Centre for Higher Secondary Education – Male’ Department of Chemistry

TOPIC 2: ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND THE PERIODIC TABLE

GRADE 11
SEMESTER 1/2024

Syllabus - Students will be assessed on their ability to:

2.1 know the structure of an atom in terms of electrons, protons and neutrons
2.2 know the relative mass and charge of protons, neutrons and electrons
2.3 know what is meant by the terms ‘atomic (proton) number’ and ‘mass number’
2.4 be able to use the atomic number and the mass number to determine the number of each type of subatomic
particle in an atom or ion
2.5 understand the term ‘isotope’

2A – 1 STRUCTURE OF ATOMS AND ISOTOPES

Our current understanding of the structure of atoms is influenced by the theories put forward by
scientists such as J.J Thomson (discovered electrons in 1897), Ernest Rutherford (discovered
proton in 1917) and James Chadwick (discovered the neutron in 1932).

STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM

• An atom is the smallest, electrically neutral particle of an element that can take part in a
chemical change.
• An atom comprises of subatomic particles protons, neutrons and electrons.
• Protons and neutrons, together known as nucleons, are found in the nucleus which is the
center of the atom.

• Electrons exist in energy levels surrounding the nuclei. The energy levels are called
quantum shells.
• An atom gets its chemical properties from the number of electrons and arrangement of
electrons in the atom.

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Table A. The structure of the atom in terms of the three sub atomic particles
Relative Relative
Particle Symbol Charge/C Mass/g
charge mass
Proton p +1.60 x 10 -19 +1 1.67 x 10-24 1
Neutron n 0 0 1.67 x 10-24 1

Electron e- - 1.60 x 10 -19 -1 9.11 x 10-28 1 / (1840)

• The mass of electrons are negligible, hence the mass of the atoms are determined by the
mass of nucleons.

ATOMIC NUMBER, MASS NUMBER AND ISOTOPES

The atomic number, Z, is the number of protons in the nucleus.

The mass number ,A, is the total number of protons and neutrons in the atom.

Notation for atomic number and mass number

ISOTOPES

• Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same number of protons but different
number of neutrons.
• Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons.
• Example: Carbon has three isotopes, 12C, 13C and 14C. They all have the same number of
protons but different number of neutrons.

Protons Neutrons Mass number

Carbon – 12 6 6 12
Carbon – 13 6 7 13
Carbon – 14 6 8 14

• Isotopes always have the same chemical properties because the number of electrons is the
same.
• They have slightly different physical properties as they have different number of neutrons.
Example: Isotopes with fewer neutrons will have lower masses, lower densities, faster rate
of diffusion, lower melting and boiling points.

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Centre for Higher Secondary Education – Male’ Department of Chemistry

• Relative atomic masses measured by chemical methods rarely produce whole numbers.
This is because isotopes of the same element exist in different proportions in nature.

Check point 1 p(43)

1. Use the information in the table below to answer the following questions about particles A
to F.
(a) which two particles are isotopes of the same element?
(b) Which two particles are positive ions?
(c) Which two particles are negative ions?
(d) Which two particles have the same mass number?

Particle Number of protons Number of neutrons Number of electrons

A 12 13 12
B 17 18 18
C 11 14 10
D 12 12 12
E 35 44 36
F 19 21 18

2. Complete the table below to show the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in these
atoms, molecules and ions.

Symbol for atom or Number of Number of Number of

ion protons neutrons electrons
3
1𝐻
18 2-
8𝑂
24 2+
12𝑀𝑔
14 1
7𝑁 1𝐻 3
14 1 +
7𝑁 1𝐻 4

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Centre for Higher Secondary Education – Male’ Department of Chemistry

Syllabus - Students will be assessed on their ability to:

2.6 understand the basic principles of a mass spectrometer and be able to analyse and interpret mass spectra to:
i deduce the isotopic composition of a sample of an element
ii calculate the relative atomic mass of an element from relative abundances of isotopes and vice versa
iii determine the relative molecular mass of a molecule, and hence identify molecules in a sample
iv understand that ions in a mass spectrometer may have a 2+ charge
2.7 be able to predict mass spectra, including relative peak heights, for diatomic molecules, including chlorine, given
the isotopic abundances

