= Untt= IE. | =} Graph 3 (ye). : Gr Ya een | Graph tsa Cotlechon af vertices ond Edges pe tH =inpte Gsciph FOWL Gorey h Pseude Graph i . Sp PMnu pl ealges > pqartipte | edges —> setF Loop sett Loop BU veg, alToues, At allowed Lowers et SELF Roop = mult pte educ alo a oS Sou allow g | . gq tae eee Go rTiKed raphy. Cherny both 3 } Owwected Com plete Qvaph Incomplete Gost @ Op ———~ ‘ Sere b. C Complete _g¥@ph. _verhcec. es “Cycie Gvapn. Sy Cn N73 Ne no. oF vertices a: TJ g Gaye,mow ra [resem won {o - ass 1 rebel ae 7 Le = "+ Ws a Nee ay “4 e i Se Be 5 pe iH r aph. = saph Gxh.£) Consists of NU=a don enypty seth ot vertices Oy nodes crog Era se oO cdges ' x —» Each edges Aas et thes ane oy tery Wweitices Associated with fH cated Ms end poinis A_graph To wihich each edge different vertices anc where no two © lg & Connect fhe) SOW pats of wevttces fs Cofled yy ce Simple graph. d canncet ‘two A qxaph that may Rave meattipre eclyes connectyy Ane savae vertices ave oalled PIAU graph po i Grapn that may Tnetude Loops Gnd possi ly ote Ppl dyes connetiing fhE same pry sp Ve ygiles = [ave carted Pseudo graph, 4 ph with both elivectedl amd tinelive ol edger | A_gvo vinixed grab = is Called ieS aE Degree or Mendy. os The deqvee of 0 veytex Aw undivected na ph tS the number of edges Tectelent att 4 except thai a Soop ato Veder conmmbure twice do (he cleg ee OF Abel vestex Csett foo. 4 o , | 4 e cu ¢ Loop: Ded degre | 2 Ve FE Vemenyp ts 2 ne} | Degree _o Se slen'lis hewdre al by : =p clegcv) Anthat ove the dhegvere of Ihe verticn ia the graph en below. pendent b hy a Coy Sry, Geeses de) deg (od => 1 degiest 3 —agopatesideg (bS~ 4 cleg (EY =4 v. deg (c+ 4 deg g)* 0. o I deq Ca): | aan Bm Vertor with degree 0 = Teofeted veo, = Vertex uwitth cleyeee Lo Perctant vextex er 7 — - @ deyloa) = 4 dey fe) GF { cleg( b> = 4G cs dent + a e d dey (ays + let G=W.E) pe _ an undirected QFAph | at th : “eno. oF edges then, 7 ie 7 fave Ss “summation oF degree of att the Zz segC J] eV vewhre,lun divected Graph => for lege, Self foo = Divected “qraphs fox clegree, Set L00p = + [Form How ren} edges one “there fw O graph with ia 19 _veyPees @qeh oF hegre 6 ewe: 2 Mee 8p (6 + 6+ 6F 64 6 HET T eee 7 ( Preaiae Baba a fad EKO 266 (sieliel Degree pF Oirected Qvaph | = EN _O graph with directed eclges, the Pruegree- vs OF Ovestex V denoted by leq ~Cv) the no: of edges with VU % As theix termina) Vetter. The Out degree of _V denoted by dea *Cv) bs = the Mo: oF Cdges With v Os thely TatHal vertex, —s| A_loop as a vert ey cenwsbute 1 te both Tr degree ont Ovt-degvee of thes vevtices A sett Soop is _considerect Ry _both ic. in Melegice asietlos in Ovtcliyrce, eq Find In -degree and out. cleqree oF Bix, verton or the given Qvaph ia Th. degree =Nv- oF Trcommiry edge — fowards that edge — Out-degrees Mo oF Out gaing edges _— __setttoopet! (Tp a ee = [Set toep = TNylos wen ae Outi thg vee CH) — deg *Ca) « deg*Cb) _deg*Co) deg *8) dlegt GedComplete Graph Complere Qragh on TN wets de, ig the cimple Graph that centaire exact one edge ber €adh pair of dinner veces Bipartite Graph. A_simple graph “G fs called bi Us vertex set “Vv can be poator | | sets Vi ond Vi suck that . eves fdige Conneck tee G vertex in Vi anck the veces fn Csothat, no edge nh G cornect either two vey fr Vr Ox two vertices in Ve). Wthen this Const “Aolds, wre Call the paly G4 vi) Bi partition of the vernex cet vob G. Ss 2 Xaybr0) reAad Boek