Grammar

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English
Language
Grammar
Grammar is the support system of
communication and we learn it to communicate
better. Grammar explains the why and how of a
language. We learn it because we just can’t do
without it.

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Table of Contents

1. Grammar

2. Parts of Speech

3. Noun

4. Pronoun

5. Adjective

6. Adverb

7. Conjunction

8. Preposition

9. Interjection

10. Verb

11. Tenses

12. Sentences

13. Passive Voice

14. Speech

15. Gerund VS Infinitive

16. Subject and Verb Agreement

17. Clauses

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Grammar:

Grammar is derived from old Greek word (gremmi) that means set of standard rules.

Definition:

Grammar is a receptive skill of a language through which we use a language accurately and

avoid ourselves from making mistakes.

Alphabet: Is composed of two parts.

1: Alpha that means sound 2: Bet that means letter

So alphabet basically means sounded letters.

Definition: the collection of letters or symbols in a fixed order is called Alphabet.

Word: word is derived from Greek word (wordum) which means meaning or sense.

Definition:

A) The collection of limited Alphabets that denotes specific meaning is called word.

Types of words

1: Lexical words 2: Grammatical words

1: Lexical words: are those words which do not need explanation. They give complete
meaning.

Lexical words are also called (Absolute words)

E.g.: study, dance, play, write, and etc.

2: Grammatical words: are those words which need explanation. They do not give complete
meaning.

Grammatical words are also called (grammar terminology)

E.g.: Noun, verb, adverb.

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Parts of speech

A systematic arrangement of grammatical words based on their functions is called parts of speech.

Parts of speech are eight in number.

1) Noun 5) Preposition

2) Pronoun 6) Conjunction

3) Adjective 7) Interjection

4) Adverb 8) Verb

Noun: is derived from the Greek word (Nomen) that means name.

Definitions:

A) Noun is a word or group of words that names, person, place, thing, idea, animal,
quantity, title and action.

 Person: boy, girl, man, and etc.

 Place: city, room, college and etc.

 Thing: car, pen, chair, etc.

 Idea; freedom, honesty, loyalty, love etc.

 Animal: dog, cow, cat, etc.

 Quantity: meter, kilo, etc.

 Title: Doctor, engineer, nurse, etc.

 Action: dancing, swimming, running, etc.

B) Noun is a grammatical term that names anything we see, feel, touch, eat and drink.

1. Types of Noun: In English grammar nouns are divided into eight types.

1. Proper Nouns 2. Common Nouns 3. Compound Nouns 4. Collective Nouns

1. Material Nouns 6. Abstract Nouns 7. Concrete Nouns 8. Verbal Nouns

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1. Proper Nouns: Are those nouns which refer to proper person, proper things, and
proper place.

Note: Proper Nouns always start with a capital letter or upper case letter.

• Proper person: Abid , Ehsan , Sameer. etc.

• Proper thing: Nokia mobile, Honda car, Toyota car. etc.

• Proper place: Afghanistan, America. England, etc.

Note: Proper Nouns does not have plural form.

2. Common Nouns: Are those nouns which refer common person, common thing,
and common place.

• Common person: girl, boy, man, etc.

• Common place: city, college, country etc.

• Common thing: car, pen, chair etc.

3. Compound Nouns: Are those nouns which are formed of two or three words.

Types of Compound Nouns:

Compound nouns are generally divided into three types.

1. Open compound nouns 2. Close compound nouns 3. Hyphenated compound

nouns

1. Open Compound Nouns: Are those nouns which are spelled as two words.

E.g.: college student, English teacher, business man, bus driver.

2. Close Compound Nouns: Are those compound nouns which are spelled as one
word.

E.g.: classroom, shopkeeper, notebook, homework, bookstore, bathroom.

3. Hyphenated Compound Nouns: Are those compound nouns which contain

hyphen (-)

E.g.: brother-in-law, father-in-law, editor-in-chief, stick-in-the-mud.

Forms of compound nouns: in English grammar compound nouns have the

following forms.

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1. Noun + Noun: In this form compound nouns are composed of two simple nouns.

E.g.: college student, bus driver.

2. Gerund + Noun: In this form compound nouns are composed of one gerund
noun and one simple noun.

E.g.: cooking school, swimming pool, dancing club.

3. Noun + Gerund: In this form of compound nouns are composed of one simple
noun and one gerund noun.

E.g.: bird watching, window shopping, ice skating.

4. Noun + Hyphen + Preposition + Hyphen + Noun: In this form of compound

nouns are composed of five parts. E.g.: brother-in-law.

4. Collective Nouns: Are those nouns which are singular in forms but plural in
meanings.

E.g.: people, team, army, couple, audience and etc.

E.g.: People is honest in Canada.

E.g.: People are honest in Canada.

E.g.: Peoples are honest in Canada.

5. Material Nouns: Are those nouns which refer to substance from which other
nouns are made. E.g.: wood, cotton, copper, plastic, leather, and etc.

6. Abstract Nouns: Are those nouns which do not have physical shapes or
existence.

E.g.: knowledge, pain, love, experience, intelligence, etc.

7. Concrete Nouns: Are those nouns which have physical shapes or existence. E.g.:

stone, paper, water, etc.

8. Verbal Nouns: Are those nouns which are formed like verbs but functions as
nouns.

E.g.: dancing, running, swimming, fighting, shopping, studying, etc.

E.g.: He likes dancing.

Cases of Nouns: cases mean usage or position.

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Cases of nouns are a grammatical term that denotes positions / locations of nouns in
sentences.

There are six cases of noun.

1: Subjective Case

2: Objective Case

3: Subjective Complement

4: Oblique Case

5: Vocative Case

6: Possessive Case

1: Subjective Case: It is also called nominative case. Noun is used as the subject of
the verb. Noun + Verb E.g.: Ali comes daily.

E.g.: Ahmad is a student.

E.g.: The desk is new.

E.g.: Are the boys playing?

2: Objective Case (Direct Object of verb) It is also called Accusative case.

Noun is used as the object of the verb.

Main Verb + Noun E.g.:

Ali studies English.

E.g.: She drinks water.

E.g.: Abid eats mango.

E.g.: Laila cooks the dinner.

E.g.: Sakhi is playing soccer.

3: Subjective Complement:

It is also called as the verb of incomplete predicate.

Noun is used after (to be verb) to complete the meaning of sentence.

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To be verb + Noun

E.g.: They are students.

E.g.: Sahil is a doctor.

E.g.: I am a teacher.

E.g.: Sohrab is a policeman.

4: Oblique Case: It is also called object of preposition.

Preposition + Noun

E.g.: Monir is from Afghanistan.

E.g.: I went to Kunar.

E.g.: Aria Maher plays with Kinan.

E.g.: Rishad comes to school by car.

5: Vocative Case: It is also called Nominative of Address. It may be

A) Direct Nominative of Address: First we point out. Then, we give order.

Noun + Imperative Sentence

E.g.: Farhad: listen to me.

E.g.: Ali: bring me a glass of water.

B) Indirect Nominative of Address: First we give order then we point out.

E.g.: Turn off the fan; Sohail.

E.g.: Bring me a glass of tea; Hamid.

6: Possessive Case: In this case a noun is used with (‘S) or (S’) to show possession
and relationship. It is also called Genitive case.

E.g.: She likes Hamid’s car. shows possession

E.g.: She respects Hameed’s father. Shows relationship

Note: Usages of (‘S) and (S’)

1: ‘S (Apostrophe S):

With singular and plural irregular nouns.

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 Child’s toy.

 Children’s toy.

 Woman’s clothes.

 Women’s clothes.

2: S’ (S Apostrophe):

With regular plural nouns.

 Teachers’ room. (Correct)

 Teacherss’ room. (Incorrect)

 Boys’ hostel.

 Girls’ college.

Genders of Nouns

The word gender is derived from Arabic word (genus) that means sex.

Gender of noun is a grammatical term that denotes what sex does a noun have.

In English grammar nouns have four genders.

1: Masculine Gender

2: Feminine Gender

3: Common Gender

4: Neuter Gender

1: Masculine gender: Is a gender that refers to male living beings.

E.g.: father, brother, son, husband, uncle, father-in-law, and nephew.

2: Feminine gender: Is a gender that refers to female living beings.

E.g.: mother, sister, daughter, wife, aunt, mother-in-law, and niece.

3: Common gender: Is a gender that refers to either male living beings or female living beings.

E.g.: friend, cousin, student, child.

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4: Neuter gender: Is a gender that refers to neither male living beings nor female living beings.

E.g.: car, book, pen, notebook.

Note: If a noun refers to beauty, adoration, such noun is considered female.

