At the end of this topic, students

should
be able to:
éi Identify and describe proton, electron and
neutron.
hf. Define proton no.,Z, nucleon no., A and
isotope.
Write isotope notation.
e Define relative atomic mass and
relative molecular mass based on the C-12
scale.
e: Sketch and explain the function of the
following
main components of a simple mass
spectrum:
What is
matter?
B Matter is anything that has mass
and
occupies space.
B All matters consist of tiny particles
called
atoms.
A tonsare nade out of three basic particles: ,
 —Pi otoii "

Electi cii
Nii c
lens

e Protons and neutrons are

found in the nucleus of the
atom, while electrons
surround the nucleus to form
‘electron cloud’.
 PROTON NUMBERAND
NUCLEON
NUMBER
B Proton number (atomic number),
Z. •
+• The proton number = the number of
protons in the nucleus of an atom.
• Nucleon number (mass
number), A.
\• The nucleon number = the total
number of
fi For neutral atom, number of protons =
number of electrons.

é. For +ve ion, number of electron is

less than ' number of protons. "
›
P. For —ve ion, number of electrons is more .
 Exampl
e:
2 3
7 I+
13

Number of = proton
protons number
= 13
Number of neutrons = nucleon number — proton
number
= 27 - 13
= 14

Number of electron =
proton number — charge carried by g
t›
species
Exercis
e:
The atomic number of lead (Pb) is 82 and
the mass number is 207.

1. Write out the atomic notation for

lead.
2. Give the number of protons,
neutrons
and electrons.
Isotopes of an element have the same:

1. number of protons (proton

number)
2. charge of nucleus of the atoms
(ionization energy; electron
affinity; size of the atom;
electronegativity are the same)

3. number of electrons in a neutral

atom

4. electronic configuration (the number

of
valence electrons)
Isotopes of an element have
different:
1. number of neutrons (nucleon
number) in • ›
the nucleus of the atoms ‹
2. relative isotopic mass t.
.
3.physical properties (e.g boiling
point /
1.1.4
Molecule
• A molecule consists of a small number
of
atoms joined together by covalent
bond.

• Diatomic molecule: contains two atoms

(example: Hi, CI2, HCI, CO)
9f. An ion is a charged species formed ‘
from a neutral atom or molecule • ›‹
’
when electrons are gained or lost as t.
the result of a chemical reaction. .:
,
g Cation.• a positively charged ion
(number e
1.1.6 RELATIVE
MASS
B Isotopes carbon -12 as a
reference or standard for
comparing the masses of other
atoms.

RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS Ar

fi Average mass of one atom of

the element relative to 1/12 times
the mass of one atom of carbon-12.
 1/12 x mass of one atom of C-12

Bï. The mass of C-12 is defined

exactly
12.00 a.m.u.
Example:
Oxygen consists of three isotopes
160

;1 O and 180 in the ratio of 99.76 :

0.04 •
0.20. Calculate the relative atomic
mass (to 4 decimal point) of
oxygen.

ANSWER :
Relative Atomic Mass
= 16 x 99 76 + 17 x 0 04 +
 RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS
Mr
B The mass of one molecule of the
substance relative to 1/12 times the I
mass of one atom of carbon-12. ,t
]
Mr =
ave a e ma s of one ole Ie of the
s b tan e 1/12 x mass '
”
of one atom of C-12

g = sum of the relative atomic masses

of all
the atoms shown in the molecular
formula.
Mass spectrometer is used to
determine:
1 Relative atomic mass of an
. element
2 Relative molecular mass of a
. compound
3. Types of isotopes that are found in
the naturally occurring element
including the abundance of the
isotopes and its relative isotopic
mass.
4 Recognize the structure of the
. compound
Vaporisation Acceleration
chamber chamber Magnetic field
(Electric field)
.

vacuUm 35
ci+
Ionization Ion
chamber
detect
or
(a) Vaporisation
Sample of the element is vaporised into
Chamber
gaseous ator

M M
+
(c) Acceleration Chamber (Electric
field)
The positive ions are asselerated by
an electric field towards the two
oppositely charged plates. The
electric field is produced by a high
voltage between the two plates. The
emerging ions are of high and
constant velocity.
(d) Magnetic
field
1. The positive ions are separated and
deflected into a circular path by a
magnet according to its mass/charge "
(m/e)
ratio.
2. Positive ions with small m/e
ratio are
(e) Ion detector

1. The numbers of ions and

types of isotopes are
recorded as a mass spectrum.