Gro fi v2 eK bio} ves Ke? co SAN dvaph hoe ED MSE nt ~preseat xd Ors b Qeapn wept net present, fats qroph vc mora Bipot Ne hi abcd} a——— b = ia wet A O04 2 ve FAB dG i 3 Q-wAc Py qvoph rot precer Bas cl J o 2 Dts « GB pore graph foie al v= KabiGadseh) a =e ay : 2 Aub GComplete Graph Complete Qragh on EN Wenite clenot The simple qragh That centatns wet? €adh pat of afevncr vertiess 7 f (@ GEES not covtetn Bi pace | Graph. seas A simeix Qoaph TS called bi pu tis Vertex set “Vi can be peatfon tate Ave clisjotne Ags «Tr sets_ Vy ond Ve such that, every ectge Tr the gvaph connect tee GQ pester in Vy anck the veer Tr Us Ceothat, re edge WG Connects either two vertices ta Vi ox two veices In Ve) | | uthen this const “Aotels, wie Call the pay vd Pau Bi partition of tne vertex set VoobG. _ 9 5 N= Nay bred 4 Ny wekad @ ek Oh a 7 va AD OF wei ke} 7 $ : 25 IN Graph > Capp must nvt present. bY aes bb Qyapw metust net present fats gropr_ ve moba Bipotkee . : FO, b Ve A dying tt = i wee & O64 Ic vi tA BiG Peed RAS e Be igvaph nel prose? . fit Bax dy Ce Tete @ Bi powtee Qyaph 8 e Kauabicdyeyh)Page ma vouva at = — Axe the graph (p Gnd H _ciésplayed inthe tetfoviry Eig: JB! pawbe Wi Ng = Kab c,d .e:f9) \s Vue h orbicsdie th pie Geoph Hie not Gi-partie Vi ~haybsd} _ pecaust wee ts vertex set Cannot be parton Yarhkafie,cy inte two subsets 80 that edges ~ "Uy ard Va ave dic{eint] donot connect two verticec from Gxopkh G 1s the same subsets Bi paxtile Fa Complete Gi partite qraph, —At xe ts denered Wy Kimn Set | contains | m nor OF vertices Sep Zz contaite “WN No, OF Vertes, Senger s 1 Fete tne grap that has fe verter set postoned ito two sabset of Te ed WN Vexteoe cespectively. = —s| there fs an edge bet™ two- vertices 7 Gnd only iF 7 ene yerex js inthe First subset Quel the other = verter is ine Second sttbeet es rr aefF Union of Gisuph. The unter of {we simple graph @ = CV, E,) ard Gof.) | fs the simple gxaph with vertex adet Roa set ViUN, and € VE, unton 9€ Gy © G, is denwed by 4) UG 4 ch, == £ ‘ay Gs Vy UVe = £0, b oder y 3, ia c <= EN e FRepresenting Graph | Graph Representation. sous : rl Aayacency List = = a fe) Adajacency medi = xo lence @reuhices I " Adfaceay Lise. : = Hi Specity the vevfees thar ave dfacent fo €adh verter a ‘Ov the _gaaph = __ Pes] ese adjacemy Bier te J | gives petow Adjacent vertices by oe = pane a.end _ Zk e ornina tee | ie: DE) reprecest he anje che qvaph enewn teiwe Faltpurng Fg [by aietFay an tne veertecs that are the te yntnal OF sclgss stawing at cach vertex oF the graph. be dewey | bernie Vem, brc,d eo ch, p+ aeleAdjacenty Matrix. 40 fivting of Ine vertices with one Gs its ( sj) entry os Tt when, QdpAeont and zero yicont 2 The Adjoce ny mata A_of é: x07) es fe NKN Ake “Gp ent shen. {ney ave not Gal facent = O29 Use ods Seenos wade t 10 Vepresent THE Graph eS Shown helow . : & _ Wet a-> 4xF motor. a - <6 -_ - wm F[ +O tard ] | e[ 16 1 of ¢ 1 [ ao 90 [ db 1 6 ° Olaxa onthe 9 Adfarensy Mmobie given belo Orow cK qrvaph aq 6 ¢ 4 Osi a d 9 bt! © : tO 2Gincetl clio O 1. do 1 ' oO; 6 @I use _adjeng mmrciy D reprecodrthe PS eucd q rapn given below: : ob © . alo 3 082 | | bl so 1 | ( i clo 1 1 2 i d{_2 1 2 0 SS| Incidence Matix . jiet ., G@=(VE) ibe an undirected gxoph - suppoce Anat 1, 2... in werttes ond Eiyb Em edyes of G accethen fhe Tneielence maddx wxt the ordedns of Now € fs the nem! matix me Cmiy] where, mire Sl mthen ectge er ig incident wrth 7 + T 4 (Ne NOs OF VEVHe ee, O Otherwise Men sot eckfec . ey RO: OF wOWs = NO~ OF Vertes. 