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CHEMISTRY
(F.Sc part-I)

CHAPTER: 1
BASIC CONCEPTS
Solved SHORT QUESTIONS
Unsolved LONG QUESTIONS
(It includes exercise all previous10 years board questions)

Prepared by:

Chapter: 01 “BASIC CONCEPTS”

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SHORT QUESTIONS:
1. Explain the work of John Dalton?
John Dalton proposed two works e.g.
(a) Atomic theory:
“All matter present on earth composed of smallest subunits which cannot be subdivided called as atom” OR
“All the matter is made up (composed) of atoms of different type of elements which have different properties”
(b) Proved two Laws (law of conservation of mass and law of conservation of definite proportion)
2. Why atom cannot be seen through naked eye (and ordinary microscope)?
Reason: There are following reasons:
i. Size of an atom is very small.
ii. The atom of an element does not exist independently.
iii. The resolution of human eye is about 0.07mm, and magnification power of ordinary microscope is 500X.
iv. The wavelength of visible light is (400 to 800nm) which is very larger as compared to the size (0.2nm) of an
atom.
3. Define the term molecule. Give two examples also? (G-2013)
Molecule: The smallest part of a pure substance which can exist independently is called a molecule. (OR) When
two or more atoms of same or different elements combine with each other chemically, a molecule is formed.
Example: H2 , O2 , H2O , NH3 , HCl , H2SO4 , C6H12O6 etc.

4. What is atomicity? Give two examples.

Atomicity: “The number of atoms present in a molecule is called atomicity”
Examples: (i) Atomicity of water (H2O) is 3. (ii) Atomicity of glucose (C6H12O6) is 24.

5. Define ion? Discuss its types?

Ion: “An atom or group of atoms which contain (carry) either positive and negative charge on it is called as ion”
Types: There are two types of ion. e.g.
(a) Cation: “An atom or group of atoms which contain (carry) positive charge on it is called as cation”
Na → Na+ + 1e- (Cation formation is an endothermic process)
(b) Anion: “An atom or group of atoms which contain (carry) negative charge on it is called as anion”
F + 1e-→ F- (Anion formation is an exothermic process)
6. Define molecular ion? Examples. How is it formed. Write its uses.? (L-2012, 2014, 2016)
Molecular Ion: When a molecule (group of atoms) may loose or gain, one or more electrons then a molecular ion is
formed.
Example: CH4+, CO+, N2+,N2-2, H2-, O2-2,etc
Formation: Molecular ion is formed by the following processes:
(a) By passing high energy beam of electrons through a gas
(b) By passing X-rays through a gas
(c) By passing α -particles(rays) through a gas
Uses: The breakdown of molecular ion obtained from the natural products gives important information about its
structure.

7. Define relative atomic mass? Give example.

Relative atomic mass: “The atomic mass of an atom of an element taken as compared to the atomic mass of carbon
(taken as 12 a.m.u) is called as relative atomic mass”
Example: (Hydrogen) H = 1.008 a.m.u Oxygen (O) = 15.998 a.m.u

8. Define atomic mass unit. Give its value in grams? (G-2011)

Atomic Mass Unit: The unit which is used to describe the relative atomic mass is called as atomic mass unit. (OR)
The mass of 1/12th part of a carbon atom is equal to one atomic mass unit.
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1 amu = 1.661×10-24g = 1.661×10-27kg

9. Define isotopes. Why they have same chemical properties? (L-2012) (G-2015)
Isotopes: The atoms (two or more) of an element which have same atomic number(no. of protons) but different
atomic mass(no. of neutrons) are called isotopes of that element. e.g.,
1 2 3 12 13 14
Isotopes of Hydrogen: (1 H , 1 H ,1 H ) Isotopes of Carbon: ( 6C , 6C , 6C )
Reason: The chemical properties of any element depend upon its no. of protons and electronic configuration. The
isotopes have:
(a) Same atomic number (no. of protons)
(b) Same number of electrons
(c) Same valence electronic configuration
(d) Same position in the periodic table
So, due to all these reasons isotopes have same chemical properties but different physical properties.
Example: (Protium)H2 + 1/2O2→H2O (Deutrium) D2 + 1/2O2→ D2O