2A - 2 MASS SPECTROMETRY AND RELATIVE MASSES OF ATOMS, ISOTOPES

AND MOLECULES

RELATIVE MASSES OF ELEMENTS OR COMPOUNDS

• Measuring the mass of an atom or compound using a balance would be very difficult as
they are very small.
• Hence, to measure the mass of an atom or a compound the atomic mass unit (amu) is used
as a standard reference.
• The relative atomic mass does not have any units. They are measured compared to amu.
o Atomic mass unit is the mass of a carbon-12 atom divided by 12. This is used as
the standard reference scale to measure mass of atoms and molecules.
o Relative atomic mass of an element is the weighted average mass of an atom
of that element divided by 1/12th the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
o Relative molecular mass of a molecule or compound is the sum of the relative
atomic masses of all the atoms in the chemical formula.
o Relative isotopic mass is the mass of an atom of that isotope divided by 1/12th
the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

USING DATA OBTAINED FROM A MASS SPECTROMETER

WHAT IS A MASS SPECTROMETER?

• A mass spectrometer is an instrument that was invented by F.W. Aston in 1919. It can be used
to find the relative masses of isotopes of atoms, molecules or fragments of molecules. This
gave chemists an accurate method of comparing the relative masses of atoms and molecules.
And to find the relative abundance of the isotopes in a sample of an element.
• The mass spectrometer consists of an ion source, an analyser and a detector.

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• Inside the spectrometer there is a high vacuum which allows ionized atoms and molecules
from the chemical being tested to be studied without interference from atoms and molecules
in the air.
• Mass spectrometry can be used for:
o Carbon dating – to measure the amount of C-14 in a substance and hence to
determine the age of the substance
o Pharmaceutical industry - to identify the new compounds in possibly new drugs and
to identify how long they would stay in the body
o Testing athletes urine for drugs or banned substances such as anabolic steroids
o Studying the composition of the surface of Mars and to look for molecules that might
suggest that life existed on the planet by sending probes to Mars.

HOW DOES A MASS SPECTROMETER WORK?

There are five main processes occurring in a mass spectrometer. They are:
1. Vapourisation: the sample is turned into gas or vapourised using an electrical heater.

X(s) → X(g)
X(l) → X(g)
2. Ionization: gas particles are bombarded with a stream of high energy electrons from an
electron gun, to ionize them. Electrons are knocked off the particles, producing
uni-positively charged ions

X(g) → X+(g) + e-

3. Acceleration: the positive ions are accelerated by an electric field towards the magnetic
field, which provides the energy for the particles to accelerate.

4. Deflection: The positive ions’ path is altered with a magnetic field. For a given magnetic
field, only ions with a particular mass/charge ratio will be detected. Lighter ions have less
momentum and are deflected more than heavier ions. Ions with a large m/z ratio deflected
less than ions with a smaller m/z ratio.

5. Detection: the ions are detected by the detector, which is linked to an amplifier and then
to a recorder. This converts the current to a peak which is shown in a mass spectrum.

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Electric field-
Acceleration

Mass spectrum

• An early application was the demonstration by

Aston, (Nobel Prize, 1922), that naturally
occurring neon consisted of three isotopes;
20Ne, 21Ne and 22Ne

• Position of peaks give atomic mass

• Peak intensity gives relative abundance
• The tallest peak represents the most abundant
isotope.
DETERMINING RELATIVE ISOTOPIC AND ATOMIC MASSES

The mass spectrum could be used to calculate the relative atomic mass of an element.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Calculate the average relative atomic mass of neon using the above information. Out of every
100 atoms 90.92 are 20Ne, 0.26 are 21Ne and 8.82 are 22Ne.

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Centre for Higher Secondary Education – Male’ Department of Chemistry

WORKED EXAMPLE 2
What is the relative atomic mass of chlorine, if it exists in two isotopic forms shown in the
table below?
Isotope Relative isotopic mass Relative abundance
35 35 75
17𝐶𝑙
37
17𝐶𝑙 37 25

EXERCISE 1

1. Describe the difference between the relative atomic mass and relative isotopic mass.
……………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Calculate the relative atomic mass of sulfur from the following isotopic percentages
32S = 95% 33S = 1% 34S = 4%

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Centre for Higher Secondary Education – Male’ Department of Chemistry

3. Calculate the relative atomic mass of boron using the mass spectrum.

81.3

18.7

4. Calculate the relative atomic mass of a sample of magnesium that has the following
isotopic composition:
• Magnesium – 24; 78.6%
• Magnesium – 25; 10.1%
• Magnesium – 26; 11.3%
Give your answer to three significant figures.