2. In practice, the ion detector is kept

in a fixed position. The magnetic
field is varied
 the mie ratio
nucleon number „
iii. iSOtOpiC m a s s
v relative atomic mass
of the ions entering the
detector.

ion intensity or percentage

abundance of
1. Information from a mass
spectrum of an element
a the isotopes which are present t
in the
element
a the relative isotopic mass of
each
isotope
e thethe
2. Thus, abundance
relativeofatomic
each isotope )
mass of „
the element can be
determined
Relative
abundance

9.
1
8.1

0 2
4
2
5
2
6
m/
e
è1:Q = the abundance of an isotope of the
element
= the percentage of the isotope found
in the
Notes
:1) The height of each peak measures the t
relative abundance of the ion which gives
rise to that peak.
2) The total number of peaks in the mass
spectrum of an element shows the
types of naturally occurring isotopes.

3) The ratio of mass/charge for each species is

found from the value of the
accelerating voltage associated with a
particular peak. Many ions have a charge of
+1 elementary charge unit, and the ratio
m/e is numerically equal to m, the mass
of the ion.
(1 elementary charge unit = 1.60x10 —1 C)
g:
-
Cations
A positive ion is formed by the loss of a
certain ' number of electrons from the
given atom

- For example:
6›.
Anions
- A negative ion is formed by gain
of one or more electrons by the
given atom

- For example:
¢•S + 2e- S2- (2e- were gain by
atom) sulphur ¡

ato -
m)
 Monoatomic ions:ions consisting of
single
atomic nucleus
1. Cation: named by just adding
‘ion’
Ex: K : potassium ion
Ca2 : calcium ion

S2- : sulphide "

ion
 When naming an ionic compound made
up of two element (binary):
\» the name of the cation (metal ion) "
appear first, followed by the name
of the anion(non-metal ion)

compound Metal ion Non- t

metal ion Name
NaF Na”, Sodium F-, Flouride
Sodium
Magnesiu Bromid
m e
2. Common nomenclature
system
-suffix-ous indicates the lower
ionic charge and the suffix-ie
indicates the higher ionic
charges
- for example:
Fe2 ferrous ion
Systematic (stock) and common names for t
ion and
copper ions
formula Systematic Common Name
charge Name
Iron(II) chloride Ferrous
FeCI2 2+ chloride
FeCl3 Iron(III) Ferric
3+ chloride chloride

Cu 2 Copper(II) Cupric (
O + oxide oxide
Rules for writing for an
ionic compound
1. The positive ion is always written
first.

2. The ratio of positive ions to

negative ions must be such that the
total number of +ve charge equal the
total number of -ve charge; the
formula unit must be electrically
neutral

3. The smallest set of subscripts

that give electrical neutrality
is always chosen.
B Polyatomic ions are composed
of 2 or more atoms bonded •
B. together
Most polyatomic ion consist to
non-metal such as P, S, C, or N
bonded to oxygen atoms
e. -ate: most common polyatomic ion
At the end of this class,
students should be able to:
1. Define mole in term of carbon-
12
and Avogadro constant, NA.
2. Interconvert between
moles, mass, number of
particles, molar volume of gas
at s.t.p and room
temperature.
3. Determine empirical and
molecular formulae from mass
 MOLE CONCEPT

fi Mole: a substance quantity that

contain a number of particles such
as atom, ion, or molecule that have
equal number of atom in 12.00
grams of C-12.