10. N2 and CO have the same number of electrons, protons and neutrons. Give reason? (G-2008, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2018,
2019) (L-2009, 2016)
It can be proved by following way:
N2 molecule CO molecule
N atom = 7 protons , 7 electrons , 7 neutrons C atom = 6 protons , 6 electrons , 6 neutrons
N atom = 7 protons , 7 electrons , 7 neutrons O atom = 8 protons , 8 electrons , 8 neutrons
N2 molecule = 14 proton , 14 electron , 14 neuron CO molecule = 14 proton , 14 electron , 14 neutron
So, It is proved that N2 and CO have the same number of electrons, protons and neutrons.

11. What is relative abundance of isotopes? How is it determined?

Relative Abundance of Isotopes: “The amount (percentage) of each isotope in a mixture of isotopes of an
element is called relative abundance or natural abundance of isotopes”
20 21 22
Examples: 10 Ne = 90.92% , 10 Ne = 0.257% , 10 Ne = 8.82%
Determination: Relative abundance of isotopes can be determined by Mass Spectrometery.

12. What are monoisotopic elements? Give examples.

Mono-isotopic Elements: “The elements which have only one (single) isotope are called monoisotopic elements”
Examples: Gold (Au), Fluorine (F), Arsenic (As), Sodium (Na) and Iodine (I).
13. Why most of the elements have atomic masses in fraction? (L-2004, 2008) (G-2019) (OR) No
individual neon atom in the sample of element has a mass of 20.18 amu. Explain with reason? (G-2007, 2013, 2016,
2017) (L-2014) OR How do you deduce the fractional atomic masses of elements from the
relative isotopic abundance? Give examples in support of your answer.

Ans:The atomic masses of elements are in fraction because they have more than one isotopes and their mass is
determined by taking the average of atomic masses of isotopes and their relative abundance.
For Example: Neon has three isotopes with their following relative abundance:
Ne20 = 90.92٪ Ne21 = 0.257٪ Ne22 = 8.82٪

Average atomic mass =

[ At . mass of 2010 Ne ×٪ age ] +[ At . mass of 1021Ne ×٪ age ] + [ At . mass of 2210Ne ×٪ age ]
100
[ 20 × 90.92 ] + [ 21 ×0.257 ] +[22× 8.82]
Average atomic mass =
100
Average atomic mass of Ne = 20.18 amu
Result: So it is proved from above example that atomic masses of elements are infractions. And no individual neon
atom in the sample of element has a mass of 20.18 amu.
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14. Discuss principle of Mass Spectrometery?

Principle: In this technique following steps can be done:
(a) First the sample is volatized with help of heat.
(b) Second, high energy electrons are passed through the volatized sample to ionize it.
(c) Third, the ionized sample is passed through electric as well as magnetic field.
(d) Fourth, the separation of ions occurs on the basis of their m/e value.
(e) Mass spectrum is drawn from the electric signals come from these ions which give the relative abundance and
relative atomic masses of isotopes
15. Differentiate between Aston’s Mass spectrograph and Dempster’s Mass spectrometer?
Aston’s Mass Spectrograph Demster’s Mass spectrometer
It was designed for the identification isotopes of It was designed for the identification of elements which
elements on the basis of their atomic masses. were available in solid state.
It uses an photographic plate to detect ions. It uses an electrical device to detect ions.
It was introduced by Aston in 1919. It was introduced by Dempster in 1918.