But if a noun refers to intensity, power, such noun is considered male.

Flower, moon, star, country name, foam, glass are female. Flood, earthquake, sun are male.

Numbers of Noun

Is a grammatical term that denotes singularity, plurality, count ability and non-count ability.

1: Singular Nouns: Are those nouns which agree with singular verbs.

E.g.: Child is in the park.

2: Plural Nouns: Are those nouns which agree with plural verbs.

E.g.: Children are in the park.

3: Regular Nouns: Are those nouns which have specific rules, while changing them from

Singular forms, to plural forms. We add (s, es, ies, ves) in plural forms.

Singular Regular Nouns Plural Regular Nouns

Book Books

Car Cars

Dish Dishes

Country Countries

Wife wives

4: Irregular Nouns: Are those nouns which do not have specific rules while changing them from,

Singular forms to plural forms they just change spelling.

Singular Irregular Nouns Plural Irregular Nouns

Child Children

Man Men

Foot Feet

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Mouse Mice

5: Countable Nouns: Are those nouns which have physical individual shapes or existence.

E.g.: book, car, chair, pen etc.

6: Non countable Nouns: Are those nouns which do not have physical individual shape

Or existence. E.g.: water, meat, milk, oil, juice,

Note: Massive Noun: Are those nouns which can be count it, but impossible to count them.

E.g.: star, hair, beans, rice, etc.

Pronoun

Pronoun is composed of two parts.

1: The compound (pro) which means previous. 2: The root word (noun) which means name.

So pronoun basically means previous name.

Definition: pronoun is a word or group of words, which is used instead of nouns to avoid

unnecessary repetition of noun in a sentence.

Types of pronoun: In English grammar pronouns are divided into eleven types.
1: Subject Pronoun 7: Interrogative Pronouns

2: Object Pronoun 8: Intensive Pronouns

3: Possessive Pronouns 9: Relative Pronouns

4: Demonstrative Pronouns 10: Distributive Pronouns

5: Indefinite Pronouns 11: Reciprocal Pronouns

6: Reflexive Pronouns

1: Subject pronouns: Are those pronouns which are used before main verb to function as subject
of sentences.

Subject pronouns are seven in number. He, She, It, They, I, We, You.

Note: subject pronouns are divided into three grammatical people.

1: First person pronoun = I , we,

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2: Second person pronoun = you,

3: Third person pronoun = he, she, it, they.

2: Object pronouns: Are those pronouns which are used after main verb to function as object of

sentences.

Object pronouns are seven in number.

Subject pronouns === Object pronouns

He Him

She Her

It It

They them

I me

We us

You you

3: Possessive Pronouns: Are those pronouns which are used either before or after main verb to

Show possession.

Possessive pronouns are seven in number.

His, hers, its, theirs, mine, ours, yours.

4: Demonstrative Pronouns: Are those pronouns which are used to demonstrate or point out

person, place, thing. Demonstrative pronouns are five in number.

This, that, these, those, such.

5: Indefinite Pronouns: Are those pronouns which are used instead of indefinite person, place, thing.

Indefinite pronouns are categorized into three main groups.

Indefinite Pronouns

Person Place Thing

Someone / somebody Somewhere Something

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Anyone / anybody Anywhere Anything

No one / nobody Nowhere Nothing

(+) She bought something yesterday.

(?)Did he meet someone in the park?

(-) They did not buy anything yesterday.

(?) Do they need anything for new class?

(+) She ate nothing in the park.

6: Reflexive Pronouns: Are those pronouns which denote that the action turns from object back to

subject.

Myself, himself, herself, itself, yourself, yourselves, ourselves, themselves.

E.g.: She writes a note herself.

E.g.: The computer collects the data itself.

7: Interrogative Pronouns: Are those pronouns which are used to interrogate about noun.

Interrogative pronouns are listed here. (who, which, whom, what, whose)

E.g.: Abid can play football well.

E.g.: Who can play football well?

E.g.: She teaches Farid.

E.g.: Whom does she teach?

E.g.: He has two cars.

E.g.: Which is made in Japan?

8: Emphatic Pronouns/ Intensive pronouns: Are those pronouns which are used before main
verbs to emphasize noun or pronoun in a sentence.

Myself, himself, herself, itself, yourself, yourselves, themselves, ourselves,

E.g.: Matin himself comes late.

E.g.: You yourself told me lie.

9: Distributive Pronouns: Are those pronouns which are used to replace noun individually.

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Each, every, either, neither, one by one, every other.

E.g.: She bought two books, each is interesting.

E.g. He has many books every is very interesting.

10: Reciprocal Pronouns: Are those pronouns which are used to replace nouns mutually.

Each other, every other, any other, get-together, one another.

E.g.: Practice with each other.

E.g.: Practice with every other.

11: Relative Pronouns: Are those pronouns which are used to connect noun or pronoun with

dependent clause.

E.g.: She knows a man who works in the bank. E.g.: She knows someone who lives in Canada.

Adjective

Adjective is derived from old Greek word (Adjectous) that means to modify.

Definition: Adjective is a word or group of words that describes the quality, the quantity, the size,
the shape, the color, the age, the temperature and the origin.

1: The quality: intelligent, lazy, nice, good, bad, expensive, beautiful, ugly.

2: The quantity: much, many, any, some, a few, few, a little, little, enough.

3: The size: big, small, huge, large, medium,

4: The shape: round, triangular, circle. Oval.

5: The color: black, blue, white, green, red.

6: The age: old, young, teenage, youth.

7: The temperature: cold, cool, hot. Warm.

8: The origin: Afghan, American, Canadian.

Types of Adjective
1: Proper Adjectives 5: Adjectives of Quantity

2: Descriptive Adjectives 6: Numerical Adjectives

3: Possessive Adjectives 7: Exclamatory Adjectives

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4: Demonstrative Adjectives

1: Proper Adjectives: Are those adjectives which are formed of some proper nouns.

Note: Proper adjectives always start with capital letter.

Proper Nouns Proper Adjectives

Afghanistan Afghan

Japan Japanese

Canada Canadian

China Chinese

America American

England English

E.g.: He is Afghan.

2: Descriptive Adjectives: Are also called adjectives of quality. Are those adjectives which are used

to show either positive or negative quality of noun or pronoun.

Some adjectives of quality are listed here.(intelligent, lazy, poor, rich, nice, ugly, good, bad)

E.g.: Aria is intelligent. E.g.: She is lazy.

3: Possessive Adjectives: Are those adjectives which are followed by either noun or pronoun to

show possession or relationship. Possessive adjectives are seven in number.

(My, his, her, your, its, our, their)

E.g.: I respect my parent. E.g: She drives her car. E.g.: I like my one.

Note: Possessive pronouns are not followed by noun but possessive adjectives are followed by

noun and pronoun.

4: Demonstrative Adjectives: Are those adjectives which are used to demonstrate or point out

noun or pronoun. Demonstrative adjectives are five in number. (this, that, these, those, such)

E.g.: This car runs fast. E.g.: That one runs slowly.

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Note: If after them verb comes they are demonstrative pronoun.

This, that, these, those, such + verb == Demonstrative pronoun

This, that, these, those, such + noun and pronoun == Demonstrative Adjective

5: Interrogative Adjectives: Are those adjectives which are used to interrogate or ask about noun

and pronoun. Some interrogative adjectives are listed here. (what, which, whose)

E.g.: what day is today? E.g.: Which car is more expensive? E.g.: Which one is beautiful?

Note: Interrogative pronoun: E.g.: what did you buy? E.g.: whose is this?

6: Adjective of Quantity: Are those adjectives which are used to show quantity or measurement

of either countable or non-countable nouns. Some adjectives of quantity are listed here.

(much, many, some, any, enough, a little, little, a few, few,)

E.g.: She drinks much milk. E.g.: They need some books.

7: Numeral or Numerical Adjectives: Are those adjectives which are used either to count the

nouns or order the nouns.

Numeral adjectives are divided into two types.

1: Cardinal Numerical Adjectives 2: Ordinal Numerical Adjectives

1: Cardinal Numeral Adjectives: Are those adjectives which are used to count the nouns.

E.g.: one, two, three,…etc.

2: Ordinal Numerical Adjectives: Are those adjectives which are used to order nouns.

E.g.: first, second, third, etc.

E.g.: She bought two books. E.g.: He likes the first car.

8: Exclamatory Adjectives: Are those adjectives which are used to show sudden surprise or

emotion about noun or pronoun. Exclamatory adjectives are two in number. (what, such)

E.g.: What a nice car! E.g.: Such a beautiful car!