5. Naturally occurring potassium consists of potassium-39 and potassium-41. Calculate the

percentage of each isotope present if the average is 39.1.

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Centre for Higher Secondary Education – Male’ Department of Chemistry

DETERMINING RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS ( Mr ) OF DIATOMIC MOLECULES

If an element exists as diatomic molecules, like chlorine, then the spectrum would contain peaks
for the separate atomic ions as well as for the molecular ions.

Relative
There are two
abundance
naturally occurring
isotopes of chlorine.
Hence 3 different
combinations of Cl2
molecules can be
obtained. This is
shown by the peaks
C, D and E.

If diatomic substances are analysed by mass spectrometry, you can obtain the relative molecular
mass of the element or compound by observing the peaks with the largest m/z ratios (assuming a
value of z=1).
Molecular ions are formed by the removal of an electron from the whole molecule. Atomic ions
are formed when the Cl—Cl bond is broken by a high energy beam of electron.

Peak Peak height ratio m/z ratio Species

A 3 35
B 1 37
C 9 70
D 6 72
E 1 74

Explanation of peak height ratio

• There are two isotopes of chlorine, 35Cl which is 75% abundant and 37Cl which is 25%
abundant.

Isotope 35Cl 37Cl

Abundance 75% 25% = 100%

Chance of getting each isotope 75 25
100 100

Simplifying the ratio 3 1

4 4

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Calculating peak height ratio

Molecules of chlorine 35Cl-35Cl 35Cl-37Cl or 37Cl-35Cl 37Cl-37Cl

Mass of chlorine molecule

70 72 74
Chances of chlorine molecules
combining together. 3 3 3 1 1 3 1 1
× ( × )+( × ) ×
(Abundance of each isotope 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
in chlorine molecule (Cl2))
Simplifying the ratio 9 3 3 6 1
+ =
16 16 16 16 16

Since the denominators are

9 6 1
the same, it can be written as

EXERCISE 2

1. The mass spectrum of bromine vapour is shown below

(a) What are the relative isotopic masses of the two isotopes present in bromine?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(b) Identify the particles responsible for the peaks at m/z 158, 160 and 162
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(c) Deduce the relative abundance of the two isotopes and explain the relative heights of the
three peaks at m/z 158, 160 and 162

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Centre for Higher Secondary Education – Male’ Department of Chemistry

DETERMINING RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS OF A POLYATOMIC MOLECULE

Mass spectrum of ethanol (C2H5OH)

The peak with the highest
m/z ratio is the molecular
ion peak which gives the
RMM of the compound.
RMM for ethanol = 46

Syllabus - Students will be assessed on their ability to:

2.9 know that an orbital is a region within an atom that can hold up to two electrons with opposite spins
2.12 be able to describe the shapes of s and p orbitals
2.13 know that orbitals in sub-shells:
i each take a single electron before pairing up
ii pair up with two electrons of opposite spin
2.14 be able to predict the electronic configuration of atoms of the elements from hydrogen to krypton inclusive and
their ions, using s, p, d notation and electron-in-boxes notation
2.15 understand that electronic configuration determines the chemical properties of an element

2A – 3 ATOMIC ORBITALS AND ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

QUANTUM SHELLS
Atoms can be identified by it’s mass of their nucleons;
however, it is their electronic structure which determines
the behavior and chemical properties. Max Planck first
presented the quantum theory in 1900. We can use this
theory to describe the arrangement of electrons around
the nuclei.
According to this theory electrons exist around the
nucleus in certain regions of the atom called shells or
energy levels. These well-defined energy levels are called
quantum shells.

Each shell is described by a number known as principle quantum number (n). The larger the value
of n, the further the electron is from the nucleus.