16. Explain mathematical relationship for m/e value of an ion in mass spectrometer? (L-2011)
Ans1: We know that each isotope has its own mass. So, different ions moving in constant electric and magnetic field
show their different m/e value. And when these ions are allowed to pass through magnetic field they move in a circular
path forming a radius ‘r’ under constant magnetic field. And different ions show different radius following the
relation .e.g. (E and H are constants)
(m/e∝ r)
Ans2: The mathematical relationship for m/e value is:
m/e = H2r/E (OR) m/e = H2r2/2E
From above relation, there are following three things are derived:
(1) r𝛼 m: The radius through which ions (isotopes) move in magnetic chamber is directly proportional to the mass
of those ions (isotopes). The ions of greater mass move in larger radius and vice versa.
(2) r𝛼 1/H: The radius through which ions (isotopes) move in magnetic chamber is inversely proportional to the
strength of the magnetic field (H). Greater the strength of the magnetic field smaller the radius of ions through
which they move.
(3) r𝛼 E: The radius through which ions (isotopes) move in electric chamber is directly proportional to the strength
(voltage) of the electric field (battery).
17. What is the function of electrometer (Ion collector) in mass spectrometer? (G-2008)
There are two functions of electrometer in mass spectrometer:
(1) Ion Collector: The ions coming from the magnetic chamber are collected in the electrometer on different
positions on the basis of their m/e value that’s why it is also called as ion collector.
(2) Electric Signals: When moving ions from magnetic chamber come in ion collector then they collide with the
surface of ion collector and produce a very minute amount of current. These electric signals from electrometer
are recorded to make mass spectrum.
18. What is mass spectrum? (L-2013) OR
How does a mass spectrograph show the relative abundance of isotopes of an element?
Mass Spectrum: It is a graph plotted between relative atomic masses of isotopes of same element on x-axis
(abscissa) and their relative abundance on y-axis (ordinate).
 Hieght of peaks give the relative abundance of isotopes of an element.
 Position of peaks give relative atomic masses of different isotopes of same element
 Number of peaks gives the number of possible isotopes of an element.
Example:
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19. Differentiate between empirical and molecular formula with example? (L-2012, 2013, 2015) (G-2019)
Empirical Formula Molecular Formula
1. The type of formula which gives the simple whole 1. The formula which represents the actual (exact)
number ratio between the atoms of different elements number of atoms of different elements present in a
in a compound is called empirical formula. compound is called molecular formula.
2. Mostly ionic (inorganic) compounds are written with 2. The organic compounds are covalent in nature and
this formula. exist in molecular form and mostly represented by
Example: this type of formula.
Empirical formula of Glucose is, (CH2O) Example:
Empirical formula of Benzene is, (CH) Molecular formula of Glucose is, (C6H12O6)
Empirical formula of Water is, (H2O) Molecular formula of Benzene is, (C6H6)
Empirical formula of sodium chloride is, (NaCl) Molecular formula of Water is, (H2O)

20. Write four steps for determining empirical formula? (G-2010)

There are following four steps for the determination of empirical formula:
1. Determine the percentage composition of each element present in the compound.
2. Determine the gram atoms (moles) of each element. For this purpose, divide the ٪age (by mass) of each element
by its atomic mass separately.
3. Find the simplest atomic ratio of all elements present in the compound.
4. If the atomic ratio comes in fraction rather than whole number, then multiply it with suitable digit to get whole
number that shows the exact empirical formula of that compound.
21. Write function of Mg (ClO4)2 and 50٪ KOH in combustion analysis? (L-2014)
Function of Mg (ClO4)2: In combustion analysis, sample is subjected to water absorber. In this chamber Mg
(ClO4)2 is present in specific quantity to absorb maximum amount of water from the mixture of products formed
during burning of sample.
Function of 50٪ KOH: After the absorption of water, remaining products send to the next CO 2 absorber. This
chamber contain weighted amount of 50٪ KOH and absorb all the CO2 present in products.

