SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC TECHNOLOGY AND SYSTEMS

Unit-III
Balance of Solar PV system: Introduction to batteries, battery classification, lead acid battery,
Nicked Cadmium battery, comparison of batteries, battery parameters, Charge controller: types of
charge controller,function of charge controller, PWM type, MPPT type charge controller.

 Balance of Solar PV system

The balance of system (BOS) for a solar photovoltaic (PV) system is all the components that make
up the system other than the solar panels themselves:
 Wiring
 Switches
 Mounting system
 Solar inverters
 Battery bank and charger
 Enclosures
 Fuses
 Ground fault detectors
The BOS is vital for the system's functionality and longevity, ensuring that solar energy is captured,
converted, stored, and distributed efficiently. The BOS components typically cost around 40% of the
total project cost.

 Introduction to batteries
A solar battery is a device that reserves energy for after consumption that’s charged by a connected solar
system. The stored electricity is consumed after eve, during energy demand peaks, or during a power
outage. Most common on domestic or marketable structures. A solar battery allows you to continue
powering your home with renewablesolar energy during the evening and at night when the solar panels
are not suitable to produce power from the sun.
12v Solar Battery chargers. Smaller 12v camping solar chargers are more portable and maybe want to
charge power banks.
A solar battery charger may be a charger that employs solar power to provide electricity to devices or
batteries. They are generally portable. Solar chargers can charge lead acid or Ni-Cd battery banks up to
48 V and many ampere-hours (up to 4000 Ah) capacity. Most portable chargers can obtain energy from
the sun only.
The solar battery bank means several batteries with resemblant and series connection set up into an
energy storehouse bank, which store solar energy from the solar panel and give electricity to loads via
DC-AC inverter. The battery bank is a core item in a solar power system as an energy storehouse.

1
A solar panel battery is a battery that stores energy from a solar PV system. The system’s panels absorb
energy from the sun and convert it to electricity which also passes through the inverter for your home to
use.
Solar Battery Tenders are available with an erected-in charge regulator to help to overcharge! 5-Watt
Solar Panel with erected-ion Battery Tender Super Smart charging regulator. 100 movable batteries
charging and conservation. Perfect for storehouse space without power access.
Solar battery backup gives homeowners control over when they take energy from the electrical grid.
Smart homeowners with battery backup systems can use this to their advantage by only charging their
batteries with electricity from the grid when prices are low.
Solar battery maintainer for 12V vehicle or rest batteries up to 200Ah. The low carbon, free way to
maintain your vehicle battery when not in use. Ideal for seasonally used vehicles similar to caravans,
classic buses, motorcycles, golf trolleys, boats, and shanties or garages.
A solar battery pack is a bowl that employs solar energy to supply electricity to bias or batteries. They’re
generally movable. Solar dishes can charge supereminent acid or Ni-Cd battery banks up to 48 V and
hundreds of ampere-hours (up to 4000 Ah) capacity. Utmost movable dishes can gain energy from the
sun only.
Lithium-ion (Li-ion) solar batteries have several advantages over conventional lead-acid batteries High
energy viscosity more energy with a lower weight. High discharge currents (enabling for illustration
electrical cuisine on a small battery bank) Long battery life (up to six times the battery life of a
conventional battery

1. Battery classification
There are four main types of battery technologies that pair with residential solar systems:

 Lead acid batteries

Lead-acid batteries are one of the oldest types of solar batteries. They are known for their
reliability and low cost, making them a common choice for off-grid solar systems. However, they
have a limited lifespan and lower energy density compared to newer technologies.
 Lithium ion batteries
Lithium-ion batteries are a popular choice for both residential and commercial solar installations.
They are highly efficient, have a longer lifespan, and offer a higher energy density compared to
lead-acid batteries. These batteries come in various chemistries, including lithium iron phosphate
(LiFePO4) and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC), each with its own advantages.
 Nickel based batteries
While less common in solar power systems today, nickel-cadmium (NiCd) batteries are still used
in some applications. They are known for their durability and ability to withstand extreme
temperature conditions. However, their use has decreased due to environmental concerns
regarding cadmium.
 Flow batteries
Flow batteries are relatively new to the solar energy scene but offer unique advantages. They are
known for their scalability and long cycle life. Flow batteries store energy in liquid electrolytes,

2
 allowing for easy capacity expansion by simply increasing the size of the tanks. This flexibility
makes them suitable for large-scale solar installations.

2. Battery parameters,
Let us now discuss some parameters that are used to characterise batteries

Voltage
First, we will discuss the voltage rating of the battery. The voltage at that the battery is rated is the
nominal voltage at which the battery is supposed to operate. The so called solar batteries or lead acid
batteries for PV applications are usually rated at 12 V, 24 V or 48 V. The actual voltage of PV
systems may differ from the nominal voltage. This is mainly depending on the SoC and the
temperature of the battery.