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ELECTRONS IN THE FIRST FOUR QUANTUM SHELLS

• The energy levels or quantum shells ( apart from the first one) are divided into sub-shells
of slightly different energy levels. Each subshell is described by a letter s, p, d and f.
• The energy of each sub-shell increases from s to p to d to f.

Quantum shell or Energy level Sub -shell

1 1s
2 2s 2p
3 3s 3p 3d
4 4s 4p 4d 4f

• Each sub-shell is made up of orbitals.

• Orbital is the region where the electrons are most likely to be found.
- 3-dimensional statistical maps showing the likeliest places to find electrons
- come in different shapes and sizes
• The orbitals in different sub – levels have different shapes

s- orbital

A cross section through

an s - orbital

p- orbital

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d- orbital

Each orbital can accommodate a maximum of two electrons in which one electron spins clockwise
and the other spins anti – clockwise. 

Table showing the number of electrons that fit in each type of sub – shell
Sub – shell Number of orbitals Total number of electrons
s 1 (1 x 2) = 2
p 3 (3 x 2) = 6
d 5 (5 x 2) = 10
f 7 (7 x 2) = 14

Table showing the sub – shells and electrons in the first four energy levels
Shell Principle Quantum number (n) Sub – shell Total number of electrons
1st 1 1s 2
2nd 2 2s 2p 8
3rd 3 3s 3p 3d 18
4th 4 4s 4p 4d 4f 32

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

Electrons are added to the sub shells according to the Aufbau Principle. The following rules must
be applied when writing electronic configuration.

Aufbau principle states that;

• Electrons fill up the lowest energy orbital first.

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Hund’s rule states that;

• Electrons fill orbitals singly before they start pairing up

The Pauli Exclusion Principle states that;

• two electrons cannot occupy the same orbital unless they have opposite spin.
This is due to the repulsion between electron pairs.
• rule
• The sub shells which are half filled or completely filled with electrons are more stable.
• Orbitals are not filled in numerical order.
For example, 4s is filled before 3d. This is because the 4s orbital is at a lower energy level than a
3d orbital.

Hence the order is

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p………

When writing electronic configuration, the electronic structure of an atom can be represented in
two ways:
1. s p d f notation
2. electron box notation

EXAMPLE 1
Write down the electronic configuration of 6C using spdf notation and box notation

s p d f notation :

Box notation :
1s 2s 2p
Noble gas electronic configuration:

A shortened version of electronic structure can be used to represent electronic configuration. That
is, using noble gas electronic configuration

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Centre for Higher Secondary Education – Male’ Department of Chemistry

EXAMPLE 2
Write down the electronic configuration of 16S using spdf notation and box notation

s p d f notation :

Box notation :
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p

Noble gas electronic configuration:

EXERCISE 3
Write electronic configuration for elements from hydrogen, H to Krypton, Kr using both s p d f
notation and box notation.
Atomic Element s p d notation and box notation
number

1 H

2 He

3 Li

4 Be

5 B

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Centre for Higher Secondary Education – Male’ Department of Chemistry

6 C

7 N

8 O

9 F

10 Ne

11 Na

12 Mg

13 Al

14 Si

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15 P

16 S

17 Cl

18 Ar

19 K

20 Ca

21 Sc

22 Ti

23 V

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24 Cr

25 Mn

26 Fe

27 Co

28 Ni

29 Cu

30 Zn

31 Ga

32 Ge

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33 As

34 Se

35 Br

36 Kr

The electronic structure of Cr and Cu are exceptional. In both cases the outer subshells are either
completely full or half full. This is achieved by donating one of their 4s electrons to the 3d sub shell
as this makes the d- sub shell to be half filled or completely filled.

Chromium is 1s22s22p63s23p63d54s1 Copper is 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s1

Not 1s22s22p63s23p63d44s2 Not 1s22s22p63s23p63d94s2

Completely filled or half filled-sub shell is a more stable electronic configuration.

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION OF IONS

When an atom loses or gains an electron to form ions, the electronic structure changes.