22. Why the %age of oxygen cannot be measured directly in combustion analysis? (L-2010)
Reason:
 Oxygen gas is provided in excess from external source (air).
 The oxygen is also present in all the products formed during combustion. And to find its percentage directly,
several products are used in formula one by one. This will be very long and uncertain method.
So due to these reasons the percentage of oxygen is measured by the formula of subtraction of sum of percentage of
carbon and hydrogen from 100.
٪age of Oxygen = 100 – ( ٪age of carbon + ٪age of hydrogen)
23. Define molecular formula of a compound. How is it related with its empirical formula? (G-2015)
Molecular Formula: The formula which represents the actual (exact) number of atoms of different elements present
in a compound is called molecular formula.
Relation: Molecular formula = n (Empirical formula) Here ‘n’ is the whole number.
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24. Define gram formula and gram molecule? (G-2009, 2021)

Gram formula Gram molecule
“When the formula mass of an ionic compound (formula “When the molecular mass of a molecule is expressed in
unit) is expressed in grams then it will be equal to 1 mole grams then it will be equal to 1 mole or 1 gram
or 1 gram formula”. molecule”.
Example: Example:
1 gram formula of sodium chloride (NaCl) = 58.5 g 1 gram molecule of water (H2O) = 18 g
1 gram formula of Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) = 106 g 1 gram molecule of glucose (C6H12O6) = 180 g

25. Define mole with two examples. (G-2021)

Mole:“The atomic mass of an atom, molecular mass of a molecule, ionic mass of an ion, formula mass of a formula
unit expressed in gram is equal to one mole of the substance”
Examples: 1.008 g of H = 1 mole of Hydrogen
16 g of O = 1 mole of oxygen
23g of Na = 1 mole of Na
238g of U = 1 mole of U
39g of K = 1 mole of K

26. What is Avogadro’s No.? How is it related with mass of an element? (G-2005) (L-2015)
Avogadro’s number: The number of particles (atoms, molecules, ions, formula units) present in one mole (gram
atom, gram molecule, gram ion, gram formula) of a substance are equal to 6.02 × 10 23 and this number is known as
Avogadro’s number. It is denoted by NA.
Relation: (Avogadro’s number = molar mass (in grams) of an element)
6.02 ×1023 atoms of H= 1 mole of Hydrogen = 1.008 g of H
6.02 ×1023 atoms of O = 1 mole of oxygen = 16 g of O

27. 23 g of Na, 238g of U and 39 g of K have equal number of atoms in them? (L-2006, 2012)
As we know that,
23g of Na = 1 mole of Na = 6.02×1023 atoms of Na.
238g of U = 1 mole of U = 6.02×1023 atoms of U.
39g of K = 1 mole of K = 6.02×1023 atoms of K.
1 mole of any substance contains Avogadro’s number of particles in it. So, 23g of Na, 39g of K and 238g of U have
equal number of atoms in them.