1) Re OF colummes ne ot edges, Te TAM “| Represent the qraph Shown in follouiny ANZ. ath On ipetdence ymolhir. Oe Vs, WA /\_ fegle. es e2 es &e \ GF \e = vfG)i oo 0 0] Ey \ S55 z[o Jo ' 1». NY v: Oo/f/o Oo Oo ro Vee Ne \,|@o 1 0 96 “s}o’ o «ut OJ| Gvaph _tsamovphism . axe _ iso nye phic Te these ts one to one ; And onto function ss “from v1 f0_ va ttt the | property thet ‘a and bh ove at tn Gy “ Fla) and fCb) ove oslf arena f, Tin Vy + such isomovphisny . | ie nck Only te wa and bb £9 | Getermine whether the given g¥aphs ave (somorp Ox not: he both graph: - @ |@omuct have same no oF verhtes and “ety es, a PAc ppieg mug bec cure “The simple graphs 4 + Why) awd Or oN Brn Mest Rave Same cle gee and chegree Seq uenve 4 ‘Oj i = a Ge. => | O eottere , veyrces of G)> Ah der also vertices OF, = Abe de> &. +) Both graphs hua Some veytites ia UM cont te true, O@ Heve no - OF edges PG, 26 - 9% cont Is tue, = 0 + OF eakges rg, =6 2 is Be pe Kane Some o- oF eslpes. =oOegvree sequence Co = = deavee or GG bye de = fn déstending idee ss 3 3 2 2 & Céavee oF Vertes In deterclitp over: ¢ “+ Here, degree Sequence of bar qr pre Gre Not cose Given geaphs we not Tsamorphic - rah of pO) Gvevpees oe Gy = ovr or vere Gs QE) 18° 6F eders o& Gy = Ans “eed ges oe G2 © degree seq uewe st G, indescartivyy odveg cae,” Degree sequeme yt Ge Mh descenchy orders 3, 3,2, 2 Veve 18 3 cunet’s are tre Check fox 40 cand t- (> Mapping 4 1] £ ye a tan bf rks vst bn sthene clegrs here Q —3 ¥%3 Nie a ies deg = 3 a= 3 2] 2 b Zz deg(®)= 2 p Jee Rew . dp c fey deg ou)= 3 j ——— See J wera desc): B2 Siem Leta Pow al { Teeppiny G-sb 87 i2 J cinrlosty “dnecte Por ae DM yl, ott cond 7 ie Os a asps HS days es. TH sahsfies MOPpiry cond > Gaaphts Tsomophic ,al c ho of vertices, ae SOne . no: OF echgog ave BOM, 3 Gl deqvee seouenie of Gy indeserdiry order 53,3, 3,322 then +26 gequawe at Cig if dexenitieg OU 3, 55355, 2% @)_ Mapping deg ze 9 t deg t)= ? __tley Ch) = 3 6 S deg. S degli = ¢ YU deg base 2 deg (a): & od vi» deg’v) = > deg Lede [ete YD 8By Gey 2 2 deg) ifs F w deg) = 3 degly) =% 9 4 egos) = 2% dea =% is, z deylz)= EF decchot « cobs tice mappirg Cont. Gxaphs ae Not Teomorphus, “a= EET Plana Gyaph ‘as A_gxagh fe catled ora BF can ke chemine PRIMA Ete | totwowt edge caesi ng : —| Sack a dvowrny Ts called Wwe plana cpr cee hon Ee fe oor = “Bg Ca tae Mt \_we planox aT T eb mor phones =S Prlonas . Ee —s |, macCompcre biparile graph oe i} | chy tk SS ie Ses t a\Tic geupr conno! be dawn Such thot 1b t f t fA\_Evlex« Formuda Let Je edges and Zaertices G@ be a cennceted Plonay simple graph wrth Let of G UX be the no. of vegione In ap leroy eprecentatin p thenGed Shee eb OR Sergio, iy Wee given qyeaph roth and civcult. Jes fody feo podn Se graph thad viele even ge e€ect Hone Cro repefrtion OF gemem coly es ty Gre atowedl A euges palb Hayes ecient te On user }poss HKod Ss bayte Apel onde 5 Ore VO, 4a. Blox path’ Me cannot stast and end O08 Lome Vertex fox cules ply lag a euler Cte al Bost erp ex fe sare,Poge Me : [| ==. >] Hor? Hon path fea path | graph exat once (me —s 1A hamilton Chrartt begirs ard ends ot) fhe Save Seve = é Ta Dl ae b c a |] Zz a @ @ oo @ @ 3 4 fz ad CO @ aye fs] [2 ce l2 6 O.