Degrees of Adjective

Is a grammatical term that denotes forms of adjectives. Adjectives have three degrees.

1: Positive Degree 2: Comparative Degree 3: Superlative Degree

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1: Positive Degree: Is a degree where forms of adjectives have neither prefix nor suffix.

2: Comparative Degree: Is a degree where forms of adjective compare one person with another

person, one place with another place, one thing with another thing.

3: Superlative Degree: Is a degree where forms of adjectives compare one person with a group of
people, one place with a group of places, one thing with a group of things.
Positive Degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree

Nice Nicer Nicest

Tall Taller Tallest

Intelligent More intelligent Most intelligent

E.g.: Ahmad is intelligent. Positive degree

E.g.: She is more intelligent than her brother. Comparative degree

E.g.: He is the tallest student in his class. Superlative degree

Adverb

Adverb is derived from old Greek word (adverbium) that means (modify)

Adverb is formed of two parts.

1: The compound (ad) that means to add.

2: The root word (verb) that means action.

So adverb basically means to add some changes in verb meaning.

Definitions:

A: Adverb is word or group of words that modifies adjective, verb, another adverb and

sometimes whole sentence.

B: Adverb is a word or group or words that shows when, where and how an action happened or
happens.

Types of Adverb

1: Adverbs of Time: Are those adverbs which are used to show when an action happens.

Adverbs of time are divided into two types.

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1: Definite Adverbs of Time: (specific) 2: Indefinite Adverbs of Time: (unspecific)

1: Definite Adverbs of Time: Are those adverbs which show exact time of action.

E.g.: yesterday, today, tomorrow, last week…etc.

2: Indefinite Adverbs of Time: Are those adverbs which do not show exact time of an action.

E.g.: already, yet, anymore, still, ever, ago, recently, lately, just,

2: Adverbs of Place: Are those adverbs which are used to show where an action happens.

Some adverbs of place are listed here. (road, park, college, school, hospital, room, Afghanistan)

Adverbs of place are also called nouns of place. E.g.: He drives the car on the road.

3: Adverbs of Manner: Are those adverbs which are used to show the way how an action
happens.

E.g.: She speaks slowly. He runs fast.

4: Adverbs of Frequency

Are those adverbs which are used to show repetition of action or state in a sentence.

1) Definite Adverbs of Frequency 2) Indefinite Adverbs of Frequency

1) Definite Adverbs of Frequency: Are those adverbs which are used to show exact repetition of

action or state. E.g.: once, twice, three times…. E.g.: He washes his car twice a week.

2) Indefinite Adverbs of Frequency: Are those adverbs which do not show exact repetition of

action or state.

E.g.: She usually washes her car.

Always 100% Usually 80-85% Often 70-75% Sometimes 50%

Hardly ever 10-15% Seldom 5% Rarely less than 5% Never 0%

5: Adverbs of Affirmation

Are those adverbs which are used to show agreement or positive response.

Some adverbs of affirmation are listed here.

Yes, sure, of course yes

Will you play the match? Yes, I will.

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6: Adverbs of Negation

Are those adverbs which are used to show disagreement or denying.

No, not, not at all, of course not, never

E.g.: Can he play football? No he can’t.

7: Adverbs of Sentence

Are those adverbs which are used to modify complete sentence.

Obviously, definitely, maybe, surely

Obviously, the winner of SAFF cup is Afghanistan.

Preposition

Preposition is a word or group of words showing relationship of noun or pronoun with the

rest of sentence. E.g.: She talks with Ahmad. They think about her.

Interjections

Are those words which are used to show sudden or strong surprise, emotion and feelings.

E.g.: wow, hey. ouch, off, mmm, mmmm

Conjunction

Is derived from Greek word (Conjunctous) that means to connect.

Definition: Conjunction is a word or group of words that is used to connect two sentences two
clauses, two phrases and two words.

E.g.: Tahir plays football well and Ashraf plays football well.

E.g.: She will make much money if she starts business.

E.g.: At home and on the main road.

E.g.: Beautiful and expensive

Conjunction is generally divided into four types

1) Coordinating conjunctions

2) Subordinating conjunctions

3) Paired conjunctions

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4) Conjunctives

1) Coordinating conjunctions: are those conjunctions which are used to connect to independent
Clauses.

Some coordinating conjunctions are listed here.

For, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

Coordinating conjunctions are also called FANBOYS.

E.g.: He works hard but she does not work hard.

2) Subordinating conjunctions: Are those conjunctions which are used to start dependent

clauses.

When, while, as, before, after, by the time, as long as, as soon as, since, though, although, if,

E.g.: She will take lunch when she comes home.

3) Paired conjunctions: are those conjunctions which are formed of one coordinating

Conjunction and one subordinating conjunction. Combining two sentences having the same
grammatical rank.

Some paired conjunctions are listed here.

Both….. and

Either…..or

Neither….nor

Not only….but also

4) Conjunctives: are also called Transitions.

Transitions are those words which are used to connect ideas in a sentence or paragraph.

Some transitions are listed here.

In addition, furthermore, moreover, for example, for instance, however, never the less,

None the less, in fact, in deed, after wards, meanwhile, finally, actually.

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Punctuation/usages of conjunctions

1) Coordinating conjunctions:

For = means because

E.g.: She went to hospital for she was sick.

And = (+ +) positive statements

But = (+ --) two apposite

Yet = but

E.g.: Ferdows work hard yet/but Suliman does not work hard.

2) Subordinating conjunctions:

E.g.: She will earn money if she works hard.

E.g.: If she works hard, she will earn money.

3) Paired conjunctions:

Both….and} means two of them. Combining two positive statements.

Both Ali and Hameed work hard.

Neither…. nor} means none of them. Combining two negative statements.

E.g.: Neither the teacher nor the students come to class.

Either…. or} means one of them. Combining two positive statements.

E.g.: Either Aria or Mahmood can be a bank manager.

Not only…. but also} means all of them.

Not only Bilal but also his brother works hard.

4) Conjunctives:

In addition, furthermore, moreover, } and/also

E.g.: Murid attends college classes in addition, he runs his shop.

For example, for instance} such as

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Organizations use computer to perform various tasks. For instance, computer calculates all

employers record.

However, never the less, none the less, or the other hand} but

E.g.: He studied very hard however, he did not pass the exam.

Actually, indeed, in fact} in reality

E.g.: Zuhal got first position. Indeed, she is intelligent.

Meanwhile} at the same time

E.g.: There was a serious accident, meanwhile two people were fighting.

Afterwards} means later

E.g.: She took lunch, afterwards she slept in her room.

Verb

Verb is derived from Greek word (verbum) that means action or state.

Definition: verb is a word or group of words that shows action or state in a sentence.

E.g.: He plays football.

E.g.: She is happy.

Types of verbs

1) Finite verbs 2) Nonfinite verbs

1) Finite verbs: are those verbs which are limited to subject and change of tense.

2) Nonfinite verbs: are those verbs which are not limited to subject and change of tense.

E.g.: I want to play football.

E.g.: He wants to play football.

E.g.: He wanted to play football.

Finite verbs are divided into two types.

1) Ordinary verbs 2) Auxiliary verbs

1) Ordinary verbs: are also called lexical verbs, main verbs, and full verbs.

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Ordinary verbs are those verbs which function only as main verb in sentences.

Ordinary verbs are divided into seven types.

1: Transitive verbs 2: Intransitive verbs 3: Linking verbs 4: Phrasal verbs

5: Sense verbs 6: Causative verbs 7: Prepositional verbs

1: Transitive verbs: are those verbs which can take object.

E.g.: He drinks tea.

Play, eat, drink, drive, watch, learn, enjoy, cook, bring, gave

2: Intransitive verbs: are those verbs which do not take object but they are followed by

(PATAP)

1. Preposition 2. Adjective 3. Time expression 4. Adverb 5. Place expression

Walk, sit, stand, sleep, live, leave, run, climb, dance, swim, come etc. E.g.: He

sleeps in the bedroom.

3: Linking verbs: are those verbs which are used to connect subject with adjective of it’s

complement.

Some linking verbs are listed here

Is, am, are, was, were, become, get, look, seem

E.g.: She looks happy. E.g.: It seems difficult.

4: Phrasal verbs: are also called two word verbs or three word verbs.

The combination of verb and preposition or prepositions that gives slight different meaning

from root verb is called phrasal verb.

Come, Come in

Phrasal verbs are divided into two types

1: Separable phrasal verbs

Fill in, fill out, fill up, look over, bring up, and switch on.

E.g.: Look over my application. E.g.: Look my application over

2: Inseparable phrasal verbs

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Sit down, stand up, come in, go out, go up

5: Sense verbs: are also called stative verbs, and non-progressive verbs.