28. Mg atom is twice heavier than that of carbon atom. Justify? (G-2011, 2014, 2017) (L-2007, 2011)
It can be justified on the basis of calculating the mass of the single atom of Mg and C by using the formula:
No . ofparticlesofelement × Molarmassoftheelement
Mass of element = '
Avogadr o s number
(Molar mass of C = 12 g/mol) (Molar mass of Mg = 24 g/mol)
1× 24 g/ mol 1 ×12 g /mol
Mass of Mg atom = Mass of C atom =
6.02× 10(23) 6.02× 10(23)
Mass of Mg atom = 3.98 × 10-23 Mass of C atom = 1.99 ×10-23
Atomic ratio: Mg – atom : C - atom
3.98 × 10-23: 1.99 ×10-23
3.98× 10(−23) 1.99× 10(−23)
:
1.99× 10(−23) 1.99× 10(−23)
2 :1
So, it is proved that Mg atom is twice heavier than that of carbon atom.
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29. 180 g of glucose (C6H12O6) and 342 g of sucrose (C12H22O11) have the same number of molecules but different
number of atoms present in them. Explain? (G-2012, 2019) (L-2006)
Mass of glucose (C6H12O6) = 180 g (Molar mass of glucose = 180 g/mol)
Mass of sucrose (C12H22O11) = 342 g (Molar mass of sucrose = 342 g/mol)
Number of molecules:
Mass∈ grams Mass∈ grams
No. of molecules of glucose = × NA No. of molecules of sucrose = × NA
Molar mass Molar mass
180 g 342 g
No. of molecule of glucose = × 6.02×1023 No. of molecule of sucrose = × 6.02×1023
180 g /mol 342 g/mol
No. of molecule of glucose = 6.02×1023 No. of molecule of sucrose = 6.02×1023
Number of Atoms:
Number of atoms of glucose Number of atoms of sucrose
One molecule of glucose = 24 atoms One molecule of sucrose = 45 atoms
Total molecules of glucose=24 ×6.02×10 atoms
23
Total molecules of sucrose=45 ×6.02×1023 atoms
Total molecules of glucose = 144.48×10 atoms
23
Total molecules of sucrose = 270.9×1023 atoms
So, It is proved from above calculations that 180 g of glucose (C 6H12O6) and 342 g of sucrose (C12H22O11) have the
same number of molecules but different number of atoms present in them.
30. 4.9 g of H2SO4 when completely ionized in water have equal number of positive and negative charges but the no. of
positively charged ions is twice the no. of negatively charged ions? (L-2012)
Ionization of H2SO4: H2SO4→2H+ + SO4-2
From above equation it is seen that H2SO4 dissociate to give two unipositive ions and a dinegative ion which show
equal number of opposite charges (positive and negative) are produced.
Mass of H2SO4 = 4.9 g
Mass of H2SO4 = 98 g/mol
4.9 g
No. of molecules of H2SO4 = × NA
98 g /mol
No. of molecules of H2SO4 = 0.05 × 6.02×1023
No. of molecules of H2SO4 = 0.301×1023
According to above equation:
H2SO4 : H+ ions H2SO4 : SO4-2 ions
1: 2 1 : 1
0.301×10 : 2 × 0.301×10
23 23
0.301×1023 : 0.301×1023
0.301×10 : 0.602×10
23 23
0.301×1023 : 0.301×1023
From above calculation it becomes clear that number of positive ions (H +) are twice as compared with negative ions
(SO4-2).

31. One mg of K2CrO4 has thrice number of ions than number of formula units, when ionized? (L-2010, 2012, 2013)
Mass of K2CrO4 = 1 mg = 1 × 10-3 g
Molar mass of K2CrO4 = (39)2+52+ (16)4 = 194 g/mol
Mass∈grams
No. of formula units of K2CrO4= × NA
Molar mass
1× 10(−3)g
No. of formula units of K2CrO4= × 6.02×1023
194 g /mol
No. of formula units of K2CrO4= 5.15 × 10-6 × 6.02×1023
No. of formula units of K2CrO4= 3.1×1018 formula units
Ionization of K2CrO4:
K2CrO4→2K+ + CrO4-2
Comparison;
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K2CrO4 :Ions
1:3
3.1×10 :3 × 3.1×1018
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3.1×1018 :9.3×1018
So, it is proved that One mg of K2CrO4 has thrice number of ions than number of formula units, when ionized.