fi Therefore, one mole of pai1icles

contains
6.023 x 1023 particles. This number is
known as Avogadro Number (symbol:
L
@ NA )
 Ny

Example
s:
\ 1 mole of Cu contain 6.023 x
102*
atoms.
 MOLAR MASS

fi The mass of one mole of an

element is the relative atomic mass
expressed in grams. •
g The mass of one mole of a .
compound is the relative
molecular mass of the compound
expressed in grams.
fi Unit for molar mass = g/mole
or gmole 1
Example
s:
\• Mass of 1 mole of Mg = 24.0
g
\• Mass of 1 mole of chlorine gas
( CI2)
=
71.0 g
\• Mass of 1 mole of KNO3 = 101.0
g

g mo no. of
Tips: l atom
Example
2:
How many atoms H in 1 mole
CH4
Answer: '

1 mole CH4 Consist 4 moles

atom H
• t o. of atoms H in 1 mole CH4
= 4 x 6.023 x 1023
= 2.4092 x 1024
atoms
Example 3:
The mass of NH3 =0.25 g. "
Calculate :
a) number of mole of NH3
b) number of molecule of NHS , number
of N
•›
atom and H atom.
[ Ar : N = 14 ; H = 1 ]

Answer •
b) No. of
= 0.015 mole x 6.023 x
molecule
102*
molecule/mole
= 9.035 x 1021 molecules of NH3

No. of N atom
= 0.015 mole x 1 x 6.023 x 1023
atom/mole
= 9.035 x 1021 atoms of N

No. of H atom
= 0.015 mole x 3 x 6.023 x 1023
atom/mole
Exercise 1:
Calculate the number of ion and
Ca2 CI- in 1 mole CaCI2. ion

Answer:

Ion Ca2 = 6.023 x 1023

Ion CI- = 2 x 6.023 x
102*
= 1.2046
x 1024
Exercise 2:
A sample consist of 64.0 g oxygen "
gas. Calculate :
a) No. of mole of the oxygen •
gas
b) No. of oxygen atom in the
sample.
Answe
r:
 MOLE CONCEPT OF
GASES
g Molar volume of any gases at STP, V
=
22.4 dm*moIe-1
STP = Standard Temperature and
Pressure
T = 273.15 K
P = 1 atm @ 760 mmHg
Mole of gases at STP,
n= Volume o as L
V m (22.4 dm3moIe-1)
R: The simplest formula for a
compound.
6 It does not express
the real composition of
molecule.
 Concentration
Units
fi The concentration of
solutions is the quantity of
dissolved substance per unit .
quantity of solvent in a solution. ‘
fi. It can be expressed in
1. Molarity, M
2. Molality, m (molal
concentration)
Exampl
e:A solution prepared by dissolving
3.42 g of
sucrose ,C12H22 11 in 500 cm3 of
water.
Calculate its molarity.

Answer:
500 cm 3 342 g C12H22
M =x 3.42
1000;;cmC13,H22 O11 x 1 mole
11
C12H22O111 L
=
0.02
mol /
• The number of mole of solute per
unit mass of solvent in kg.

(unit: mol kg—1 @ molal, m) 1 kg= 1

dm3 = 1 L
Molality = moles of solute
Mass of soI'vent in kg
 What is the molality when 0.75 mol
is dissolved in 2.50 dm3 of solvent? „

Answer:
Molality, m moles of
= solute
Mass of solvent in
kg
 3. Mole fraction,
X
fi The number of moles of one
component in a mixture divide by the
total number of moles of all .
substances present in the mixture.