Stative verbs are those verbs which are used to show mental activities, senses, emotion

State of being and possession.

A) Mental Activities: think, remember, and forget

B) Senses: see, look, hear, feel, smell, taste

C) Emotion: love, like, hate, want, wish,

D) State of being and possession: is, am, are, has, have, had

6: Causative verbs: are those verbs which denote that the subject dose not perform

the action but it causes another person to perform the action.

* Make = means to force or to compel someone to do something.

E.g.: They make their son work in the factory.

E.g.: I make my brother earn money.

7: Prepositional verbs: are those verbs which are formed like verbs but function as

prepositions.

According, according to, regarding, regarding to,

I talked regarding the problem.

Auxiliary Verbs

Auxiliary verbs are those verbs which show mood of sentence.

Auxiliary verbs are also called helping verbs.

Auxiliary verbs are divided into three types.

1: Principle Auxiliary verbs

2: Semi modal auxiliary verbs

3: Modal auxiliary verbs

1: Principle auxiliary verbs: are those verbs which can function either as main verbs or

auxiliary verbs in sentence.

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Principle auxiliary verbs are divided into three types.

1: To Be verbs: is, am, are, was, were, been, being, be

2: To Do: do, does, did

3: To Have: have, has, had

E.g.: They were busy. E.g.: They were watching TV. E.g.: They were invited by me.

E.g.: They do their job. E.g.: They do work hard. E.g.: I do do my homework.

E.g.: I have a car. E.g.: I have taken lunch.

2: Semi modal auxiliary verbs: are those the verbs which function almost the same as

modal auxiliary verbs.

Some semi modal auxiliary verbs are listed here

Have to, has to, had to, be going to, had better, would better, be supposed to, used to.

* have to + has to} are semi modal auxiliary verbs. Showing present mild obligation. E.g.:

She has to earn money.

* had to shows past mild obligation.

E.g.: He had to work four hours daily last year.

* had better = should: showing advisability and warning.

E.g.: We had better get education. E.g.: You had better return my money.

* Be supposed to= means to expect.

E.g.: You are supposed to come on time.

* Used to = shows past habit.

E.g.: He used to smoke.

Modal Auxiliary Verbs

The term modal auxiliary is composed of two parts.

Modal

1: According to Dictionary modal means helping. 2: According to Grammar modal means mood.

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Auxiliary

1: According to Dictionary auxiliary means extra or staff of lower rank.

2: According to Grammar auxiliary means helping.

So modal auxiliary basically means helping mood.

Modal auxiliary verbs are used for the following purposes

1: To show mood of verb in a sentence. E.g.: She can swim in the river.

2: To add different meaning to the main verb in sentences.

E.g.: He will earn money. He should earn money.

3: To show degrees of certainty.

E.g.: He will be sleeping now. 70% E.g.: He may be sleeping now. 30%

4: To show stages of obligation.

E.g.: He must work eight hours daily. Strong obligation.

E.g.: He should work eight hours daily. Mild obligation

5: To show past repeated action that no longer exists in present.

E.g.: His grandmother would tell him stories in childhood.

Definition:

Modal auxiliary verbs are used to show mood of verb, degrees of certainty, stages of obligation

different meanings to the main verb and past repeated action.

Modal auxiliary verbs are listed here

Can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, must, dare, need.

1: Can: shows present ability and making informal request.

E.g.: He can drive fast. E.g.: Can you bring me a glass of water?

2: Could: shows past ability and formal request.

E.g.: He could drive fast ten years ago. E.g.: Could you bring a glass of water?

3: Would: shows past repeated action and formal request.

E.g.: He would smoke when he was young. E.g.: Would you give me your notebook?
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4: Should: shows advisability and mild obligation.

E.g.: We should get education. E.g.: He should work eight hours daily.

5: Must: shows strong obligation.

E.g.: He must work four hours daily. E.g.: He must have worked eight hours daily.

6: Dare: means can: it is modal auxiliary in British English only in negative statements and

interrogative sentences.

E.g.: He daren’t swim. It means he can’t swim.

E.g.: Dare he jump from mountain? Can

7: Need: is used as modal auxiliary in British English only in

negative statements and interrogative sentences.

Need means should

E.g.: Need he buy a car? E.g.: He needn’t learn computer?

Tense

Tense is derived from Greek word (Tempus) or French word (Tensus) that means time.

Definition: Tense is a grammatical term that denotes what we did in the past, what we do in

present and what we will do in future.

Past: We watched TV last night.

Present: We attend the class today.

Future: We will arrange a party tomorrow.

Note: the word Tense has three main functions.

1) As Adjective: Tense means unhappy. E.g.: I met a tense boy.

2) As Verb: Tense means to make someone unhappy. E.g.: They tense their parents.

3) As Noun: Tense means time. E.g.: He learns present tense.

Stages of Tense

In English grammar every tense has three stages

1: Syntax stage = The structure

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2: Theoretical stage = The definition

3: Implementing stage = The example

Tense classification

Tense is divided into three main classes afterwards every main class is divided into four subclasses.
Tense

Past Present Future

Simple past tense Simple present tense Simple future tense

Past continuous tense Present continuous tense Future continuous tense

Past perfect tense Present perfect tense Future perfect tense

Past perfect continuous tense Present perfect continuous tense Future perfect continuous tense

Simple present tense

Structures

1) Singular subject: subject + verb + s/es/ies + Rest of sentence.

2) Plural subject: subject + Root form of verb + Rest of sentence.

Definitions

A) Simple present tense expresses an action or state that happens habitually, regularly,

and daily.

E.g.: She chews gum during the lesson. Habitual action

E.g.: It snows a lot every winter. Regular action

E.g.: They attend the class every day. Daily action

E.g.: He is busy in office every day. Daily state

State

1) being 2) state of being 3) general fact 4) universal fact

E.g.: She is at home. E.g.: I am intelligent. E.g.: He is rich. E.g.: He is a child

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E.g.: Milk is white. E.g.: Sky is high.

B) Simple present tense also expresses future schedualized action or state.

E.g.: The plane arrives at 03:00 pm tomorrow. 100%

E.g.: The presidents are busy at 04:00pm next Sunday. 100%

C) With subordinating conjunctions simple present tense expresses future meaning.

E.g.: He will take lunch when he comes home. If, before, after, though

D) With adverbs of frequency simple present tense expresses repetition of action or state

which is in the favor of subject.

E.g.: She always takes children to park. E.g.: He is usually alone at home.

E) In headlines and narration simple present tense expresses past meaning.

E.g.: Ubama meets Karzia.

E.g.: The prophet says, “Seek knowledge from cradle to grave.”

How to change simple present affirmative statements into negative statements and interrogative
sentences?

(+) She attends college classes every day.

(-) She does not attend college classes every day.

(-) She doesn’t attend college classes every day.

(+?) Does she attend college classes every day?

(-?) Does not she attend college classes every day?

(-?) Doesn’t she attend college classes every day?

(-?) Does she not attend college classes every day?

How to make WXSV question in? in simple present tense.

W: WH question. X: Auxiliary S: subject V: verb

Where does she learn computer?

Present continuous tense or present progressive tense

Structure: Subject + is,am,are + verb + ing + Rest of sentence.

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A) Present continuous tense expresses an action which is in progress at the time of speaking

now or around now.

E.g.: They are watching TV now.

B) Present continuous tense also expresses an action which is in progress with future meaning.

In this case we use tonight, tomorrow, next week…etc

E.g.: We are watching TV tomorrow.

C) With adverbs of frequency present continuous tense expresses repetition of action which is

not in the favor of subject.

E.g.: I am always taking children to the park.

D) Present continuous tense also expresses gradual change in a particular situation

E.g.: The weather is getting hotter day by day. Temperature 25 – 30 degrees

She is becoming older year by year.

E) Present continuous tense with non-progressive verbs. Is used in the form of

simple present tense.

Need, Like, Love, Want

E.g. I need a pen now.

How to change affirmative to negative and interrogative?

(+) They are watching TV now.

(-) They aren’t watching TV now.

(-) They are not watching TV now.

(+?) Are they watching TV now?

(-?) Aren’t they watching TV now?

(-?) Are not they watching TV now?

(-?) Are they not watching TV now?

W XSV

Where are they watching TV?

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Present Perfect Tense Structure

Subject + have/has + past participle form of verb + Rest of sentence.

A) Present perfect tense expresses an action or state which happened or did not happen

in some unspecific time in the past.

E.g.: They have driven the car. E.g.: She has been sick badly.