¢.b rsh fay igi (2 8 ob dl] fey fo fy fo 4 lobae! £3 Fi 79 of Tey Co bichez] ene, He Shotet Paris Qcbdier ( ihe is= 12) gwen weighted graph find the feryth of Shostest path be Ga and 2 inthe BY tj 2 8 Ab @ we (b Set c . ' Kossacades ye 106, 8 Caje,o) < t 7 7 ee LZ 13 0d,¢, 6, d,@) - TStOiC bd ,e,Z). SO Yn® 4 (aoe) Sos _ 12Ca,c>_, LOCA Ciba) Wwsf0,c,d.c5} t J=| NE =p 3 ee a ‘ > j = 7 1 -Taximum flow using Labeling algorithm . \ 77 Ca ~ a S el? jm a? Jo )—_% RS we! a EEF] g > stint 7 oe al OM 0 _ 7 V7 it Soure node [ Stost node no Ye Coming edyes. 7 | £e-G@oina| rade} 7 ZX Sado noe /yesming! mod, no. ourgoing eclges. path raax FOW Q-b-d-z 4 la-c- e-z o a-c- Zz R = Q-b-e€-z tl _ / und “ray How is (3 Units. 7 2) Wwe Labeding algostthes to Finel max Flow fox the given etwor below. Souter f Poth max Plow oie face a peo - 4 py y Te & | 223, 3S 3 te t- 27S Zz om A S/o zi “S = g To ve SC “mox flow ig 2 units. ssMaeY Se worwre ss — Page No. von 4-- Trees. : Trees - __ A ixce fe a Connected, Undivected gvaph with ne simple civcur _ - An undivected graph & a tree Ye and only FF there fe G Uniyue simple path between ary two oF Ths vertices. : - > Root- Sup sok * CY ONS pear (hast nodes) the children ae ge of 7 c rd e # ! bse giver => not Atrvee Ma Roted tree_ Rooted tree ts a tree Ta whith ane vertex Aasbem | designgsed Os Q crot_ard every edge ig clivected | Guay Fim the Ot - _ E k In d vosred tree giver berow, find the stb&tog of h mb oF 6 ard 2 ancestex oF @ Ord atl dear nudes. WUnot ox Vs the Saptree soeted Porent OF C ancl MUescandente Prtena | Vert cesyouva pos’ oY Cis b. Nobile ot Ye AST Seba. clescenclew! oF be ede is es sPowcestes Oo © = Cyb,a | OM iwternal vewticesagy bs C aes SHS T — — - feos {inter nos vexhees axe = All e| A_xoored tree Te cated ary tnee [86 evawy Tevemol veer hos no wove tron Chivdver , the tee 7. Gg Full m- ary tree eyen friewwal veder bas evacl ow ard ™: avy tere with m= fe Cate AE PB Lie Orr) bE Oech avec te Tnomy Seach tree , Snory tree fh wh each child of O verter _dowiy nod oct 94 4 Faint Ox fert chtid 2 er NO vertex poe More than ane gh child “Oe owe Meow one feet chill, Aud Cach vertex fe Sabove jot Fey Er heresy leal venice “One as Hane Aa) OR OE EXE ers | weye oF al) vertices aod smaex than te ne ko _venhees e+ Righs cub hee mech hove Anas soot a aed Ley cua pree rncr hore fecces values (ke fran youk.| Canstonct iva J seanch dyce CR the onde TAATH, PRY Chem ISH, comp Always 18 dome Tem yar now. Compare ALC 10 alpphaberray oy de [eee Traversal. WWhoys Pre oxdey L Root Lert chil Rignecat fd. In order 3 lee Root Rg he Post oxdey lent Regnt Root C= JA - AOE H ( Peosdet 3 1 - 2-4-8- 366-7 = - 6-3-7 anodes 2: Fe 27Se la 6-3 © posta sdes ‘ey Ape Se Be Sere Bo) -@h A nie ey € i” .~ ere @ Z Pre odes. A- 3-0-H-2-f ~ CF - GT an-6 i - Ibn orev : Hepo-T- B-E-A-f-C-G@-7 Reptosdex . W-T-0-F-R- F-@T-G-c- A RCE Be Boe & FOS LK ERO, | Leve) She Seve) of a vertex Ina YOcted tree & the dength of the Unique path from dre oot fy tHe vera. =} The fawel of the vot fs derined to be zero. x ’ Hergnt = _The_hetgnt OF He mooted tree fs a meaimum of the Levets ‘of vertices, In otnex words, the hety dr of fhe ~wooterl tree fs the fenyth of the Aon gest Cot erm the xeoaot to oy VIET RIE t End tre Jewel of each verter in He vooted He Shao. jw He fellousny tree t filiso Bind He neigut oF tre tee,tt] Bete NOTE :+ M= ON Integer no- | A soted m-ary oF Aeafght bh fs batenced fe all feat nodes Gre Gt Sevel Hh ox hey" | Prepix Code. A eext message Can he converted fnto q Sequence OF O and 