SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION ENGINEERING

Unit-I
Soil erosion: Introduction, causes and types - geological and accelerated erosion, agents, factors
affecting and effects of erosion. Water erosion - Mechanics and forms - splash, sheet, rill, gully, ravine
and stream bank erosion. Gullies - Classification, stages of development.

➢ Soil Erosion: -
The uppermost weathered and disintegrated layer of the earth’s crust is referred to as soil. The soil
layer is composed of mineral and organic matter and is capable of sustaining plant life. The soil depth
is less in some places and more at other places and may vary from practically nil to several metres.
The soil layer is continuously exposed to the actions of atmosphere. Wind and water in motion are two
main agencies which act on the soil layer and dislodge the soil particles and transport them. The
loosening of the soil from its place and its transportation from one place to another is known as soil
erosion.

The word erosion has been derived from the Latin word ‘erodere’ which means eating away or to
excavate. The word erosion was first used in geology for describing the term hollow created by water.
Erosion actually is a two-phase process involving the detachment of individual soil particle from soil
mass, transporting it from one place to another (by the action of any one of the agents of erosion, viz;
water, wind, ice or gravity) and its deposition. When sufficient energy is not available to transport a
particle, a third phase known as deposition occurs. In general, finer soil particles get eroded more
easily than coarse particles (silt is more easily eroded than sand). Hence soil erosion is defined as a
process of detachment, transportation and deposition of soil particles (sediment). It is evident that
sediment is the end product of soil erosion process. Sediment is, therefore, defined as any fragmented
material, which is transported or deposited by water, ice, air or any other natural agent. From this, it
is inferred that sedimentation is also the process of detachment, transportation and deposition of eroded
soil particles. Thus, the natural sequence of the sediment cycle is as follows:

Causes of Soil Erosion-

Following are the important causes of soil erosion:

1. Rainfall and Flooding

1
 Higher intensity of rainstorms is the main cause of soil erosion. Four types of soil erosion are
caused by rainfall:

• Rill erosion
• Gully erosion
• Sheet erosion
• Splash erosion
The raindrops disperse the soil, which is then washed away into the nearby streams and
rivers. Regions with very heavy and frequent rainfall face a large amount of soil loss. The
flowing water during floods also erodes a lot of soil by creating potholes, rock-cut basins,
etc.

2. Agriculture
The farming practices are the major cause of soil erosion. The agricultural activities disturb
the ground. The trees are cleared and the land is ploughed to sow new seeds. Since most of
the crops are grown during the spring season, the land lies fallow during winters. Most of the
soil is eroded during winters.
Also, the tyres of tractors make grooves on the land, making a natural pathway for water.
Fine soil particles are eroded by wind.
3. Grazing
The grazing animals feed on the grasses and remove the vegetation from the land. Their
hooves churn up the soil. They also pull out plants by their roots. This loosens the soil and
makes it more prone to erosion.
4. Logging and Mining
A large number of trees are cut down to carry out the logging process. Trees hold the soil
firmly. The canopy of the trees protects the soil from heavy rainfall. The leaf litter that
protects the soil from erosion, is also lost during logging.
Mining activities also disturb the land and leave the soil more prone to erosion.
5. Construction
The construction of roads and buildings exposes the soil to erosion. The forests and
grasslands are cleared for construction purposes, which exposes the soil making it vulnerable
to erosion.

2
 6. Rivers and Streams
The flowing rivers and streams carry away the soil particles leading to a V-shaped erosion
activity.
7. Heavy Winds
During dry weather or in the semi-arid regions, the minute soil particles are carried away by
the wind to faraway lands. This degrades the soil and results in desertification.

Soil Erosion Types-

One of the most important things that we can do to ensure the health of our crops and nearby
ecosystems is to reduce soil erosion. The different soil erosion types are explained below.
1. Rain Drop or Splash Erosion
The erosion due to the impact of falling raindrops on the soil surface leading to the
destruction of the crumb structure is known as raindrop or splash erosion.

2. Sheet Erosion
It is the uniform removal of soil in thin layers from the land surface caused by the wind.
Land areas with loose, shallow topsoil overlying compact soil are most prone to sheet
erosion.

3. Rill Erosion
Rill erosion is a form of water erosion in which the erosion takes place through numerous
narrow and more or not so straight channels called streamlets or head cuts. Rill is the most
common form of erosion, which you can also observe during heavy rain.