B) Present perfect tense also expresses an action that happened in the past but the result

comes out to present.

E.g.: I have polished my shoes. E.g.: She has taken lunch.

C) Present perfect tense also expresses repetition of action or state in the past. In this case

we use once, twice, three times, once in my life, several times, once in 1919. E.g.: They

have taken Chinese food once in their life.

E.g.: He has been sick twice in this month.

E) Present perfect tense also expresses an action or state started in the past comes to present it

may or may not go to future. In this case we use (since and for) only with durative verbs.

Work, live, teach.

E.g.: She has lived in Pakistan since 2002. E.g.: He has been manager for five years.

Since: shows starting time. For: shows duration

How to change affirmative to negative and interrogative?

(+) They have written a letter.

(-) They have not written a letter.

(-) They haven’t written a letter.

(+?) Have they written a letter?

(-?) Have not they written a letter?

(-?) Haven’t they written a letter?

W X S V: What have they written?

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Present Perfect Continuous tense Structure

Subject + have/has + been + verbing + Rest of sentence.

A) Present perfect continuous tense expresses the length or duration of an action started in

the past comes to present it may or may not go to future. In this case we use since and for.

E.g.: The students have been playing football since 07:00 am.

B) Without since and for present perfect continuous tense expresses an action which was

just in progress before now but not now.

E.g: She has been peeling onions. Pubbing E.g.: I have been running.

C) Present perfect continuous tense also expresses short lasting action.

E.g.: He has been living in Peshawar for last six months.

How to change affirmative to negative and interrogative?

(+) I have been going every day since May 13.

(-) I have not been going every day since May 13.

(+?) Have I been going every day since May 13?

(-?) Have not I been going every day since May 13?

Simple Past Tense

Structure

Subject + past form of verb + Rest of sentence.

Definitions:

A) Simple past tense expresses an action or state happened or did not happen in a specific

time in the past.

E.g.: They watched TV yesterday. E.g.: The sky was cloudy yesterday.

B) Simple past tense also expresses a situation where one action happened before another

action in the past. in this case we use (when)

E.g.: She got the job when she learned computer.

E.g.: When she learned computer, she got the job.

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C) With the words (if and wish) simple present tense expresses present unreal condition

and present unreal desire.

E.g.: If he were rich, he would help poor people. Present unreal condition

E.g.: She wishes she were a doctor. Present unreal desire

D) Simple present tense also expresses habit or state existed in the past but no longer exists

in present. In this case we use (used to)

E.g.: She used to chew gum. Past habit E.g.: He used to be alone in his life. Past state

E) Simple past tense also expresses status existed in the past but no longer exists in present.

E.g.: Bush was the president of USA.

How to change simple past affirmative statements into negative statements and interrogative
sentences?

(+) They played football yesterday.

(-) They did not play football yesterday.

(-) They didn’t play football yesterday.

(+?) Did they play football yesterday?

(-?) Did not they play football yesterday?

(-?) Didn’t they play football yesterday?

(-?) Did they not play football yesterday?

WXSV= What did she buy?

Past Continuous Tense

Structure

Subject + was/were + Ving + Rest of sentence.

A) Past continuous tense expresses an action which was or was not in progress in a

particular time in the past.

E.g.: The students were playing football yesterday.

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B) Past continuous tense expresses a situation where one action was in progress another

action happened interrupted the first action or not. In this case we use (when) E.g.: They

were watching TV when their father came.

E.g.: She was using computer when electricity went off.

C) Past continuous tense also expresses a situation where two actions are in progress

in the same time in the past. in this case we use (while)

E.g.: Hameed was watching TV while his brother was sleeping.

Past Perfect Tense Structure

Subject + had + past participle form of verb + Rest of sentence.

A) Past perfect tense expresses an action or state which was or was not completed before

another action or time in the past.

E.g.: They had finished class fifth before they started class sixth.

E.g.: The sky had been cloudy before 11:00 am.

B) In some general sentences past perfect tense expresses completion of action.

E.g.: They had taken lunch.

C) Past perfect tense also expresses an action or state which was planned, wanted to happen

but it did not happen.

E.g.: They had planned to play football, but it rained.

E.g.: She had wanted to get first position, but she couldn’t.

D) With the word (wish) past perfect tense expresses past unreal desire.

E.g.: She wishes she had gotten married.

How to change affirmative to negative and interrogative?

(+) He had earned money before he started business.

(-) He hadn’t earned money before he started business.

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(-) He had not earned money before he started business.

(+?) Had he earned money before he started business?

(-?) Had not he earned money before he started business?

(-?) Hadn’t he earned money before he started business?

WXSV: What had he learned before he got the job?

Past Perfect Continuous Tense Structure

Subject + had + been + Ving + Rest of sentence.

A) Past perfect continuous tense expresses the length and duration of an action which

was or was not in progress before another action or time in the past.

E.g.: They had been studying class fifth for one year before they started class sixth.

E.g.: She had been studying college for two years before 2009.

B) Without length and duration past perfect continuous tense expresses an action which was

in progress recent to another action in the past.

E.g.: The students had been playing cricket before they came to class.

C) With the word (if and wish) past perfect continuous tense expresses past unreal condition

and past unreal desire.

E.g.: If he had been studying last night, he wouldn’t be watching TV.

E.g.: She wishes she had been living in U.S.A last year.

Simple Future Tense Structure

Subject + will/won’t/ be going to + Root form of verb + Rest of sentence.

Simple future tense expresses an action or state which will or will not happen in the particular

time in the future.

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E.g.: They will arrange a party tomorrow. Action

E.g.: She will busy tomorrow. State

Future Continuous Tense

Structure : Subject + will/won’t/ be going to + be + Ving + Rest of sentence.

Future continuous tense expresses an action which will or will not be in progress in a

particular time in the past.

E.g.: They will be watching drama tomorrow.

E.g.: She won’t be washing the dishes tonight.

E.g.: They are going to be dancing in the party next week.

Future perfect tense Structure

Subject + will/won’t/ be going to + have + past participle form of verb + Rest of sentence.

Future perfect tense expresses an action or state which will or will not be completed before

another action or time in the future.

E.g.: They will have finished class fifth before they start class sixth.

E.g.: He will have completed his college before 2013. Future

Perfect Continuous Tense

Structure

Subject + will/won’t/ Be going to + have + been + Ving + Rest of sentence.

Future perfect continuous tense expresses length or duration of an action which will or will

not be in progress in a particular time in the future.

E.g.: Nazia will have been studying class twelfth for one year before she starts college.

Sentence

Sentence: is a group of words that expresses a complete thought.

Types of sentences: Sentences are divided into two types.

1: According to meaning 2: According to structure

Sentences according to meaning is divided into seven kinds.

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1: Declarative sentence: Makes a statement. It ends with a period.

E.g.: The first day is always the hardest.

2: Interrogative sentence: Asks a question. It ends with a question mark.

E.g.: Will she come tomorrow?

3: Imperative sentence: Gives a command or makes a request. It ends with a period.

E.g.: Don’t talk in the class. Please check your schedule.

4: Exclamatory sentence: Expresses strong feeling. It ends with an exclamation point.

E.g.: How beautiful she is!

5. Optative sentences: are those sentences which are used to show wishes, prayers, imprecations.
E.g.: Wish you long lasting life. Allah bestow you a great offspring. Down with the enemies of our
country.

6. Absolute segment sentences: are those sentences which are absolute words but function as
complete sentences. E.g.: Congratulations. Happy birthday.

7. Restricted sentences: are those sentences which are used to show particular restriction in a
particular situation. E.g.: No smoking. No parking, Keep silence.

Sentences according to structure is divided into four types

1: Simple sentences: are those sentences which consist of one independent clause.

E.g.: Aria plays cricket. Aria and Ali play football.

2: Compound sentences: are those sentences which consist of two independent clauses
connected by coordinating conjunctions.

E.g.: Bashir plays soccer and Abdul Kabir plays soccer.

3: Complex sentence: contains an independent clause and one subordinating clause.

Connected by a relative pronoun and subordinating conjunction.

E.g.: She knows a man who has recently come from America.

E.g.: She has learned computer before she goes to job.

4: Compound complex sentence: contains two independent clauses and at least one
subordinating clause.

E.g.: Barez plays cricket and he plays football in the ground where lots of people come.

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E.g.: She knows a man who runs his shop that has lots of customers.

Active Voice Versus Passive Voice

What are passive sentences?
1. Are those sentences which denote that the subject is the receiver of an action
2. Are those sentences which denote that what happens to people or things
3. Are those sentences which do not have subject and object in their own positions Why
do we use Passive voice?
• To know who is the receiver of an action
• To know what happens to people or things
• To bring some changes to our spoken or written utterance (not meaning)

How to change Active sentences to Passive sentences?