32. Explain molar volume with two examples? (G-2009, 2019) OR

2 g of H2, 16 g of CH4 and 44 g of CO 2 occupy separately the volumes of 22.414 dm 3, although the sizes and
masses of three gases are very different from each other. Why?
Molar volume: The space (volume) occupied by 1 mole of an ideal gas at S.T.P is equal to 22.414dm 3 (22414cm3or
0.022414m3) is known as molar volume (Vm) of the gas.
Application: We can convert the mass (as well as moles) of an ideal gas into volume and vice versa.
Examples: (1) 1 mole of H2 gas = 2.016g of H2 = 6.02 ×1023 molecules of H2 = 22.414dm3 of H2
(2) 1 mole of O2 gas = 32g of O2 = 6.02 ×1023 molecules of O2 = 22.414dm3 of O2
(3) 1 mole of CH4 gas = 16g of CH4 = 6.02 ×1023 molecules of CH4 = 22.414dm3 of CH4
(4) 1 mole of CO2 gas = 44g of CO2 = 6.02 ×1023 molecules of CO2 = 22.414dm3 of CO2
33. Calculate number of moles of O-atom in 9 gram of Mg (NO 3)2? (L-2016)
Mass of Mg (NO3)2 = 9 g
Molar mass of Mg (NO3)2 = 24+2(14) +6(16) = 148 g/mol
Mass 9g
Moles of Mg (NO3)2 = = = 0.06 moles
Molarmass 148 g /mol
Comparison:
Mg (NO3)2 : O-atom
1 mole : 6 moles
0.06 moles : 6 × 0.06 moles = 0.36 moles
Result: 9 gram of Mg (NO3)2 contain 0.36 moles of O-atom.

34. Calculate mass in grams of 10-3 moles of water? (L-2007)

No. of moles of water = 10-3 moles
Molar mass of water = 18 g/mol
Mass of water (in grams) =?
Mass of water = Molar mass of water × No. of moles of water
Mass of water = 18g/mol × 10-3 moles
Mass of water = 0.018 gram.

35. How many molecules of water in 10 g of ice? (L-2013) (G-2006, 2010)

Mass of ice = 10 g
Molar mass of ice (H2O) =18 g/mol
Molecules of water =?
Massingrams
No. of molecules of water = × NA
Molarmass
10 g
No. of molecules of water = × 6.02 × 1023
18 g /mol
No. of molecules of water = 0.555 × 6.02 × 1023
No. of molecules of water = 3.344 × 1023
Result: 10 g of ice contain 3.344 × 1023 molecules of water.

36. Calculate mass in grams of 2.74 moles of KMnO 4? (G-2017)

No. of moles of KMnO4 = 2.74 moles
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Molar mass of KMnO4 = 39 + 55 + 4(16) = 158 g/mol

Mass of KMnO4 (in grams) =?
Mass of KMnO4 = No. of moles of KMnO4 × Molar mass of KMnO4
Mass of KMnO4 = 2.74 moles × 158 g/mol
Mass of KMnO4 = 432.92 g.

37. Calculate mass in kg of 2.6× 1020 molecules of SO2? (L-2014)

Number of molecules of SO2 = 2.6×1020

Molar mass of SO2 = 32 + 2(16) = 64 g/mol
Mass of molecules of SO2 (in Kg) =?
Mass∈ grams
No. of molecules of SO2 = × NA
Molar mass
No . of molecules of SO 2
Mass∈grams = × Molar mass
NA

2.6 × 10(20)
Mass∈grams = × 64 g /mol
6.02× 10(23)
Mass∈grams = 0.4318×10=3× 64 g /mol
Mass∈grams = 27.641×10-3g
27.641×10 (−3)
Mass∈Kg = Kg
1000
Mass∈Kg = 27.641×10-6 Kg

38. Prove that 1 mole of each N2; CO2 and H2O have equal no. of molecules? (L-2008)
One mole of any substance contains Avogadro’s number of molecules. So due to this reason Prove that 1 mole of
each N2; CO2 and H2O have equal no. of molecules e.g. 6.02×1023 molecules.
It can be proved mathematically as:
No. of molecules of N2 = 1 × 6.02×1023 No. of molecules of CO2 = 1 × 6.02×1023 No. of molecules of H2O =1× 6.02×1023
No. of molecules of N2 = 6.02×1023 No. of molecules of CO2 = 6.02×1023 No. of molecules of H2O = 6.02×1023
39. One mole of H2SO4 should completely react with two moles of NaOH. How does Avogadro’s number help to explain
it? (G-2018) (L-2016)
When one mole of H2SO4 dissociate, it form two moles of H+ ions as follows:
H2SO4→2H+ + SO4-2
And one mole of NaOH dissociates to give one mole of OH - ions as follows:
NaOH→Na+ + OH-
And when these two substances mixed together, then two moles of H + ions react completely with two moles of OH -
ions to form two moles of water as: 2H+ + 2OH-→ 2H2O
And these two moles of OH- ions (2 × NA) come from the dissociation of two moles of NaOH. That’s why one mole
of H2SO4 should completely react with two moles of NaOH e.g.,
H2SO4 + 2NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2H2O