XA = ’A
n
tota
i
ntotai nA + n B
=
Example:

A solution is prepared by dissolving

32.0 g of methanol (CH3OH) in 72.0 g
of water.
Calculate the mole fraction of
methanol in

•
the solution.
Answer:
No. of moles CH3OH = 32.0 =
1.0 mole
32.0
fi The percentage of the mass of
solute per mass of solution. ‘
.
% w/w = mass solute x '
100O›ô !
mass solution
B. Note:
Mass of solution = mass of solute + mass of
solvent
Example:

8g of sugar is dissolved in 42g of

water. What is the concentration (%
w/w) of the solution formed? •
.
Answer:
O
›•Lw/w =mass x
solute 100
mass
solution
 5vPerocent b l u mv o l
e e›ô
Ë Percentage
v/v by mass/volume is
defined as the percentage of
volume of solute in mL per volume
of solution in mL.
% v/v = volume x t
of solute mL 100O/ô ’t
volume of solution,
5% v/v mL 5 mL of KCI dissolved in
of 100 m of solution
KCI
Note •
mass of solution = volume of solution x
density of
Example:
A 20 mL sample of plant food solution "
contains 1.4 mL of glucose. What is the
concentration (in z9v/v) of glucose in
O
„
the plant food?

Answer:
% v/v = volume of solute x 100
(mLj O
›t
volume of solution
(mL)
= 1.4 mL x 100 Out
20 mL
General
rules:
1) The oxidation state for any element in its free
state is .
u
zero, 0.
Na, Mg, H 2 , 0 2 Be, P4

a)DII group I elements form +1

ions
b) All group Il elements form +2
ions
4) The oxidation number of hydrogen is always
+1, except when it is bonded to metals in
binary compou (LiH, NaH, CaH2) where it is -
1.
5) Fluorine has an oxidation number -1 in
all its
compounds.
6) Other halogens (CI, Br, and I) have —ve "
oxidation numbers when they occur as
compounds.
halide ions inWhen
their combined with oxygen (in
oxoacic «
8) The sum of the oxidation numbers of m
all of the atoms in a neutral compound
is 0.
CO 2 , FeSO 4 , NaCI, FeCI 3
9) The sum of the oxidation numbers of all
the atoms shown in the formula for a
polyatomic ion or complex ion equals
the electrical charge on the ion.
Cr2O7 2- , NO 3-
What are the oxidation
number
a) ¿§g03of „

Step 1: The oxidation no of oxygen is -2

Step 2: The total oxidation no of AI2Og iS
zero

Assume oxidation no of AI = x
 REDOX REACTION
é. Reaction that involves transfer of electrons
eowee s elements in the reactants and
t

b. Oxidation\oss ol electrons
( oxidising agent must gain
electrons)

é: Reduction gain of electrons

( reducing agent must lose of
electrons)
é. Shorthand expression for a
chemical reaction.
aA + cC + '
bB dD
(reactant (product
s)
—+ = irreversible s)
reaction
g When reactions involve different
phase it is usual to put the phase in
brackets after the symbol (s=soIid;
I=liquid; g=gas; aq=aqueous).
9f. The numbers a, /?, c and d showing , t
the relative numbers of molecules t
reacting, are called the stoichiometric
coefficients. t
Eg: ›
Give (aq) CaCI2 + CO2
C a C O 3 (s) + 2HC
n (aq) (g)
+
Reactants : H 2 O CaCO
( 3

and HCI Products :

 Balancin a Che ical E a
io
The Ion - Electron Method (or Half-
Reaction Method)

R. is to split an unbalanced redox equation

into two half-reactions, oxidation and
reduction half-reactions

ñ: Both half-reactions are then

balanced in according to the
charge of electrons.

g It is applied the best for redox

reactions with ions and in aqueous
 Step-by-step in balancing redox
reactions usin this method :
g Separate into half-reactions.

é: Balance the oxidizing and reducing

elements i each half-reaction.

6: Balance atoms other than O and H.

b: In acidic solution, balance oxygen with

H2O a hydrogen with H+. In basic
solution, balance Oxygen with H2O,
hydrogen with H+ and OH-.
B. Balance each half-reaction for charge
with e-
B: Multiply each half-reaction by a
coefficient so the numbers of electrons
are the same in ea and add both half-
equations together.
B Cancel common reactants and
products.
6. Eliminate fractions by multiplying a
common t
factor if needed.
6. Complete the equation by final
inspection.
 STOICHIOMETRY

B Quantitative study of reactants

and products in a chemical
reaction.
B The coefficients in a balanced equation tell

of reactants and products.