1 wy replacing ach character OF the rnessage with Th Code, | Prctin code cun be wepresented by a binary tree clata_onty at teat node cade of €Ath Character can be Found Starting Adm the vag} Sf the tvee Gnd recording the Poth. © = Lert pranth. a = Aight branch.cts WO o> A Ced= Ips (110 ASkC o> 4 Huff man Code. Use Hutfman codéng to encode the Follows ny Symba) with the Frequenctes fisted \ A 9-0¢ EE, 0-20 Boo & 2 OSS : ONz Pp ols What fs the Average Ao + Obits Gred to Antode- & Chaxttk en» = Crtven (CO) Arcvarge In Oucarelity order xs O-0R Hote OF OT 9-20 O8F> AS c ° & F r consider tuo symbats with Lowe tren. ‘ae aed wee Har + ote COR Foxge O18. SY BD ek Fors Oh tree tT Raght side =| > Gee dota of loves! megs a left side +0 : give dots of not. aPreGx Coe fer: &s 4211) Ley =3 B=u0 fm: > ce ou) iccd= & ~ Bee (Coye% = =10 {Ce)= a e = 00 tceD a OT . FNEKAgEe NO- OF Codfag is = 5 ylar Frew i oeto enede uatth eyybs ls wlth he oy fo oh bis wen freq ure | eq yrivech te _extade 0 ei vel. _|&10_0- 2s" _o-0s~ Ae i O05 6-07 OY 0-10 ols O2g 0:30roo | i | =] O-98 4 " —| €\, OXI =] & SOR X 41 Pek AG tL Ee ft 4 PRT Cocke For: =i) (@.s F£ = %0 Qceys 2 ga [0 AIBe 2? F-20710 + OCPe 4b (oe = oO Wee Ge liig Loe & [eo . «op De 3 @ _ tbe 2 No" OF bite useddto ented? a symbol wiry tego, 0S s AEE Or) deching St (ax_o-lo) + 2x 0-25) + Gx o-os) + Gx oS). St (ax sodt (ax 0-07) + (30008) i a:s7t.asp bk OTS @ Spoon’ ere f vestos ) mcightes Sur of & PTAs eiiepethen eel etep ie > en cay ae PY Ms algerths . begin by cheesing 7 Any edge with smallest welyht . putbing Ht inte the Spanning Hee nae —s |step 2” : Fat 7 leuceessively cle) 8 he_tvee__eciges al minimum weight thar ave incident fo a verter actveady | the hee and not fonntny gq simple civentt ithper oun =a] aa 2, a |_Canstct minim Spanning tee OC the my given be lows gt SUH. : a He we 1 ae No-+ of Edges of Tree ex ) T Vig z ST ae ae Ne = Att = Hex , ae No. of digs of Tee = Iv| = 7 -TENo + of Edges oF Spanning tree ~ sv) —) =7=1 = 6 SD » = Sv-No. Edges Cost Gl a A@ We en ey to =| Ox 16 2 66,57 ES © a & és,4? es Se ae Gy | Ss <% 927 ls 6 42575 ta TOtal Cost = JO ex s = ZK al => SS S {ati K te =| nor oF vestheec ee | novot Edges = 1g 12>| 2 AN q ~voP e > nLo. of vethes 5 12 Edges = dh [2-! o Q ?we ot U8 * jsFre_ culgarribye _ Ls stals lye: cismomar Qer_eatqes Choose an Echge wit minimun Weight ea ep? * > —— = __ sitecessively act eclgeas with arinimum weight thot __ cle net fowm ef reutt auth these edlges alreacly cho sen. > step 3 st [step aber mt eclges have teen -selected — ~< 3 Construct mio eight! =iening_tes using Krsteal'S algo. Sy. 2S Sq a oe : i ee INL: 7 aa edges = 7-1 = 6. ovens. Edge tly - yO D) 2l-6 Lo & 2 =a 2 } we Be 3) 1-2 \¢ as | & sD a) 2-> (6 by — € & ca S-g ampe> = : ) SO. eos => Edges re AGH be 1. --& 2s Conneated. bees te —_f ota: $43 hy, h. | Finck tin Biponning fe using RUSHALS alge a a aS ¥ } 2/ 1 Iz Y ea Is : pe : t Te fuss 28 Jaq > fk nh c- at ! t Te E a- t t ; ee b-Ff I : = = 2 : | = boy 7. f ee a-b a a ie 3 ick 3 i inf. 3 > Ota StS pt = 4 - dyeong GE . Jvous | ct teu: Partition all vetces Into ue disjoint Ate, also s cantain onty tre Sranch and xect fhe -eolges gre Chores. ch TS an edge assecioted with fhe spanning ter. an eclge asscdated with the qvaph. hen a Gv fs formed by Adding chord to tne nning tree 7S Qed fundamental ci auit- Gelunys congsidex Chocd set a G=aph Spanning tree of~bul graph, Srarces