40. Describe that one mole of H 2O has two moles of bonds, three moles of atoms, ten moles of electrons and twenty
eight moles of the total fundamental particles present in it? (G-2018)(L-2016)
Water molecule is formed by the combination (bonding) of two hydrogen atoms with one oxygen atom by making
two covalent bonds.
We Know that, 1 molecule of water contain = 2 covalent bonds
So, 1 mole of water contain = 2 moles covalent bonds
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And one molecule of water contains 3 atoms (1 Oxygen and 2 Hydrogen). So 1 mole of water contains 3 moles of
atoms.
In one water molecule 2 electrons from hydrogen atoms and 8 electrons from oxygen atom make total 10 electrons.
So in one mole of water 10 moles of electrons are present.
Fundamental particles:
2H-atoms = 2 protons, 2 electrons, 0 neutrons
O-atom = 8 protons, 8 electrons, 8 neutrons
Total = 28 mole of fundamental particle in one mole of water.

41. Define stoichiometery? Give its assumptions? (L-2007, 2009, 2014) (G-2011, 2014, 2015, 2021)
Stoichiometery: The branch of chemistry which deals with the study of quantitative relationship between reactants
and products in a balance chemical equation is called as stoichiometry.e.g., 2H2 + O2→ 2H2O
4.032g + 32 g → 36.032 g
Assumptions: There are following assumptions of stoichiometry:
(1) All the reactants should completely converted into products.
(2) No side reaction occurs during the reaction.
(3) During stoichiometric calculations, both laws e.g., Law of conservation of mass and law of conservation of
definite proportion should also be obeyed.
42. Law of conservation of mass has to be obeyed during stoichiometric calculations. Give reason? (L-2013) (G-2009,
2016, 2021)
According to law of conservation of mass:
“Mass can neither be created nor destroyed during any chemical reaction but it can be converted from one
form to another”.
From above definition of law of conservation of mass, we can say that the mass of reactants is just equal to that of
products e.g. 2H2 + O2→ 2H2O
4.032g + 32 g → 36.032 g
So, it is proved that Law of conservation of mass has to be obeyed during stoichiometric calculations.

43. What is limiting reactant? How it can be identified? (G-2009, 2019, 2021) (L-2011)
Limiting Reactant:A reactant which controls the amount of product due to its small amount and consume earlier in
a chemical reaction is said to be limiting reactant.
Identification: There are following three steps to identify a limiting reactant:
(1) Calculate the number of moles of reactants from given data.
(2) Calculate the number of moles of products from balanced chemical equation.
(3) Identify the reactant which produces least amount of product.
And it will be the limiting reactant.
44. Amount of product is controlled by limiting reactant. Explain why? (G-2006, 2010)
Reason: Actually, a limiting reactant is the reactant which limits (controls) the amount of product due to its small
amount and consume itself very rapidly (earlier). This can be further explained by taking an example:
Wood + Oxygen  Coal + Heat
In this reaction, wood is burnt in excess of oxygen and coal is produced. When all the wood becomes converted into
coal then reaction will stop. But at that situation oxygen is now present but wood is consumed and said to be limiting
reactant. So in this way limiting reactant controls the amount of product.

45. Concept of limiting reactant is not applicable to reversible reaction. Explain it? (G-2007)
According to the definition of reversible reactions: “The chemical reactions in which products recombine to form
reactants and reaction moves in both (forward and reverse) directions”
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So, in case of reversible reaction all the reactants are not completely converted into products or in other words,
reaction does not go to completion. That’s why it is very difficult (or impossible) to study the concept of limiting
reactant in reversible reactions.