4. Gully Erosion
Gully erosion occurs due to the runoff of surface water, causing the removal of soil with
drainage lines. Gullies when started once, will move by headward erosion or even by
slumping of side walls unless and un-till proper steps will be taken in order to stabilize the
disturbance.

5. Stream Bank Erosion

Bank erosion is nothing but washing up away from banks of a stream or a river. It is different
from the erosion of the bed of a watercourse, that is referred to as scouring. This type of
erosion is also termed as Stream Bank Erosion.

3
Geological and Accelerated erosion-

Soil Erosion Agents-

There are four main agents of erosion:

1. Water
2. Wind
3. Vegetation
4. Human Action

Factors affecting-
The erosion potential of any area is determined by four principal factors: the characteristics of its soil,
its vegetative cover, its topography and its climate. Although each of these factors is discussed
separately herein, they are inter-related in determining erosion potential.

i) Soil Characteristics

Soil characteristics influencing erosion by rainfall and runoff are those properties which affect the
infiltration capacity of soil and those which affect the resistance of the soil to detachment and transport
by falling or flowing water. The following four characteristics are important in determining soil
erodibility:

• Soil Texture (particle size and gradation): soils containing high percentages of fine
sands and silt are normally the most erodible. As the clay and organic matter content

4
 of these soils increase, the erodibility decreases. Clay acts as a binder for soil particles,
thus reducing erodibility.

• Organic Matter Content: Organic material is the “glue” that binds the soil particles
together and plays an important part in preventing soil erosion. Organic matter is the
main source of energy for soil organisms, both plant and animal. It also influences the
infiltration capacity of the soil. As shown in Fig. 4.2, lesser soil organic matter causes
deterioration of soil structure and soil permeability.

• Soil Structure: The way soil particles are held together, affects the soil's friability, the
ease with which soil particles are detached by raindrops and runoff, and the resistance
of the soil to the growth of roots and shoots.

• Soil Permeability: Permeability is the soil’s ability to transmit air and water. Soils that
are least subject to erosion from rainfall and surface runoff are those with high
permeability.

ii) Vegetation Cover

Vegetative cover plays an important role in controlling erosion. It:

• Shields the soil surface from the impact of falling rain

• Holds soil particles in place

• Maintains the soil's capacity to absorb water

• Reduces the velocity of runoff

• Removes subsurface water between rainfalls through the process of evapo-transpiration

iii) Topography

The size, shape and slope characteristics of a watershed influence the amount and rate of runoff. As
both slope length and gradient increase, the rate of runoff increases and the potential for erosion is
magnified.

iv) Climate

The frequency, intensity and duration of rainfall are fundamental factors in determining the amount of
runoff produced in a given area. As both the volume and velocity of runoff increase, the capability of
runoff to detach and transport soil particles also increases. Where storms are frequent, intense, or of
long duration, erosion risks are high. Seasonal changes in temperature, as well as rainfall influence the
erosion risk.

5
 Fig.. Effect of erosion on organic matter. (Source:

vi) Deforestation and Burning

The loss of forest cover removes the natural protection of soils against the sun's rays and the direct
impact of raindrops. There is a reduction in the infiltration of water in to the soil and a simultaneous
increase in surface runoff is resulted and the level of organic material is also reduced. These factors
necessitate planting on steep slopes. The natural susceptibility of certain soils to erosion, and the
coincidence of land preparation with erosive rainfall, accelerate the erosion process and consequently
intensify of land degradation.

The above mentioned activities are a part of “Jhum cultivation” or “shifting cultivation practiced in
the hilly regions of northern India, particularly north-eastern Indian states. When burning destroys
trees, it also damages the flora and fauna, and affects water availability, for example springs. The
problem is no less serious when farmers burn crop residues. It is through crop residue that nutrient
recycling occurs in nature. The residues accumulate on the soil surface and release nutrients, which
are absorbed directly or indirectly being incorporated in the organic matter. With burning, these
nutrients are almost completely lost. Another problem caused by burning is the elimination of the
supply of fresh organic matter to the soil.

Effects of erosion-

Soil erosion decreases soil fertility, which can negatively affect crop yields. It also sends soil-laden
water downstream, which can create heavy layers of sediment that prevent streams and rivers from
flowing smoothly and can eventually lead to flooding. Once soil erosion occurs, it is more likely to
happen again.