 The verb of active sentence should be transitive verb
 Intransitive verbs cannot be changed to passive forms
 Take the object of active sentence and use it as the subject of passive sentence
 The forms of (be+v3) is usually used in passive sentence
 The passive agent of by phrase is usually used in passive sentences
E.g.: They play football daily. Active sentence
E.g.: Football is played by them daily. Passive sentence

Tense Sequence in passive sentences

Simple present tense:
Structure: subject + am, is, are + v3 + Rest of sentence E.g.:
He teaches English. English is taught by him.
Present continuous tense
Structure: subject + am, is, are + being + v3 + Rest of the sentence
E.g.: They are taking food. Food is being taken by them Present
perfect tense
Structure: subject + have/ has + been + v3 + Rest of sentence
E.g.: They have written a letter. A letter has been written by them.
Simple Past Tense

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Structure: Subject + was/were + Past Participle + Rest of sentence

He kicked the ball hard. The ball was kicked hard by him
Past Continuous Tense
Structure: Subject + was/were + being + Past Participle + Rest of sentence She
was cooking rice. Rice was being cooked by her.
Past Perfect Tense
Structure: subject + had + been + v3 + Rest of sentence
They had fixed the car. The car had been fixed by them.
Simple Future Tense

Structure: subject + will/won’t/be going to + be + v3 + Rest of sentence

They will drive new car tomorrow. New car will be driven by them tomorrow.
They are going to drive new car tomorrow. New car is going to be driven by them tomorrow.

Future Continuous Tense

Structure: subject + will/won’t/be going to + be + being + Rest of sentence

They will be playing the final match. The final match will be being played by them.
Future Perfect Tense

Structure: subject + will/won’t/be going to + have + been + v3 + Rest of sentence They

will have taken lunch. Lunch will have been taken by them.

How to change Interrogative sentences and negative statements from active forms to passive
forms?
1. Do they watch TV? Is TV watched by them daily?
2. Does she write letters? Are letters written by her?
3. Did she punish her husband? Was her husband punished by her?
4. Has she written a letter? Has a letter been written by her?
5. Will they play football? Will football be played by them?
6. When is he taking lunch? When is lunch being taken by him?
7. When do they learn computer? When is computer learned by them?
8. He doesn’t read books. Books aren’t read by him.
9. She did not drive a car. A car was not driven by her.

Some important points about active and passive sentences

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1. Some active sentences have two objects (direct and indirect).

She gives a flower to Sameer. A flower is given to Sameer by her.
Sammer is given a flower by her.
2. The object of some active sentences is gerund.
They enjoy singing. Singing is enjoyed by them. It is enjoyed by them to sing.
3. The object of some active sentence is infinitive.
They decide to play today. To paly is decided by them today. It is decided by them to play today.
4. The object of some active sentences is a complete clause.
I know who she is. Who she is, is known to me. It is known to me who she is.
5. I am Ahmad. My name is Ahmad.
6. I have a glass of water. A glass of water is owned by me.
7. She can drive a car. A car can be driven by her.
8. They have to write a letter. A letter has to be written by them.
9. Imperative sentences
Close your books. Let your books be closed. Open the door. Let the door be opened.
Answer the following questions. Let the following questions be answered.
10. People speak French in America. French is spoken in America. Not by

11. She stares at me. I am stared at by him.

12. I saw myself in the mirror. I was seen in the mirror by myself.

Active and Passive

Practice
Change these sentences to Passive forms
1. She helps me.
2. He watches TV.
3. Ahmad goes to school every day.
4. She is cooking rice.
5. He is reading the book.
6. They are listening to music.
7. She has washed the dishes.
8. We have studied the book.
9. The bottle contained milk.
10. She was looking after her doll.
11. She will have learned computer.
12. She teaches Ahmad.
13. They build the building.

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Direct and Indirect Speech

What is Speech?

A talk or dialogue between two persons is called speech. Or a Lecture to a number of audiences is
called speech.
Or speech is the way act and power of speaking.

Kinds of Speech

1. Direct speech (Quoted Speech)

It refers to reproducing the exact words of speaker. Or we represent the exact words of a speaker in
his/her own words to someone without any modifications. Suliman said, “I study hard.”

2. Indirect speech (Reported Speech)

It refers to reproducing the main idea of exact orders of speaker. Or we represent the essence of a
speaker’s exact words with a few modifications to someone
Points about Indirect Speech
1. The reporting verb must be in the past form in order to bring some changes in tenses.
2. Quotation marks are removed and instead the conjunction (that) is used.
3. Some pronouns/adverbs of time or place may also change.
4. It the reporting verb is in the past then verb tense may also change to its past form according to
the formal sequence of tense.

Tense Changes
- Simple Present Tense to simple Past Tense.
Ali said, “I study hard.” Ali said that he studied hard.
- Present Continuous Tense to Past Continuous Tense.
She said to her friend, “You are disturbing me.” She said to her friend the he was disturbing her. -
Present Prefect Tense to Past Prefect Tense.
Ali said, “I have done my homework.” Ali said that he had done his homework. -
Present Prefect Continuous Tense to Past Prefect Continuous Tense.
Nazia said, “I have been watching TV.” Nazia said that she had been watching TV. -
Simple Past Tense to Past Prefect Tense.
Ferdows said, “I watched TV yesterday.” Ferdows said that he had watched TV the previous day. -
Past Continuous Tense to Past Prefect Continuous Tense.
The students said, “We were playing soccer.” The students said that they had been playing soccer.
- Past Prefect Tense to Past Prefect Tense. No change
- Past Prefect Continuous Tense to Past Prefect Continuous Tense. No change

Changes in Modal Auxiliaries:

Can to Could Will to Would

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May to Might Have to to Had to

Has to to Had to Must to Had to
Shall to should Could to could
Had to to had to Would to Would
Ought to to Ought Had better to Had better
Be going to to was/were going to Might
to Might
The students said, “We will go.” The students said that they would go.
They boys said, “We are going to play.” The boys said that were going to play.
The boys said, “We shall arrange the party tomorrow.” The boys said that they should arrange the party
next day.
Mustafa said, “I may get a job.” Mustafa said that he might get a job.
Abrar said, “I can speak English.” Abrar said that he could speak English.
The teacher said, “You had better study hard.” The said that we had better study hard.

Some other words changes

- This to That These to Those
- Now to then Thus to So
- So to Very Ago to Before
- Just to Then Here to There
- Hither to Thither Hence to Thence/ Therefore

Yesterday to the previous day/ the day before / last day. Tomorrow
to next day/ the day after.

under which formal sequence of tenses is not allowed A

universal fact:
Ex: Our teacher said, “Allah is the most merciful and compassionate.
Our teacher said that Allah is the most merciful and compassionate. A
general fact:
Ex: Ali said, “She is young and beautiful.”
Ali said that is she is young and beautiful.
A past historical event:
Ex: My father said, “Pakistan came into being on 14 August, 1947.”
My father said that Pakistan came into being on 14 August, 1947.
Importable conditional clause:
Ex Our teacher said, “If you studied hard, you will past the test.”
Our teacher said that If I studied hard, you will past the test. Real
Conditional Clause:
Ex: Her father said, “if it rains, the picnic will be cancelled.”
Her father said that if it rains the picnic will be cancelled.

WH Questions

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Ali said, “When will the class start?” Ali asked me when the class would start.
The girls said, “Where can we play.” The girls asked me where they could play.
Bilal said, “When does the new class start?” Bilal asked me when the new class started.
Yes/No Questions
Suliman said, “Will the match start tomorrow?” Suliman asked if/whether the match would start the
next day.
The boys said, “Do the girls study hard?” The boys asked if/whether the girls studied hard. Changing
some exceptions
The teacher said, “Close the door.” The teacher ordered me to close the door.
The teacher said, “Bring a glass of water.” The teacher requested me to bring a glass of water.
The teacher said, “Respect your parents.” The teacher advised us to respect our parents.
The teacher said, “Shut your mouth.” The teacher wanted me to shut my mouth.
The girl said, “I love you.” The girl exposed she loves me.
The boys said, “Let’s play football.” The boys suggested me to play football.