 )» Molar mass - moles ++ grams
›aMolarity - moles ++ liters
›s Molar som moles ++
volume - liters gas

4. Check
answer.
 Example:
Given :
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCI (aq) —> CaCI2 (aq) + CO2 (g)
+
H2O (§

I I
i Information from the chemical ”
equation :
1 molecule CaCO3 + 2 molecules HCI
—>
1 molecule CaCI2 + 1 molecule
CO2 + 1 molecule H2O

In terms of equivalent :
i. Mole equivalent
1 mole of CaCO3 = 2 moles of HCI
= 1 mole
Of CaCI2 = 1 mole of CO2 = 1 mole
of H2O.
ii. Mass
equivalent
1 mole x 100 g/mole of CaCO3 = 2 moles x

36.5 g/mole of HCI = 1 mole x 111 g/mole of

\t CaCI2 = 1 mole x 44 g/mole of CO2 = 1 mole ,
’t,

x 18 g/mole of H2O.

. 100 g of CaCO3 = 73 g of HCI =

111 g of CaCl2 = 44 g of CO2 = 18
g of H2O.
Exercis
e:
1. Balance the following
chemical equations by inspection
and write its mole equivalent and
mass equivalent.
NH 3 + CuO —> Cu + N2 +
H2O
Answer:
2 mole of NH3 = 3 mole of
2NHCuO
3
= +3 3CuO
mole of
—«Cu = 3Cu 1+ N2
mole of N2
-r = 3 mole of H2O
3H O t
2

34 g of NH3 = 238.8 g of CuO =

190.8 ^
2. Ammonia gas, NHS is prepared by
r eaction between N2 g i s and H2 g it s.

a) Write the balance equation

b) Write the mole equivalent
and mass equivalent
c) How many moles of ammonia
yield from
0.481 mole of H2
LIMITING REACTANT

fi Limiting reactant / reagent :

The reactant which is completely
consumed before the others
( finished first )

B Excess reactant : A reactant that

remains
after a reaction is over.

B Limiting reactant will determine the

mole/mass of products.
¥. Limiting reactant can also be identify by
the ! « smallest ratio of

the number of moles of reactant

the stoichiometric coeflicient
00 O
QO
0
0

6 red left
over
 ST0ICHIDMETR¥FOR RE4CTI0NS IN
SOLUTION
STEP
1Idelltify the ipxies presenl in the combined solution, and
determine
what reaction «curs.
STEP 2
Write the bdanced net ionic equati0fl fOr the reaction.
STEP 3
Calculate the moles of reactants.
STEP 4
Detemine Which ffldCtalll IS 1ilIlifiR§.

Calculate ie moles of product or products, as required.

STEP 6
1. Write a balanced
equation.

2. For each reactant, "

calculate the amount of
product formed.
 Example :

Urea, (NH2)2CO is prepared by reacting

NH 3 with CO 2 .

2 NH, + CO2 —• (NH2)2CO+ H2O

If 637.2 g of NH3 A re allowed to react

with
1142 g of CO2 :
a) Which of the two reactants is
the limiting reagent ?
b) Calculate the mass of (NH2)2CO ’
formed. ’
Answer :

a) Moles of NH3 = 637.2 g / 17.0 gmoI-

1

= 37.48 mol
Mole of = 1142 g / 44.0
CO2 gmoI-1
= 25.95 mol
NH, : 37.48 / 2 = 18.74 mol

CO2 : 25.95 / 1 = 25.95 mol

xl
Since the NH 3 has the smallest ratio, NH 3 is the ‹”
b) From the balanced
equation :
2 mole NH3 e 1 mole (NH2)2CO

34 g NH3 e 60 g (NH2)2CO

. 637.2 g NHS + 60 \;
(NH,}2CO x 637.2 {; NHS
34 g NHS
Exercise:
How many moles of Fe3O4 CAD be
obtained by reacting 16.8 g of Fe
with 10.0 g of H2O?