shoe dad orig. = A bye, BAF Edges faunclouvente | S Aa br ch 2 if 5 edae is attached res e fac. 94 Th Wat) beteme “bruit £ fevdigh Y Opatrdabrce % h Kordigth } Eanlamental Grav =3 Considey Chords Fundamental «= CUtse# ss Consiclew Branches LG solu contain singie branch ancl vest are chords _ oo. es +7 ipleet Not tontoin mulAple be Anchés -Geouit ood Fuydarey 5G: giod _furdemant for toe geoph gord tree iver bers s T rae — a Branches =X bi, weak te J 7 ____@ theeds = 4% Od, 6,9, 4 GQ) edges Pundamertal _ 7 wa O.¢.b a a1 Gye J —_ + 7 Fie eb fis OP 9 ghia k _ TR - _ : _ @, Edge Fundamental cultse) 3 Consider branches b Repkbray i c KC, 4, d | => When C ie Omitted wer Cun e e ke, oF Jomit Gard d te fetta FB; Rye g iF ¥ NG) bu we canner ort j % A t.y4 b ibis q_ branch fe Com ony Orntt \ ( branch Ond etre yeas ds) hy exe, ! j se cannot, owt & fe ts a _6. Algebat SUCH Anol Cocking E—| { Theory 2 Alyebreie_etrustuse OFF a AIF ser A wrt ony binow opexadov ae K satisfy Closure prdperty then ft Te Cauecd as a Aigeb rare eal Stott chune i P xd pevtiess BE B= any binow operatin sy: bos) i Chosuy Property CAilgepraic SHH) [set Awa perotor # is sata to satichy Cogn property ae ro lb eA then Ot b EA teers | Lif ony Qpexation fe doneon Gand b -hotser A Asso ci ative peperty . a en cet ee A_biroy Speration 4 on the gb A sath Fo assocative if (Ax baA dec = a-* Cbke) sf *O4 bs C EA > eee Tent ty (Moanoid? An element ‘e badonge fe Cer A is card te be an fclentity element fx the apexokion GF 4 Owe > CxOEGQ , WaEew. Q= ary no. = identity ekemaurct a P| Inverse | propery (Group. or each edement aecA FB Chere erists’) an element BEA such thot ak bs e& 1 = iclensity element. eh grens Commutative propery (Abestan’ group -) HT Binoy operation ck on tre ser Ais satktebe Committentiv el iP Ok b= bRG at A, beA.? atk] pos ex. iF we wonrte check Mey Geoup ies pupa Fhen, we here to heck Or! upper 3 popperties [aie n Check _T'* pryperty 29 cemi gop blgebesicst_sabihiny Gl Morsid > semigaup coketyin jcleviy propot =e PerOt rer A= £0.14 ep gosed = Sosuxe propery Ts A Cosed Sunder © murtipsrcotion @® Addition S| Pe _ctoswe property se | = | Here B= ibid 4 _ c E | Or b eA. | : E (2 Fo< mH phicobion 7 ; f a* = oxlz 0 i and OA Liat campers choswe prop. QD) fx Achd Hor a tbh: 6 4 Qnd Ten soe it cohehee cho dy pp. e o arn feof from this fahi jt is observed. 4hab set A ie choved Undew PAW AH pb cabion. +) 6 1 ue iid = ne bales a “yvoe Fyowe Mis fab. Tt is obsowed thor _Z_ Not belongs p- set A AB Hens, Ais Mot Closed Unapx aoldifion: =Consider Gi be the seb of atl “an HON-zex Veal Ntrobers ond A* b> ab —T Pa i pt | Show ares, (Gut) is an A behian group. =| (TO chet Obelion QOVp ude hove to checle atl i (tne oppex PEOpentes | Step |* Ch. € chi ny Closure property . Bs pes pap, 1 NObEA. then Geb CA uthere herve Gi is te sot afinon-zere veal note Hence, ++ Skb = ab €G, 2 sos Ft s@tisties — odssure property > Sicp 2 TO checte Gssochohre property ie |KO = atbao) aie en eve Get Sep oF all non-zexe seal no's, Hence Onb= ab —€ G, z - = orpscctot -'. tt sonsfies Glsswre property " 2 io BRL qe CR ecEcbewat i) Ske. ean Orb) Ae ET An CEKOD Luts Fenn) ®C we fav\ «(CY Ce - 7 gb #C 2 ae 6 &| Hence FO Cchece Talent, etamver one. efG = a > 2EG, eo -Ft eatshes identhy Property JO checle tyverse_prerparh Qkb se aaq ize. e curk Qe 4 eG, Sots fies inverse peperty. Te — Oe =| Steps - eae § Maxis DI construct A adi Hon