➢ Water Erosion
Water-erosion is a complicated process with many different forms, but it can be summarized as the
removal or displacement of soil away from its original location by the water. This results from rainfall,
melted snow, flowing rivers, the movement of glaciers, or the freeze/thaw cycles.

6
Similar to erosion caused by water, it will slowly erode away landscapes over time if left unaddressed
and can be very hazardous to those whose livelihoods depend on the land remaining intact like
farmlands and ecological landscapes.

Different forms of water-erosion commonly found are rills erosion, gullies erosion, splash effect
erosion, sheet flow erosion, and tunnelling erosion, each of which this article will address in more
detail further below.

Types of Water Erosions-

There are five main types of water erosion, all of which arise from separate circumstances or weather
events, and many of which are interlinked with one another. Some are more severe than others, such
as gully and tunnel erosion, and all are natural occurrences that we have seen enhanced by human
activity, particularly in farming areas.

1. Splash erosion
Splash erosion occurs from the impact of raindrops on delicate topsoil, which creates a small crater
that may widen over time. Typically single or small soil particles are removed from the main soil
structure.
The scientific explanation for the splash effect of raindrops is that a moving (falling) body has
kinetic energy and upon impact, that energy is transferred to the dislodge soil particles from the
ground.
While the individual events are less impactful than other types of water erosion on this list, it is the
combined effect of countless raindrops that makes the effect significant. Especially, splash erosion is
especially a matter of concern in areas that completely lack vegetation.

7
2. Sheet erosion
Sheet erosion is the erosion of soil in thin layers by excess water flowing as sheets above the soil.
When the amount of rainfall or water on land exceeds the ability of the land to absorb water, water
cannot infiltrate into the ground and it carries a thin layer of soil with it when it flows downslope.
Sheet erosion can be defined as the overflowing of water above the ground in a uniform layer and
eroding the small and light particles found on the top layer. Sheet erosion is related to the formation
of gullies, where the pounding rainfall exceeds the ability of the soil to absorb the water.
On a hill or sloping landscape, this can result in the accumulation of soil particles in a mound at the
bottom of the slope, hence even resulting in the formation of a rill in the surface layer.

3. Rill erosion
Just as sheet erosion creates rill erosion, rill erosion eventually leads to gully erosion when left
unaddressed. A rill can be defined as a shallow channel that has developed from water erosion and
typically does not exceed 30-50 cm in width or depth.

It is the initiation of the development of water-flowing channels which, with time, increases in depth
and width as it erodes more and more of the soil materials and carries it downstream through the
rills.

8
They are typically found in hilly or sloping areas, as well as areas where the soil is naked and
vulnerable to erosion like deforested areas or commercial farmland.

4. Gully erosion
Gully erosion is a type of advanced water erosion that originates from the formation of rills that deepen
until they gradually become deep and wide trenches that are much more difficult to repair and highly
impractical for machinery in the case of farming.
The water flowing through gullies is also often of poorer quality as it contains a high concentration of
sediment and soil particles as it continues to erode the landscape.
Gullies are a much serious concern in farmland productivity as well as on any other land use since
they require more time and effort to repair and if not corrected properly and given favorable conditions,
they can keep growing up to a point where the entire land has to be rendered unusable.

In areas where advanced gullies are found, sediment loading in the downstream rivers is also a serious
problem.

9
5. Tunnel erosion

Tunnel erosion is a unique type of subsurface water erosion typically caused by water penetration
into a hollow underground zone that then moves soil particles away from their original location
below the soil surface, forming tunnels.

This type of erosion is very dangerous as it may not be apparent for some time but create unstable
landscapes that are prone to collapse. Tunnel erosion is mainly found in specific orders of soil like
the sodosol which has an unstable subsoil.

The advancement of tunnel erosion occurs when water enters the interior of soil through holes or
cracks on the land formed by tree roots or other causes. Tunnel erosion seriously affects the water
holding capacity of the soil.

6.Stream Bank Erosion

Stream bank erosion is defined as the removal of stream bank soil by water either flowing over the
sides of the stream or scouring from there (Fig). The stream bank erosion due to stream flow in the
form of scouring and undercutting of the soil below the water surface caused by wave action is a
continuous process in perennial streams. Stream bank erosion is mainly aggravated due to removal of
vegetation, over grazing or cultivation on the area close to stream banks. Stream bank erosion is also
caused by the occurrence of flood in the stream. Apart from scouring, the sloughing is also a form of
stream bank erosion which is caused when the stream water subsides after reaching the peak.
Sloughing is mainly due to movement of underground water from side into the stream due to pressure
difference.