Cations (positive ions) – formed by loss of electrons

Anions (negative ions) – formed by gain of electrons

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 Centre for Higher Secondary Education – Male’ Department of Chemistry

EXAMPLE 1
Write down the electronic configuration of sodium atom and sodium ion using spdf notation

Sodium atom, 11Na

Sodium ion, Na+

EXAMPLE 2
Write down the electronic configuration of chlorine atom and chloride ion using spdf notation

Chlorine atom, 17 Cl

chloride ion, Cl-

EXERCISE 4

Give the full electronic structure of the following ions

a. Mg2+

b. Ca2+

c. Al3+

d. O2-

e. Br-

f. P3-

Syllabus - Students will be assessed on their ability to:

2.8 be able to define first, second and third ionisation energies and understand that all ionisation energies are
endothermic
2.10 understand how ionisation energies are influenced by the number of protons in the nucleus, the electron
shielding and the sub-shell from which the electron is removed
2.11 know that ideas about electronic structure developed from:
i an understanding that successive ionisation energies provide evidence for the existence of quantum shells and
the group to which the element belongs
ii an understanding that the first ionisation energy of successive elements provides evidence for electron sub-

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Centre for Higher Secondary Education – Male’ Department of Chemistry

2A-3 IONISATION ENERGIES

IONIZATION ENERGY
• It is a measure of the energy required to remove electrons from an atom.
• There are as many ionization energies as there are electrons in the atom.
• The value of ionization energy depends on
o the distance of the electron from the nucleus, and
o the effective nuclear charge (not the nuclear charge) of the atom.

Nuclear Charge (NC): The actual charge (relative) due to the protons in the nucleus

Effective Nuclear Charge (ENC): The effectiveness of nuclear charge after passing through
filled shells

A simple way to compare effective nuclear charges is to knock off a + for every electron in a filled
inner level.
Species Protons Electron config. Nuclear charge ENC
H 1 1 1+ 1+
He 2 2 2+ 2+
Li 3 2, 1 3+ 1+
Be 4 2, 2 4+ 2+
B 5 2, 3 5+ 3+
Ne 10 2, 8 10+ 8+
Na 11 2,8,1 11+ 1+
K 19 2,8,8,1 19+ 1+

FIRST IONIZATION ENERGY

Definition :
The first ionisation energy is the energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of
gaseous atoms to form one mole of gaseous uni-positive ions.
This is represented by the equation:
Eg: Na(g) → Na+(g) + e-
Mg(g) → Mg+(g) + e-

Always gaseous

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Centre for Higher Secondary Education – Male’ Department of Chemistry

Its value gives an idea of how strongly the nucleus

pulls on the electron being removed. The stronger
the pull, the more energy needed to remove the
electron.

SECOND IONIZATION ENERGY

Definition :
The second ionization energy is the energy required
to remove 1 mole of electrons from 1 mole of the
gaseous uni-positive ions to form one mole of
gaseous di-positive ions.
Table: First Ionisation Energies / kJ mol-1
Eg: Na+(g) → Na2+(g) + e-
Mg+(g) → Mg2+(g) + e-

THIRD IONIZATION ENERGY

Definition :
The third ionization energy is the energy required to remove 1 mole of electrons from 1 mole of
the gaseous di-positive ions to form one mole of gaseous tri-positive ions.

Eg: Na2+(g) → Na3+(g) + e-

Mg2+(g) → Mg3+(g) + e-

Check point 2

1. State the three factors that determine the magnitude of the first ionization energy of an
element.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Write the equations to represent:
(a) The first ionization energy of sodium
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(b) The second ionization energy of calcium
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(c) The third ionization energy of carbon
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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Centre for Higher Secondary Education – Male’ Department of Chemistry

SUCCESSIVE IONIZATION ENERGIES OF AN ELEMENT

The patterns in successive ionisation energies for an element give us important information about
the electronic structure for that element.
When successive ionization energies of an element are listed, there are steady increases and big
jumps occuring at defined places. This is one piece of evidence for the existence of quantum shells.

• A sodium atom has 11 electrons. Its successive ionization energies are shown in the table
below.
• The places where the ionization energy has jumped significantly are underlined in the
table.
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th

496 4563 6913 9544 13352 16611

7th 8th 9th 10th 11th

20115 25491 28934 141367 159079

Successive ionization energies of sodium in kJmol-1

When a graph is plotted between the log of ionization energy values of an element against the
number of electrons removed, the trends in successive ionization energies can be seen. There are
two types of increases that can be observed. They are:

Successive ionization energies are always greater than the previous one.