Rociale tobe roy te) ro er Tbs +6 Sof foweata 5 = ome ea aS jus y 6 =o 1 te eg 3B € S yore, z 2 2 4 F oF 3 % 4 Ss oO \ =Propet. “ALL the erties Trthe reap te ow £052,345 4 He catistics hosure propery. cchecte Cheswe axe Hee €Lemerts: checn GQessciahve property , faadacs Ga(hRO) — As pex_deFinonon LC (Ote eC = ate Co +6 ©) —iniews @ £6 Qed Ad by CES ZG Roe the fable i4 is gbeewed thal | if scisies GQesocighye pseperty arct eee Tdentihy element | | From fhe table » O is the ident element - To chece Inverse Property [to eed Thviewe elemet | => Taverne fv Ati Tyvene of | SE) Tyverse of D> =) = Pe gtto a I~ S# ato SB Ne——F go axle F Since ) st E te Sohstes ot! | pees he. yg 2 chosux?, Gesocative , jelertit jeve — oe : £ a B Show thot Gedi2:304553 ts not “|_anaer Adaiion meaute 6. Cie 46) T= Corstucting Addition medufo fone Fer (C40. @ Conshua + 6 fab Pex cet G, = +6 1,2 3 a.¢ - 1) 2@use 4.5.0 2(o 4 #6 O | - 2p “a Se 0 {4.2 i 4g e 8 ' 2 3 Slo ti 2 34 hte phe QD Checwicg Glonuse Preparhy Thom tre tanle — Vt ie Observed thats, : elb slemert= Oo ¢ G . Lt. Le docs not P8ld choswa Property 6 Te is ast a Algebra’c Strectuw. ce Te por a group.tft fy eS 1 en Show tat, (GQ, x) ferr G& grove. : ~~ ZL — = ? CO} construct te te _ ian Nae F |x pt ww? ftw wee = Py ow we I st wf ww? wd w fw wh | We ow? we wt wefwt 1 ow Ss: ' r He www ce lxwew. " nw €) 10 chem chosare prop. Grom table it fs obsecved tod.” a Gl eleven € Set GQ. Ft _satsties closure propery @pte Checte Aseociatith . oe (o af Acd= Ot GAC) fee (a xbY xc = OX Cb x) = in tewrs/dF ¥, ard + Oc BEG er 1s "2 Tt sokety ascacigtive pool: 2 ae’ ~ te ehets Frere Tdermty element , Cee per a=a # axe serarq os ez) | ® iS the idenhhy elenenbs _ 40h. Find Thverce . esses os \Lark ath aw! € @. Sere. Consider (Gre) aca © al ove. fwO Groups theo + sohstics atl 4 _ Tt isa qwop. Home morphism ond Aormal _SUb- group. ied Pine operator eather biNOY operat! € Ts mapping ber ve _groppe G ard G@€ G2al f_= hemo morphicm ber® fhe we groups ony Binoy opeohin (F1=, X67) $+ Cakoy= fara tcp] 7 ; SFRTe pennies belang —f_is—ct__g vp = nis opexahon belorys fo ie _ Tt holde dhis propeny SOF knee § is Called oe bomesphicis bet Fhe groups — > Or Qi Show tha, f derined by FG)= 20 * Fe & homomarphism whee G(R. +) ard G'2 CR, ny om| 2 Bz set of Ol Real no's. os — Cat sSeror all P tve Ree! no's Paperty uw Hemosphiem 4M Cg . £ Cache SEF COA Fe) € CO G46) = FO) x FCb) ST realltip Lites Oo of OybeGa. Se - eyez" = by} A Caye 2% fb 2 _ - - 4b 7 i _ Foods 2 2%. 2? = Cad. FC) LHs = PHS. a Rs RHS _L 2 Te Feo Domo mer pricPetian WE + Set with one cpeathor — @ ak) RING. Set with 2 operators (Asa re. mtrwress Page wo ‘Youva oat = Te RING. —3 AN Algenraic system CA, +, ) is. cattecl a ring ie the following conditions ace satletied + + _ COMMUTEHIVE prop a @s#) is an Abetion group él @.e) fs a sem grup & Aescdarive Pep. @ “me cperorion “mig dishSbuRve gues the apemton +" re. A. Cbte) = ob t ac (eted-a0 = ba +a Ol 7e=40,1,2,3) wa ta .