46. Why many chemical reactions taking place in our surroundings involve the limiting reactants? (G-2016)
All the chemical reactions (changes) taking place in nature are irreversible. And in our surrounding most of the
reactions (changes) are natural.
Irreversible reactions are those which go to completion and mostly involve a limiting reactant which stop the
formation of product and reaction become stop. e.g.,
(1) Burning of wood: Wood + oxygen → Coal + Heat (Wood is Limiting reactant)
(2) Burning of Methane (CH4): CH4 + O2→ CO2 + H2O (CH4 is limiting reactant)
(3) Burning of Hydrogen (H2): H2 + O2→ H2O (H2 is limiting reactant)
(4) Burning of Coal (C): C + O2 → CO2 (Coal is limiting reactant)
47. What is % age yield? How efficiency of a reaction can be calculated? (G-2005) (L-2007, 2010, 2014)
Percentage Yield: The ratio of actual and theoretical yield multiplied by 100 is known as percentage yield or
efficiency of a reaction.
Efficiency of a reaction can be calculated by using the following formula:
Actualyield
(% age yield)Efficiency = × 100
T h eoreticalyield

48. Differentiate between theoretical yield and experimental yield? (G-2021)

Theoretical (calculated) Yield Experimental (Actual) Yield

“The amount of product obtained (calculated) from “The amount of product obtained from chemical
balanced chemical equation of a reaction” reaction performed experimentally”
 It is also called as expected (Calculated) yield.  It is also called as experimental (practical)
 Theoretical yield is always greater than actual yield.
yield.  Actual yield is always smaller (less) than
theoretical yield.

49. Why actual yield is always less than theoretical yield? (G-2007, 2008, 2012) (L-2008, 2009, 2013, 2015) ‘OR’
What are the factors which are mostly responsible for the low yield of products in chemical reactions?
There are following factors which reduce the actual yield as compared to theoretical yield:
(a) Inexperience of the person (worker)
(b) Impurities may present in the reaction mixture
(c) Side reactions may occur which reduce the amount of product
(d) Reversibility of the reaction may also take part to reduce amount of product by moving the reaction in both
directions (forward and reverse)
(e) Some physical techniques used during the reaction are also reduce the amount of product e.g. filtration,
evaporation, crystallization, distillation, etc.

LONG QUESTIONS:
1. What are isotopes? Give examples and explain their properties.
2. What is mass spectrometer? How is it used to determine the relative atomic masses of isotopes? (G-2012, 2014)
(L-2008)
3. Write down steps required to find empirical formula of a compound? (G-2008, 2019) (L-2014)
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4. Describe combustion analysis for determination of empirical formula of an organic compound? (G-2006) (L-
2006)
5. What is stoichiometery? Give its assumptions. Mention two important laws, which help to perform the
stoichiometric calculations? (L-2014)
6. Define limiting reactant. How it is helpful to control a chemical reaction? (L-2012) OR
Write a note on limiting reactant. Explain it giving at least two examples. (G-2019)
7. What is the difference between Actual and Theoretical yield? Why actual yield is less than theoretical yield? (L-
2012) (G-2009)

8. Example: 3 (G-2010)
9. Example: 5 (G-2005, 2007) (L-2016)
10. Example: 6 (G-2021)
11. Example: 10 (L-2013) (G-2013, 2017)
12. Example: 12 (L-2007, 2010) (G-2015)
13. Example: 13 (G-2011) (L-2015, 2016)
14. Example: 11, 14 (L-2011) (G-2021)
15. Exercise numerical: 15, 16, 22
16. Exercise numerical: 17 (G-2016)
17. Exercise numerical: 18 (G-2018)
18. Exercise numerical: 20 (L-2013)
19. Exercise numerical: 21 (L-2015)