Gerund Versus Infinitive

Gerund: (verb + ing) functions as noun is called gerund. Dancing is easy.
Infinitive: the nonfinite form of verb that does not link with any tense is called infinitive.
They plan to escape.
Note: gerund and infinitive is also called verbal nouns.
In English grammar (verb + ing) has five main functions.
1. As verb: is used as present participle form verbs in continuous tenses. E.g.: They are playing.
2. As adjective: modifying noun or pronoun. E.g.: They watched an interesting movie.
3. As noun: functions as noun in a sentence. E.g.: They enjoy dancing.
4. As preposition: functions as prepositions. E.g.: I was talking regarding the problem.
5. As noun participle: used to form compound nouns. E.g.: cooking school, car parking

Common Usages of Gerund and Infinitives

In English grammar gerund and infinitive have four common usages
1. Some common verbs (plan, decide, wish, want, hope, agree, expect, suggest, etc) are followed
by infinitive if gerund is used incorrect. E.g.: They plan to buy a car. Not buying

2. Some common verbs (enjoy, mind, appreciate, avoid, deny, etc) are followed by gerund if
infinitive is used incorrect. E.g.: They enjoy watching TV. Not to watch incorrect.
3. Some common verbs (begin, start, continue, like, love, prefer, hate, etc) are followed either by
gerund or infinitive with same meaning. E.g.: They like to watch TV. They like watching TV.

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4. Some common verbs (stop, forget, remember, regret, try, etc) are followed either by gerund or
infinitive with different meaning. E.g.: She stopped to talk with her friends. She stopped
talking with her friends.
Forget, remember + infinitive: shows someone’s responsibility or duty. E.g.: They forget to
clean the kitchen. E.g.: She remembers to wash the dishes.

Cases of Gerund
1. Subject case: Running makes me tired. Functions as subject
2. Object case: She enjoys singing. Functions as object
3. Complement of preposition: She is interested in swimming. He looks forward to buying a car.
Completes the meaning of preposition
4. Complement of Be: What he expects is getting married. Completes the meaning of be.
Cases of Infinitive
1. Subject case: To dance is fun. Old English. It is fun to dance. New English. Functions as subject
2. Object case: She plans to escape. Functions as object
3. Complement of preposition: They are about to leave. She has no way but to escape.
4. Complement of subject: My job is to teach.
5. Complement of object: She told me to study.
6. Infinitive as adjective: (to+verb) functions as adjective modifying noun. She has spare time to
play. I have money to spend.
7. Infinitive as an adverb: functions as adverb. He is ready to swim. She runs fast to reach.

Types of Infinitive
1. Full infinitive: She decides to learn computer. (to + verb)
2. Bare infinitive (Pseudo): They make their son learn Arabic. She can drive a car. Without (to)
3. Split infinitive: in which (to) is a parted from the verb by inserting adverb. She wants to drive a
car. She wants to carefully drive a car.
4. Abridge infinitive: is formed without the verb. Would you like to drink? Yes, I would like to.
5. Compound infinitive: formed of two or more infinitives. They plan to watch and to play
cricket.
Subject and Verb agreement Common rules of subject and
verb agreement
1. A singular noun always takes singular verb. Car runs fast. Child plays in the ground.
2. Plural nouns always take plural verbs. Children play football.
3. Non-countable nouns always take singular verbs. Water is cold.
4. Indefinite pronouns always take singular verbs. Someone shouts every morning next to my
hostel.
5. Expression of time and money always take singular verb. Six hours is short time. Ten dollars is
nothing.
6. The quantifiers (one of, none of, some of) are followed by plural nouns but take singular verb.
One of my brothers is a doctor.

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7. A singular gerund noun always takes singular verb. Reading ten books is difficult.
8. More than one noun or pronoun connected by conjunctions always take plural verbs. Ehsan and
Salahuddin play football.
9. The expression (the number of and a number of) are used in the following ways. The number of
students is fifty. A number of students are sitting outside.
10. The expressions (some of, all of, none of) are used in two ways with different meanings. Some
of the books are interesting. Some of the book is interesting.

Clause

A group of relevant words that contains subject and verb is called clause.

Types of Clause
In English grammar clauses are divided into two types.
1. Independent Clause
2. Dependent Clause

1. Independent Clause: is a type of clause that can stand alone it does not need another clause.
Independent clause is also called main clause, principle clause and coordinating clause.

2. Dependent Clause: is a type of clause that cannot stand alone it needs another clause.
Dependent clause is also called relative clause, identifying clause and subordinating clause.

E.g.: She knows a teacher who is living in London.

Dependent clause is divided into three types (Adjective Clause, Adverb clause, Noun clause).

1. Adjective Clause: functions the same as adjective modifying noun, pronoun or giving extra
information about noun. Adjective clause is also called relative or modifying clause. E.g.:
She bought a car that runs very fast.

Relative Pronouns: are those pronouns which are used to connect noun and pronoun with dependent
clause.

Cases of Relative Pronouns

1. Subject case: in this case a relative pronoun is used before main verb in adjective clause to
function as the subject of adjective clause. In this case we use (who, which and that). E.g.: She
knows a man who earns much money every month.

2. Object case: in this case a relative pronoun is used before noun or another pronoun in a
adjective clause. In this case we use (who, whom, which, and that).
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E.g.: She bought the book that she needs it.

3. Complement of preposition case: in this case a relative pronoun is preceded by a preposition to

complete the meaning of preposition. In this case we use (whom and which). E.g.: He loves the
girl to whom he gave an apple.

4. Possessive case: in this case a relative pronoun is used in two ways to show possession.

1. Whose: to show the possession of either person or thing.

E.g.: He loves the girl whose father is a butcher. She bought a car whose color is red.

2. The + noun of which: shows the possession of things.

E.g.: She bought a car the color of which is red.

Deletion of Relative Pronouns

In English grammar relative pronouns can be deleted in two cases (object and complement of
preposition cases).

E.g.: He bought the car that she really likes it. He bought the car he really likes it.

E.g.: This is the man about whom I told you. This is the man I told you about.

Relative pronouns as complement of preposition can be used in the following ways.

E.g.: She likes the city in which she was born.

E.g.: She likes the city that she was born in.

E.g.: She likes the city she was born in.

NOTE.

E.g.: She is the girl who got first position in university.

E.g.: She is very intelligent who got first position in university. Wrong

E.g.: She who got first position in university is very intelligent.

Types of Adjective Clause: in English grammar adjective clauses are divided into three types.

1. Restrictive adjective clauses: are those adjective clauses which are used to modify antecedent
(noun or pronoun). Restrictive adjective clauses are also called modifying or essential clauses.

2. Non-restrictive adjective clauses: are those adjective clauses which are used to give extra
information about antecedent (noun).

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a. Restrictive adjective modify antecedent but non-restrictive adjective clauses give extra
information about antecedent.

b. Restrictive adjective clauses are normally introduced with (who and that) but non-restrictive
adjective clauses are introduced with (who and which?).

c. The antecedent of restrictive adjective clause is a common noun or pronoun, but the antecedent
of non-restrictive adjective clause is a proper noun.

d. Comma or commas are not used in restrictive adjective clauses but comma or commas are used
in non-restrictive adjective clauses.

E.g.: She knows a boy who works in the bank.

E.g.: He bought a car that is made in Japan.

E.g.: He bought Honda car, which is made in Japan.

E.g.: The city that is the capital of England is beautiful.

E.g.: London, which is the capital of England, is beautiful.

3. Connective Adjective Clauses: are those adjective clauses which are used to carry on the idea form
one clause another clause or are those clauses which are used to modify the whole clause as antecedent.
E.g.: She failed the exam, which made all her family sad.

E.g.: It was raining so seriously, which cancelled the final cricket match.

Changing adjective clauses to adjective phrases

When we want to change adjective clauses to adjective phrases, we have to consider the following
points.

1. Changing adjective clauses to adjective phrases is possible in subject case of relative

pronouns.

2. If adjective clause contains either simple present or simple past tense, we delete the relative
pronoun and change the verb of adjective clause to ing form. E.g.: He bought a car that runs very
fast on the road.

E.g.: He bought a car running very fast on the road.

E.g.: She respects a man who lived in America last year.

E.g.: She respects a man living in America last year.

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3. If adjective clause contains either present continuous tense or past continuous tense, we delete the
relative pronoun and the forms of Be.

E.g.: I saw the boy who is playing in the ground now.

E.g.: I saw the boy playing in the ground now.

E.g.: He helped the girl who was crying in the market.

E.g.: He helped the girl crying in the market.

4. If adjective clause contains perfective tense here we have two possibilities. E.g.:

She knows a man who has gotten four international awards.

E.g.: She knows a man having gotten four international awards.

E.g.: She knows a man getting four international award.

5. If adjective clause contains form of Be as main verb we delete the relative pronoun in the form of be.

E.g.: She knows a man who is engineer in international company.

E.g.: She knows a man engineer in international company.