%4 tsa => exe These is. SuROTEr a cho Step tl commud +a Gad xq table. dra hy a +e lo 1 2 3 x¢lo 1 2 3 of @ 1.2 8 alo aoa 1[ro2 3 0 \ O 1ee 8 ts wis a I 4 2 106 Oo.2 - s[ =< @ 6 2 7 3 Jo 224y | ooh SS th wnt. = ——— — hpGeae py MULH phicatie, — oleme Se epee hos ot E Danen pte called 6 Commutative R109. vey KO beh aw a, bER then cattecl _ex'| sroo trot (2, ivy with dnity . Ring with and without zero divisor: | Ring ut zen divisor 3 TE abso e+ AbtO Hapen (Ryt5-) ane zero divisoy and zew fsa iclenty elawnent wet ge ) [is Ring with ero divisor. - A ring R containing wero olivysor is cated. Be a crg with zew divsoy Ee Ring without zero clivisov _ TF abso, @=9 ov b= 0 OY_ both aanlh=o0 J. ard Ha, b €R heve @ fs cattedd Ring without | 20 Aivteor. ==HCeaM come theory on the _tapie. _ eH rr tegxal clomata Anca Freid Tntegryal Somain | aa pb RVing musi settiony: fa Re Sny must Beanery ¢ GEE coamurele (— Commuted ve [| = Reg ott, anty = Ring otth unity , = niithoat zew livisox I Evexy non. zere element has muihpsitation Trvewe dren it wit) be Tnieg al of = corsen then lt will pe a Fietel Chece (Rye ts + ) we G intequal clowmain oe Field.Ceding theory and Group G@de. — >| A sequente OF fetes from an alphabel fs called Las Quad. Arch a Code fg a Coffechon of words that acc to be Used to vep resent clistine! Message, —>| A bho cade fs a cece congieving —9F words ther QR Same fergir. Consides "A_clenoge the set of a!) ian sequences ef Length “ Fe) be a binay operotfon on set A SUch thole x XEN inset A “tO y ise sequence of Length Wo ther hus iT xeor, Ones 'h those posi#ons x & y cFFer, Gnd Aas zesd’s Tn those posihets x&y ac Same. F J Ex-or @ 5 xe input is same oy Olpis zero» Considey % be a word in @ser A we cleRine weight oft KGS clensted py wi(x) és the oo. oF one’s in XC. eq' % polo SY Wx) t 09+ of meg = 2. al = i wey) = 2 ae) XOZ=oTSoT WOOYY= Komming discance em 4 BL Hamming distonce Hamming dictonce ie o din. bet x Gy cLencted by AGL) sed itis the Weiyra oe Oy. eu t re. [AGoy) = wi Cx Df aG} Fed hamming aéstante bet” tz If 10000 [ys toarl oe n - YOy= OL 100 - 7 see Ax y') = MOM y) = + a a HE NOTE + a . The distance bei two words Ts exact the no. oF a positions OF onic rthey chittew. _ air Pasty Chee Cue _ < >| The Fotlowiny encoding fun _e: 8 a BI! fs cated potty Cm mt) check code. —>| Suppose, be BT WS Le BM WED Emtsding FU eC b)= bi, ba,-- bm, bt) _ wiher & ~ = bina = O Tf Ib) ws even _ tote (bi fe odd and bl = wefght of b. tee [bl = Wb) eqs bs O91 0 et): oO 10% => 8 Jbl = 1 = odd Add | _ e'eethy = OO1OT _ a pr. go —s B™ Be _ne-or bit. 7 e(on0) —s e 6000 _ 7 _ @ (oot oot» aed Wowk: Binoy sequence. neignt ~ ne sor One's presery Tr Heal Wore, ro. ot bls . e 7 ey'Plorsider (SA) ponity check code. for each of the vece? an error with pe detectdel cle rected. by (oo) G\Oolo =7 Yes, ewrox deserted Sine, utefght oF oxox is deteded- nha b> Coo) = NO Err _ _ Poot fs = 2 whl Giece , wet git oF Se nor Psese Ot PR 7 bit OlP Corcidex CEP potty check carte a> C11 000° - BLM 90 Z oll o888 sy NO exer” word. eff0000 fs | Which Wie 2 ovvex G +7 berg ht of giver fs even -*\ ©0 ewov - > TIT 0000 = Yes semee- sh a Cwors) = 3 shrew fy 0 bf ~ eyep Vs Aeheeted. a) oo0ls + qiven ofp went worlds cote fs =) which i od J woul cletermine lnebherPage wo ——] vouva “Ou Corsider (256 encoding fu" e ecoo) => 9 60000 20 9 00 9) ecto) = (%1 O10 { Oo 4 oo} o 6620 F oni ort tts PC) = Ni900 (\ ti 9a 906 (ED Fed minimum hictance oe e. =@) How mony eave with 2 detec 2? es DPID-_dcecood,e(ao)) = 6 2 : wdlecoy ve Con) = & Sle Coy eC) = 2 dCecioy , eco \ = S eiCe(to) ,ec)) = ie dle) ,ecird) = & The ainimum — duistowte fe? a wh ct kk € O gtoop A code w cles e K ov g few gwrors Ye ond onty Fe Hs _mietman distane fe at, et)” since, here the Win. Aistame fs 2 so we howe FOO te _corce— wil Apr eH = 6 ke) GO Mane code wil! Aeteck one wo few emo,