2 𝑦, 𝑥𝑦𝑧, 3𝑥 + 1, 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 5𝑝𝑞 2 +
2𝑝2 + 5𝑞 2
 Polynomial whose degree is 4 are called Bi-quadratic Polynomial e.g 2𝑥 4 , 𝑥 3 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 3 , 𝑝2 𝑞𝑟 + 𝑝𝑞 +
𝑞𝑟 + 𝑝𝑟
 Formula 1: (𝒂 + 𝒃)𝟑 = 𝒂𝟑 + 𝟑𝒂𝟐 𝒃 + 𝟑𝒂𝒃𝟐 + 𝒃𝟑 and Formula 2: (𝒂 − 𝒃)𝟑 = 𝒂𝟑 − 𝟑𝒂𝟐 𝒃 + 𝟑𝒂𝒃𝟐 −
𝒃𝟑
 Construction of linear equation with two variables. Step 01: Represent unknown quantity with English
alphabet
 Step 02: Write the equation that matches the criteria of problem or statement. E.g The sum of ages of
two students is 30 should be x + y = 30, amount spends on 5kg apple & 3kg mangoes is 550 will be 5x +
3y = 550
 Two lines are said to be parallel if they are coplanar and do not intersect at any place
 A plane closed figure bounded by three or more sides is called polygon
 A pentagon (five sided closed bounded figure) in which all sides are congruent to each other. See
figure
 A Hexagon (Six sided closed bounded figure) in which all sides are congruent to each other. See figure
 An Octagon (Eight sided closed bounded figure) in which all sides are congruent to each other. See
figure
 A line which intersects the circle at any two of its points is called secant. See figure
 A line is called Tangent to the circle if it intersects the circle at one and only one point only. See figure
 A portion of circular region bounded by two radical segments and an arc is called sector. See figure
 If four or more points are such that a circle passes through all the four or more points are concyclic
points.
 Two or more circles having the same centre and different radii are called concentric circles
 Angle between converging lines without producing them is180°.
 The relation between three sides of right angle triangle was first introduced by Greek Mathematician
Pythagoras (570-495 B.C). Formula: (Hypotenuse)2 = (Perpendicular)2 + (Base)2
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 A side opposite Right angle is always Hypotenuse and a side vertical is perpendicular & horizontally is
Base
 Pythagoras found this concept by Egyptians to measure width of Nile River with triangle formed by
chains.
 Hero’s Formula is Area of Triangle ∆𝑨𝑩𝑪 = √𝑺(𝑺 − 𝒂)(𝑺 − 𝒃)(𝑺 − 𝒄) , where S is semi perimeter of
triangle
𝒂+𝒃+𝒄
 𝑺= 𝟐
, In Hero formula, there is no right angle
 Sphere is solid thing bounded by a single curved surface and is such that all the points on its outer
surface are at an equal distance from a fixed point called its centre which is inside the sphere.
𝟒
 Surface Area of sphere = 𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐 , Volume of sphere V = 𝝅𝒓𝟑
𝟑
 Demonstrative Geometry is branch of mathematics in which statements concerning geometrical
figures are proved through logical reasoning. Demonstrate means ‘To prove with certainty’
 Fundamental agreements related to numbers are axioms and related to geometrical figures are
postulates
 Q.E.D stands for ‘Quod Erat Demonstrandum’ means ‘which was to be proved’
 Trigonometry (greek word) is branch of mathematics that deals with the relation of measures of sides
and angles of a triangle. Tri = three, Gono = angle and Metron = measurement
𝒂 𝒃 𝒂
 Trigonometric ratios with acute angles are 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = , 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = , 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 = , 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝜽 =
𝒄 𝒄 𝒃
𝒃 𝒄 𝒄
𝒂
, 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝜽 = 𝒃 , 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝜽 = 𝒂
 Sine is inverse of cosecant, cosine is inverse of secant and Tangent is inverse of cotangent and vice
versa.
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 1 1
 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
= cot 𝑥 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cot 𝑥 𝑇𝑎𝑛 𝑥 = 1. 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 sin 45° = , cos 45° = , tan 45° =
√2 √2
1, cot 45° = 1
1 √3 1
 sec 45° = √2 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 45° = √2 , sin 30° = 2 , cos 30° = 2
, tan 30° = , sin 60° =
√3
√3
𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos 60° = √3
2
 𝑻𝒂𝒏(𝟗𝟎° − 𝜽) = 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝜽, 𝐜𝐨𝐭(𝟗𝟎° − 𝜽) = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽, 𝐬𝐞𝐜(𝟗𝟎 − 𝜽) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝜽, 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄(𝟗𝟎° − 𝜽) = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝜽
 Statistics is the branch of mathematics concerned with classifying, analyzing and interpreting data
 The number of times a value occurs in the data is called its frequency, denoted by ‘f’
 The tabular arrangement of data together with class frequencies is called frequency distribution or
table
𝐿𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
 Size of class interval =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
 A histogram is constructed from frequency table; it consists of a set of adjacent rectangles for each
class. All the rectangles are of equal width but their heights are different, as they represent frequency
for all classes.
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠
 Mean (Average) = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠 e.g Mean for 1,3,5,7,9 is 5 and Mean for 5, 15, 25, 35, 45 is 25
 When different values have different importance then these values are known as weights
£ 𝑥𝑖 𝑤𝑖
 Weighted mean = £ 𝑤𝑖
, xi have weighs and we can find weighted mean
 Median is the middle value of given data; it divides into two parts first half and 2nd half of the data
before the median value and second half after the median value. Middle term (M.T) (i) if given data is
𝑛+1
odd in M.T, M.T will be 2
𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 and (ii) if data is even then mean of two terms will be the median.
 Median of 2, 10, 6, 8, 9, 5, 3, 7, 4. Arrange in ascending order as 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. Data consists
9+1
of 9 numbers so Median = 2
= 𝟔, Median for 3, 5, 7, 10, 15 is 7, and 13, 15, 17, 20, 25 is 17
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 Mode is that value which occur maximum number of times in a group of data. When none of value is
repeated means no mode and two or more repeated values means multiple modes are there. E.g 70,
50, 40, 65, 45, 65, 70, 65, 50, 45, 70, 65. Here 65 is the greatest mode.
 231