Capacity
When talking about batteries, the term capacity refers to the amount of charge that the battery can
deliver at the rated voltage. The capacity is directly proportional to the amount of electrode material
in the battery. This explains why a small cell has a lower capacity than a large cell that is based on
the same chemistry, even though the open circuit voltage across the cell will be the same for both the
cells. Thus, the voltage of the cell is more chemistry based, while the capacity is more based on the
quantity of the active materials used.

The capacity Cbat is measured in ampere-hours (Ah). Note that charge usually is measured in
coulomb (C). As the electric current is defined as the rate of flow of electric charge, Ah is another
unit of charge. Since 1 C = 1 As, 1 Ah = 3600 C. For batteries, Ah is the more convenient unit,
because in the field of electricity the amount of energy usually is measured in watt-hours (Wh). The
energy capacity of a battery is simply given by multiplying the rated battery voltage measured in volt
by the battery capacity measured in Amp-hours,
Ebat = CbatV,
which results in the battery energy capacity in watt-hours.

C-rate
A brand new battery with 10 Ah capacity theoretically can deliver 1 A current for 10 hours at room
temperature. Of course, in practice this is seldom the case due to several factors. Therefore, the C-
rate is used, which is a measure of the rate of discharge of the battery relative to its capacity. It is
defined as the multiple of the current over the discharge current that the battery can sustain over one
hour. For example, a C-rate of 1 for a 10 Ah battery corresponds to a discharge current of 10 A over
1 hour. A C-rate of 2 for the same battery would correspond to a discharge current of 20 A over half
an hour. Similarly, a C-rate of 0.5 implies a discharge current of 5 A over 2 hours. In general, it can
be said that a C-rate of n corresponds to the battery getting fully discharged in 1/n hours, irrespective
of the battery capacity.

3
 Charge controller:
A solar charge controller is fundamentally a voltage or current controller to charge the battery and
keep electric cells from overcharging. It directs the voltage and current hailing from the solar panels
setting off to the electric cell. Generally, 12V boards/panels put out in the ballpark of 16 to 20V, so
if there is no regulation the electric cells will damage from overcharging. Generally, electric storage
devices require around 14 to 14.5V to get completely charged. The solar charge controllers are
available in all features, costs, and sizes. The range of charge controllers is from 4.5A and up to 60
to 80A.

Function of charge controller

A charge controller, also known as a charge regulator or battery regulator, regulates the flow of
electricity into and out of batteries to protect them from damage and extend their lifespan:
 Regulates voltage and current: A charge controller regulates the voltage and current coming
from solar panels to the battery. For example, most 12 volt panels produce 16–20 volts, but
batteries typically only need 14–14.5 volts to fully charge.
 Prevents overcharging: A charge controller prevents batteries from overcharging, which can
damage them.
 Prevents deep discharge: A charge controller prevents batteries from being drained below a
critical level, which can significantly degrade their performance and shorten their life.
 Blocks reverse current: A charge controller prevents reverse current, which can occur when
some wind and hydro generators stop.
 Optimizes solar panel performance: A charge controller optimizes the performance of solar
panels.
 Extends battery life: A charge controller helps to extend the life of batteries.

Types of charge controller

There are three different types of solar charge controllers, they are:
1. PWM (pulse width modulated)
2. Maximum power point tracking (MPPT)

PWM (pulse width modulated)

PWM charge controllers use a method called Pulse Width Modulation to control the flow of power to
the batteries. This process adjusts the width of the pulses of energy sent to the battery, effectively
regulating the charge level.

Advantages:

 PWM controllers are known for their simplicity and lower cost.
 They work well in small systems, like solar lighting or camping setups. Their design is
straightforward, making them easy to maintain.

4
Disadvantages:

 They are less efficient in conditions with variable sunlight. This can lead to reduced performance
in cloudy weather or in systems with more significant power demands.
 Case studies show PWM’s inefficiency in larger solar systems.
 PWM requires the voltage of solar panels and batteries can match so that it can work normally

Maximum power point tracking (MPPT)

MPPT controllers continuously track the maximum power point of solar panels to extract the highest
possible energy output under varying sunlight conditions. This dynamic adjustment optimizes energy
collection by nearly 40% compared to PWM controllers.

Advantages:

 These controllers provide superior efficiency compared to PWM, especially in diverse conditions
like cold climates or shady areas.
 They are ideal for larger and more complex systems, such as residential solar arrays, where
maximum power harvest is critical.

Disadvantages:

 MPPT controllers are generally more expensive and have a more intricate design than PWM
models.
 While offering better performance, they can represent a significant initial investment, especially
when balancing cost against long-term performance data.

*****************************