• This is due to increasing attraction of the nucleus on the remaining electrons because the
electrons are being removed from an increasingly positive ion.

Large increases occur when there is a change of shell

• This is due to removal of electron from an inner main shell, which is closer to the nucleus
on which the nuclear attraction is greater.
• This can be used to predict the group of an unknown element. The group number would
be given by counting the number of electrons removed before the first big jump. Electronic
structure can also be found using successive ionization energies.

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Big jumps indicate

a change in shell.

mini jumps show

change of subshell

Graph showing successive ionization energies for Sodium

WHY DO THE SUCCESSIVE IONIZATION ENERGIES OF SODIUM INCREASES?

• The first electron to be removed is in the 3s orbital, which is the third quantum shell. So
less energy is needed to remove the electron. Therefore the first ionization energy is the
lowest.
• There is a large jump from 1st to the 2nd ionization energy. This is because the second
electron to be removed is in the 2nd quantum shell which is lower in energy than the 3rd
quantum shell
• There is steady increase in ionization energy from the 2nd to the 9th electron. This shows
that the eight electrons exist within the same quantum shell. As each successive electron
is removed from the same shell, the electron – electron repulsion within the shell
decreases. As a result, there is steady increase in ionization energy from 2nd to 9th
electron.
• The large jump from 9th to 10th electron indicates that the electron is removed from first
quantum shell (1s orbital).
TRENDS IN IONIZATION ENERGIES
The amount of energy required to remove the first electron depends on the following factors:

Distance between the nucleus and the outermost electrons

• As the atoms get larger, the distance between the outer most electrons and the nucleus
increases.
• The outer electrons are held less strongly so easier to remove.
• Less energy is required to remove the electron (lower ionization energy).

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Effective nuclear force of attraction

• As the effective nuclear charge increases, force of attraction between the electrons and
outer electrons increases.
• Electrons are harder to remove (higher ionization energy).

Shielding effect
• The electron in the outermost energy level
experiences more inter-electron repulsion
known as shielding.
• The greater the number of the inner shell
electrons the greater is the shielding effect
(screening effect).
• The force of attraction becomes weaker.
• Less energy is required to remove the
electron (lower ionization energy).

ACROSS THE PERIOD

In general the 1st ionization energy of the elements increases gradually across the period, because:

• As the atomic size decreases, distance between

the nucleus and the outer shell electrons
decreases
• Nuclear attraction increases
• Shielding effect remains the same
• Therefore, the attraction between the outer
electrons and the nucleus increases. Hence,
more energy is required to remove the
electrons.

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DOWN THE GROUP

Ionization energy decreases down the group. This is

because :
• Down the group, the atomic size increases and
the number of shells increases.
• Distance between the nucleus and the outer
electrons increases.
• The outer electrons are more shielded by the
electrons in the inner shells.
• The effect of the increase in nuclear charge is
outweighed by the increase in shielding.
• Therefore, the outer electrons are less
attracted by the nucleus. Hence, less energy is
required to remove the electrons.

FIRST IONIZATION ENERGIES

First ionization energies for periods 1 - 3

First ionization energy of Helium is greater than Hydrogen [He >H]

• Nuclear charge is greater – one extra proton in Helium
• Extra electron has gone into the same energy level.
• Increased attraction makes the electron harder to remove.

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Centre for Higher Secondary Education – Male’ Department of Chemistry

Deviation between group 2 & 3

First ionization energy of Boron is less than Beryllium [B < Be]

Beryllium [4]: 1s2 2s2

Boron [5]: 1s2 2s2 2p1

• Despite the increased nuclear charge, the outer electron is held less strongly
• The outermost electron of boron is in a 2p orbital, which is higher in energy than the 2s
orbital of beryllium.
• Nuclear attraction is less in boron because the 2p electrons in boron experiences greater
electron-electron repulsion (greater shielding) than that in beryllium.
• Less energy is required to remove an electron from boron.