MATH CLASS - 9
CHAPTER 01
REAL AND COMPLEX NUMBERS

CHAPTER 2
 232

LOGARTHIMS

CHAPTER 3
 233

ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION AND FORMULA

CHAPTER 04
FACTORIZATION
 234

CHAPTER 5
ALGEBRAIC MANIPULATION

CHAPTER 6
LINEAR EQUATION AND INEQUALITIES
 235

CHAPTER 7
LINEAR GRAPH AND THEIR APPLICATION

CHAPTER 8
QUADRATIC EQUATION
 236

CHAPTER 9
CONGRUENT TRIANGLES

CHAPTER 11
LINE BISECTOR S AND ANGLE BISECTORS

CHAPTER 12
SIDES AND ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE
 237

CHAPTER 13
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY – TRIANGLE

CHAPTER 14
THEORAMS RELATED TO AREA
 238

CHAPTER 15
PROJECTION OF A SIDE OF A TRIANGLE

CHAPTER 16
INTRODUCTION TO COORDINATE GEOMETRY / ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
 239

MATH CLASS 10
CHAPTER 17
SETS AND FUNCTIONS

CHAPTER 18
VARIATIONS

CHAPTER 19
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MATRICES AND DETERMINENTS

CHAPTER 20
THEORY OF QUADRATIC EQUATION

CHAPTER 22
BASIC STATISTICS
 241

CHAPTER 23
PYTHAGORAS THEORAM

CHAPTER 24
RATIO AND PROPORTION

CHAPTER 25
CHORDS OF A CIRCLE
 242

CHAPTER 26
TANGENTS OF A CIRCLE

CHAPTER 27
CHORDS AND ARCS
 243

CHAPTER 28
ANGLES IN A SEGMENT OF CIRCLE

CHAPTER 29
PRATICAL GEOMETRY – CIRCLES

CHAPTER 30
INTRODUCTION TO TRIGNOMETRY
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