›
3 ( -r 4H 2 O ( ) Fe 3 4 4H 2 .
Fe ) (s) (gt
Answe
r:
 REACTION YIELD & PERCENTAGE
YIELD
B To determine how efficient a given
reaction by using percentage yield

% yield = actual ield x 100o›t

theoretical yield

Theoretical yield — the maximum

obtainable yield predicted by the
balanced (stoichiometric) equation.

Actual yield — the amount of product ’

actually obtained from a reaction. «** ‹
Example:
A student completely reacts 5.00 g
of magnesium with an excess of
oxygen to produce magnesium
oxide. Analysis reveals 8.10 g of t
magnesium oxide. What is the ]
student's percentage yield? i
Answer:

“
-
Exercise:

For the balanced equation shown

below, if the reaction of 85.8 grams
of Fe produces '
95.8 grams of FeCl3, what is the
percent
yield?
Answer:2Fe + 3CI2 —• 2FeCI3
Exercis
e:
For the balanced equation shown
below, if t he reaction of 50.7 grams
of C H6S produces a 39.9% yield, ,
how many grams Of CO2 Would be ,t t
produced ? ti
C3H6S + 60 2 —• 3CO2 +
3H,O + SOA
}
Example
How would you prepare 60.0 mL of 0.2 M
HNO3 from a stock solution of 4.00 M HNO3?
‘.
/H,V; = /HfVf

/H = — 0.200
M — V = 0.06 V=?
4.00 L L

3 mL of acid + 57 mL of t
water = 60 mL of s‹
 Calculate the new concentration
(molarity) if enough water is added to
100mL of 0.25M „ ; sodium chloride {t
to make up 1.5L. t’
Answe i
r:
 Calculate the volume to which
500mL of 0.02M coppper sulfate .
solution must be diluted to make a
new concentration of 0.001M.

Answer:
 Titratio
n
Titration is a common laboratory
method
of quantitative chemical analysis that
is used to determine the unknown
concentration of a known reactant.

Type of titration:
1) Acid-base titration
2)Redox titration
3) Back titration
B An acid-base titration is a procedure which
is used to determine the concentration of
• I an acid or base. ,;
]
B A measured volume of an acid or
base of known concentration is
reacted with a
 Steps in
Calculations
91 Write the balanced chemical equation for the
reaction

é: Extract all the relevant information I

from the question !

fi Check that data for consistency,

for example, concentrations are
usually given in M or mol L-1 but
volumes are often given in mL. You will
need to convert the mL to L for
consistency. The easiest way to do this M
ét Calculate the moles of reactant (n) for
which you have both the volume(V) and
concentration(M) : n = M x V

g From the balanced chemical I

equation find the mole ratio known I;
reactant : unknown reactant ]
5 Use the mole ratio to calculate .
the moles of the unknown reactant

é/ From the volume(V) of unknown ,

reactant and its previously calculated
moles(n), calculate its
concentration(M): M = n + V
In an acid-base titration, 17.45 mL of
0.180 M nitric acid, HNO3, were •
completely neutralized by 14.76 mL .
of aluminium hydroxide, AI(OH)3.
Calculate the concentration of the
aluminium hydroxide.
Redox titration (also called
oxidation- reduction titration) is
a type of titration on a redox
reaction between
the analyte and titrant.
How many millilitres of a 0.206 M HI
solution .
are needed to reduce 22.5 mL of a I t
KMnO. 4 solution according to the
equatio
0.374 M
following
n: •
1) How many mL of 0.20 M HBr is
needed to neutralize 23.45 mL of 0.1 1
M KOH? What is the balanced
equation
. for the reaction between
the two solutions?
2) Lab technician wants to determine
the molarity of an unknown acid.
What is the molarity of the solution if
13.61 mL of the acid is neutralized
by 34.69 mL of 0.025 M KOH? •

Answer:

X = 0.064 M