10
 7.Ravine Erosion
When a gully bed is eroded further due to headward erosion, the bed gradually deepens and flattens
out, and a ravine is formed. The depth of a ravine may extend to 30 metres or more. Further erosion
of ravine beds gives rise to canyons. Canyons are few hundred meters deep and wide. (Grand Canyon
on Colorado River).

➢ Gullies - Classification, stages of development.

Gully erosion is an advance stage of rill erosion as rill erosion is the advanced stage of sheet erosion.
It is the most spectacular form of erosion. Any concentration of surface runoff is a potential source of
gully erosion. The Soil Conservation Society of America defines a gully as “a channel or miniature
valley cut by concentrated runoff but through which water commonly flows only during and
immediately after heavy rains. It may be dendritic or branching or it may be linear, rather long, narrow
and of uniform width”. In India, the rate of soil erosion from gullies is 33 t/ha/yr in ravine regions
(Shekinah and Saraswathy, 2005). The distinction between ravine, gully and rills is that of size. A
gully is too large to be filled by normal tillage practices. A ravine is a deep narrow gorge. It is larger
than a gully and is usually worn down by running water. It is estimated that about 4 million ha of land
in India are affected by gully erosion (Michael and Ojha, 2012).

Classification of Gullies
Gullies can be classified based on three factors viz. their size, shape (cross section) and formation of
branches or continuation. The detailed classification is discussed below.
1. Based on Size (depth and drainage area)
Gully classification based on the size is presented in Table

11
 Table Gully classification based on size

Classification Depth (m) Drainage area (ha)

Small <1 <2

Medium 1 to 5 2 to 20

Large >5 > 20

2. Based on Shape
The classification of gullies based on shape is shown in Fig.
U-Shaped: These are formed where both the topsoil and subsoil have the same resistance against
erosion. Because the subsoil is eroded as easily as the topsoil, nearly vertical walls are developed on
each side of the gully.
V-Shaped: These gullies develop where the subsoil has more resistance than topsoil against erosion.
This is the most common form of gully.
Trapezoidal: These gullies are formed where the gully bottom is made of more resistant material
than the topsoil. Below the bottom of gully, the subsoil layer has much more resistance to get eroded
and thus the development of further depth of gully is restricted.

Fig. Gully classes based on the shape of gully cross-section.

3 Based on the Formation of Branches or Continuation
Continuous Gullies: These gullies consist of many branches. A continuous gully has a main gully
channel and many mature or immature branch gullies. A gully network is made up of many continuous
gullies. A multiple-gully system may be composed of several gully networks.

12
Discontinuous Gullies: These may develop on hillsides after landslides. They are also called
independent gullies. At the beginning of its development, a discontinuous gully does not have a distinct
junction with the main gully or stream channel. Flowing water in a discontinuous gully spread over a
nearly flat area. After some time, it reaches the main gully channel or stream. Independent gullies may
be scattered between the branches of a continuous gully, or they may occupy a whole area without
there being any continuous gullies.

Development of Gullies
The main processes in the development of gullies are waterfall erosion and channel erosion. These
two erosions are commonly found in the same gully. The extension of the gully head is usually by
waterfall erosion; while the scouring of bottom and sides which enlarges the depth and width of gullies
is by channel erosion. Gullies usually start with channel erosion. When an overfall develops at the
head of the gully, the gully continues to develop by waterfall erosion. The waterfall erosion at gully
head and advancement of the gully towards the upper edge of the watershed is shown in Fig.

Fig. Waterfall erosion at gully head.

The gully development is recognized in four stages:

Formation Stage: Scouring of top soil in the direction of general slope occurs as the runoff water
concentrates. It normally proceeds slowly where the top soil is fairly resistant to erosion.

Development Stage: Causes upstream movement of the gully head and enlargement of the gully in
width and depth. The gully cuts to the C-horizon of soil, and the parent materials are removed rapidly
as water flows.

Healing Stage: Vegetation starts growing in the gully.

Stabilization Stage: Gully reaches a stable gradient, gully walls attain a stable slope and sufficient
vegetation cover develops over the gully surface to anchor the soil and permit development of new
topsoil.

****************************

13