First ionization energy of Aluminium is less than Magnesium [Al<Mg]

Magnesium [12]: 1s2 2s2 2p63s2

Aluminium [13]: 1s2 2s2 2p63s2 3p1

• Despite the increased nuclear charge, the outer electron is held less strongly
• The outermost electron of Aluminium is in a 3p orbital, which is higher in energy than the
3s orbital of Magnesium.
• Nuclear attraction is less in aluminium because the 3p electrons in aluminium experiences
greater electron-electron repulsion (greater shielding) than that in magnesium.
• Less energy is required to remove an electron from aluminium.

Deviation between group 5 & 6

First ionization energy of Oxygen is less than Nitrogen [O < N]

Nitrogen [7]: 1s2 2s2 2p3     

Oxygen[8]: 1s2 2s2 2p4     

• Despite the increased nuclear charge the electron is easier to remove

• The 2p electron removed from oxygen is a paired electron, whereas the 2p electron from
nitrogen is an unpaired electron.
• When electrons are paired, the extra mutual repulsion results in less energy being required
to remove an electron.
• Hence less energy is required to remove an electron from oxygen.

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Centre for Higher Secondary Education – Male’ Department of Chemistry

First ionization energy of Sulfur is less than Phosphorous [S < P]

Phosphorous [15]: 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p3   

Sulfur [16]: 1s2 2s2 2p63s23p4   

• Despite the increased nuclear charge the electron is easier to remove

• The 3p electron removed from sulfur is a paired electron, whereas the 3p electron from
phosphorous is an unpaired electron.
• When electrons are paired, the extra mutual repulsion results in less energy being required
to remove an electron.
• Hence less energy is required to remove an electron from sulfur.

Check point 3

1. Draw a sketch graph for the logarithm to base 10 for the successive ionization energies of
phosphorous.
2. The table below shows the first four ionization energies, in kJmol-1, of five elements: A, B,
C, D and E.

ELEMENT FIRST SECOND THIRD FOURTH

IONISATION IONISATION IONISATION IONISATION
ENERGY ENERGY ENERGY ENERGY
A 496 4563 6913 9544
B 738 1451 7733 10541
C 578 1817 2745 11578
D 900 1757 14849 21007
E 631 1235 2389 7089

(a) Which two elements are in the same group of the periodic table? Explain your answer.

(b) In which group of the periodic table is element C likely to occur? Explain your answer.

(c) Which element required the least amount of energy to form a +2 ions? Explain your
answer.

3. The first four ionization energies, in kJmol-1, of calcium are 590, 1145, 4912 and 6474.
(a) Explain why the second ionization energy of calcium is larger than the first.

(b) Explain why the third ionization energy is much larger than the second.

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Centre for Higher Secondary Education – Male’ Department of Chemistry

Syllabus - Students will be assessed on their ability to:

2.15 understand that electronic configuration determines the chemical properties of an element
2.16 know that the Periodic Table is divided into blocks, such as s, p and d, and know the number of electrons that
can occupy s, p and d sub-shells in the first four quantum shells

2B – 1 THE PERIODIC TABLE

• In the modern periodic table the elements are arranged in order of their atomic number.
• Vertical columns in the periodic table are called groups and the horizontal rows are called
periods.

o All the elements within the period have the same number of electron shells.
Example: Elements in period 2 have 2 electron shells
o All the elements within a group have the same number of electrons in their outer
shell and they have similar chemical properties.

• Position of an element in the periodic table is determined by its electronic structure. The
chemical properties depend on the electronic configuration.

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Centre for Higher Secondary Education – Male’ Department of Chemistry

THE BLOCKS OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

The periodic table can be split into four blocks, based on the orbital in which the last electron gets
filled.

• s – Block: elements of group 1 and 2. Their outermost electrons are found in the s sub-
shell.
• p – Block: elements in groups 3 to 8. Outermost electrons are found in p sub-shell.
• d – Block: transition elements and are found between group 2 and 3. Outermost electrons
are found in d sub-shell.
• f – Block: lanthanides and actinides, and they have outermost electrons in the f sub-shell.