6. If adjective clause contains the form of passive, we delete the relative pronoun and the form of Be.

E.g.: She is reading the letter that is written by her husband.

E.g.: She is reading the letter written by her husband.

Adverb Clause

Are dependent clauses which function almost the same as adverbs showing time relationship, cause and
effect relationship, opposition and condition.

Adverb clauses have two positions in sentences.

1. Before main clause, here comma separates the two clauses.

2. After main clause, here no comma is used.

E.g.: She went to hospital because she was really sick.

E.g.: He does not have money though he wants to start business.

Adverb Clause of Time Relationship

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Are those adverb clauses which are used to show when the action of main clause happens or
happened. Adverb clauses of time relationship are introduced with the following subordinating
conjunctions (before, after, when, while, as, by the time, until, since, as long as, as soon as, the first
time, the next time, the last time).

E.g.: She will have learned computer before she gets the job.

Adverb Clause of Cause and Effect Relationship

Are those adverb clauses which are used to show a particular cause to main clause.

And are introduced with the following subordinating conjunctions (because, since, as, now that, in
as much as, as long).

E.g.: She prays five times daily because she is a devoted Muslim.

1. With subordinating conjunctions.

E.g.: Because he worked hard, he earned much money.

Cause effect

2. With some prepositions: because of, due to.

E.g.: Because of the serious rain, they missed the match.

Cause effect

3. With some transitions: therefore, thus, hence, consequently.

E.g.: He studied very hard. Therefore, he got first position.

Cause effect

4. With coordinating conjunctions: so

E.g.: She was tired, so she slept early.

Cause effect

5. With some structures: (such + a/an + adjective + noun + that)

(so + adj / adv + that) E.g.: Football is such a nice game that

everybody likes it.

Cause effect

E.g.: She is so beautiful that everybody wants to marry her.

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Cause effect

E.g.: He danced so beautifully that all people clapped him a lot.

Adverb Clause of Opposition

Are those adverb clauses which are used to show unexpected result to main clause.

Adverb clauses of opposition are introduced with the following subordinating conjunctions

(though, although, even though).

E.g.: She did not study though she got first position.

Main clause adverb clause of Opposition

Opposition is a grammatical sequence that contains either two opposite words or two ideas.

Opposition is divided into two types.

1. Direct Opposition: is a type of opposition that contains two opposite words.

2. Indirect Opposition: is a type of opposition that contains two opposite ideas. E.g.:

Matin is rich, but Ali is poor.

E.g.: She did not study although she got first position.

1. With subordinating conjunctions: though, although, even

though. E.g.: She was seriously sick though she attended in her

class.

2. With coordinating conjunctions: but, yet, while, whereas.

E.g.: She is fat, while her husband is thin.

3. With some transitions: nevertheless, nonetheless, however.

E.g.: He does not have enough money. Nevertheless, he wants to start business.

4. With some preposition: despite, in spite of.

E.g.: She goes to college despite her sickness.

E.g.: The boys play the final match in spite of the serious rain.

Adverb Clause of Condition

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Are those adverb clauses which are used to show a particular condition for a specific result.
Adverb clause of conditions are introduced with the following subordinating conjunctions. (if,
whether or not, even if, in case that, in the event that, unless, only if, providing that, provided that).
E.g.: If he works hard, he will make much money.

1. whether or not: means if or if not. Showing that none of the condition can change the result.

E.g.: She will get the job whether or not she passes the interview.

2. Even if: means just if. Showing that only one particular condition cannot change the result.

E.g.: They go swimming even if it rains.

3. in case that and in event that: means if: Showing that something may not happen but it might
happen.

E.g.: You have to call me fast, in case that my brother comes.

E.g.: They have to close the windows in the event that it rains.

4. Unless: means if not: introducing negative adverb clause of condition. E.g.: They

will not pass the exam unless they study hard.

5. Only if: means just if. Showing that only one particular condition can change the result.

E.g.: The cricket match will be cancelled only if it rains.

Result clause

6. Providing that & provided that: mean if. They introduce adverb clause of condition.

E.g.: She will earn money if she works hard.

E.g.: She will earn money provided that she works hard.

Changing Adverb clauses to Adverb Phrases

When we want to change adverb clauses to adverb phrases, we consider the following points.

1. Changing adverb clauses to adverb phrases is possible only in adverb clauses of time relationship
and adverb clauses of cause and effect relationship.

2. When we want to change adverb clauses to adverb phrases, the subject of main clause and adverb
clauses should be the same if different, adverb clause cannot be change to adverb phrase.
E.g.: She was reading a book while Kabir was watching TV. No change
E.g.: She was reading a book while she was sitting in the lawn. Change possible

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3. If adverb clause contains either simple present tense or simple past tense, we delete the subject of
adverb clause and change the verb of adverb clause to (ing) form.
E.g.: She had learned computer before she got the job. Adverb clause
E.g.: She had learned computer before getting the job. Adverb phrase
E.g.: He will have earned money before he buys a car.
E.g.: He will have earned money before buying a car.

4. If adverb clause contains either present continuous tense or past continuous tense, we delete the
subject and the form of be.
E.g.: They are reading books while they are sitting in lawn.
E.g.: They are reading books while sitting in lawn.
E.g.: She was singing while she was cooking meal.
E.g.: She was singing while cooking meal.

5. If adverb clause contains perfective tense, here we have two possibilities.

E.g.: After he had gotten the job, he treated all his friends.
E.g.: After having gotten the job, he treated all his friends.

6. If adverb clause contains the form of Be as main verb here we delete the subject and change the
form of Be to (ing) form (being).
E.g.: She prays five times a day because she is a true Muslim.

E.g.: She prays five times a day being a true Muslim.

E.g.: He was reading a book when he came home.
E.g.: He was reading a book upon coming home.

Noun Clause

Is a dependent clause that functions the same as noun, can be the subject of sentence object of sentence
and complement of a sentence.

Noun clauses are introduced with three markers.

1. W.H words

2. If/ whether

3. That

E.g.: The car is very expensive. Noun as subject (the car)

E.g.: What he wants is very expensive. Noun clause as subject (what he wants).

E.g.: She bought a book. Noun as object (a book)

E.g.: She bought what she needed. Noun clause as object (what she needed).
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E.g.: He is very happy about a trip. Noun as complement (trip).

E.g.: He is very happy about where he goes. Noun clause as complement (where he goes).

Cases of noun clauses

In English grammar noun clauses have the following functions.

1. Subject case: in this case a noun clause is used before main verb to function as subject of
sentence.
E.g.: Canada is a nice place. Where he goes is a nice place.

2. Object case: in this case a noun clause is used after main verb to function as object of sentence.
E.g.: He bought a car. He bought what he needs.

3. Complement of preposition case: in this case a noun clause is preceded by a preposition to

complete the meaning of preposition.
E.g.: He is thinking about exam. He is thinking about what he faces.

4. Complement of verb: in this case a noun clause is used to complete the meaning of a verb in a
sentence.
E.g.: This is a book. This is what I bought.

Components of Sentence

Sentences have two types of components.

1. Principle components: are those components which are used to make the base of sentence.
Principle components are two in number.

1. Subject: noun, pronoun, noun phrase, noun clause used before main verb (predicator) that
makes base of a sentence is called subject.
E.g.: The students play football daily. Noun as subject
E.g.: They play football daily. Pronoun as subject.
E.g.: Two beautiful girls walk on the road daily. Noun phrase as subject.
E.g.: What he said is unbelievable. Noun clause as subject.

2. Predicator: is a grammatical term that denotes what the subject does, receives, what the
subject is, where and how the subject is.
E.g.: She plays cricket. E.g.: He is invited to the party. E.g.: I am a student.
E.g.: She is happy. E.g.: She is at home.

2. Supplementing components: are those components which are used based on sentence
requirements. Supplementing components are listed here. (object, complement, rest of sentence,
preposition, adverb, adjective….).

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1. Object: noun, pronoun, noun phrase, noun clause affect by dynamic predictor is called object.
E.g.: She teaches students. Noun as object. E.g.: She teaches him. Pronoun as object.
E.g.: He bought two beautiful cars. Noun phrase as object. E.g.: I heard what he said. Noun
clause as object.

2. Complement: is a grammatical term that gives ending to a statement.

Note: object can be complement but a complement can not be object.

E.g.: She is a student. Complement. E.g.: She teaches students. Object/ complement

1. Dynamic Predicator: is that predicator indicates that what the subject does and receives.
(action of subject). E.g.: She plays football.

2. Stative Predicator: indicates what, how, and where the subject is. (state of subject).

E.g.: She is a student.

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