Check point 4

1. What is meant by the terms

(a) s-block element and
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(b) p- block element
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Explain why the chemical properties of the elements in group 1 are very similar.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
The outer electronic configuration of carbon is 2s2 2p3
3.
Work out the electronic configuration of arsenic(As).
Explain how you arrived at your answer.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Grade 11/Unit 1/Topic 2-Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table /2024/semester 1 Page 30 of 33
 Centre for Higher Secondary Education – Male’ Department of Chemistry

Syllabus - Students will be assessed on their ability to:

2.17 be able to represent data, in a graphical form (including the use of logarithms of first ionisation energies on a
graph) for elements 1 to 36 and hence explain the meaning of the term ‘periodic property’
2.18 be able to explain:
i the trends in melting and boiling temperatures of the elements of Periods 2 and 3 of the Periodic Table in
terms of the structure of the element and the bonding between its atoms or molecules
ii the general increase and the specific trends in ionisation energy of the elements across Periods 2 and 3 of the
Periodic Table
iii the decrease in first ionisation energy down a group
2B – 2 THE PERIODIC PROPERTIES
ATOMIC RADIUS

Atomic radius of an element is the

measurement of the size of its atom. It is the
distance from the center of the nucleus to the
boundary of electron cloud. Since atoms does
not have a well defined boundary, we can find
the atomic radius by determining the distance
between the two nuclei and dividing by 2.
The atomic radius generally decreases across a
period

• Nuclear charge (proton number) increases across the period

• Shielding effect remains constant as the electrons are added to the same shell.
• Therefore, attraction between the nucleus and the electrons increases.
• Electrons are pulled closer to nucleus.

The atomic radius generally increases down the group.

• Electrons are added to new energy levels down the group

• Shielding effect increases
• The attraction between the electrons and the nucleus decreases.

Shielding effect
- The electron in the outermost energy level experiences more inter-electron repulsion
known as shielding.
- The greater the number of the inner shell electrons the greater is the shielding
effect (screening effect).

Grade 11/Unit 1/Topic 2-Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table /2024/semester 1 Page 31 of 33
Centre for Higher Secondary Education – Male’ Department of Chemistry

IONIC RADIUS
The radius of a positive ion is smaller than the element’s atomic
radius. This is because as the electrons are removed the remaining
electrons are more strongly attracted to the positive nucleus.

The radius of a negative ion is larger than the element’s atomic

radius. This is because as the electrons are gained, the number of
electrons increases and therefore are bound less tightly to the
nucleus.

MELTING AND BOILING TEMPERATURES

Elements – As you move from left to right the elements go from highly electropositive metals
through metalloids with giant structures to the simple molecular structure of non-metals.

Both periods 2 and 3 show similar trends in their melting points and boiling points, which are linked
to changes in structure and bond strength of these elements.

The table below illustrates the changes in melting and boiling points of elements in
Periods 2 and 3

The graph below shows the melting points of the elements in Period 3

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Centre for Higher Secondary Education – Male’ Department of Chemistry

Structure and
Element(s) Trend in melting point
type of bonding
Metals Metallic bonding Melting point increases across the period
(Eg: Na , Mg, Al) • Ionic size decreases across the period
Giant lattice • More number of electrons in the ‘sea’ of
structure electrons
Therefore, strength of metallic bonding increases.
Macromolecules Covalent bonding Melting point is very high
(Eg: Si) • They have strong covalent bonds linking all their
Giant covalent atoms together
structure A lot of energy is needed to break the strong covalent
bonds
Simple Covalent bonding Melting point is low
molecules • Melting point depends on the strength of
(Eg: P4, S8, Cl2 ) Simple molecular intermolecular forces (London forces) between
structure molecules.
• Since London forces are weak they have a low
melting point.
• London forces are stronger in S8 as more
electrons are present. P4 contains more
electrons than Cl2.so London forces stronger in
P4 than Cl2
Noble Gases Simple atomic They have the lowest melting and boiling points because
(Eg: Ar) structure they exist as individual atoms resulting in very weak
London forces between atoms

EXERCISE 5

1. An element has a very high melting and boiling point temperatures.

(a) What type of structure is it likely to have?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(b) Which physical property would help you determine whether the bonding was metallic or
covalent? Explain your answer.
2. The table below shows the melting temperatures of the elements sodium to chlorine in
period 3 of the periodic table. Complete the bonding and structure row.

Grade 11/Unit 1/Topic 2-Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table /2024/semester 1 Page 33 of 33