CHAPTER

1 BASIC CONCEPTS

Animation 1.1: Spectrometer

Source & Credit: gascell
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1.1 ATOM

Long time ago, it was thought that matter is made up of simple, indivisible particles. Greek
philosophers thought that, matter could be divided into smaller and smaller particles to reach
a basic unit, which could not be further sub-divided. Democritus (460-370 B.C.) called these
particles atomos, derived from the word “atomos” means indivisible. However, the ideas of Greek
philosophers were not based on experimental evidences.
In the late 17th century, the quantitative study of the composition of pure substances disclosed
that a few elements were the components of many different substances. It was also investigated
that how, elements combined to form compounds and how compounds could be broken down
into their constituent elements.
In 1808, an English school teacher, John Dalton, recognized that the law of conservation of matter
and the law of definite proportions could be explained by the existence of atoms. He developed
an atomic theory; the main postulate of which is that all matter is composed of atoms of different
elements, which differ in their properties.
Atom is the smallest particle of an element, which can take part in a chemical reaction. For
example, He and Ne, etc. have atoms, which have independent existence while atoms of hydrogen,
nitrogen and oxygen do not exist independently.

Animation 1.2: Atom

Source & Credit: 123gifs

The modern researches have clearly shown that an atom is further composed of subatomic
particles like electron, proton, neutron, hypron, neutrino, anti-neutrino, etc. More than 100 such
particles are thought to exist in an atom. However, electron, proton and neutron are regarded as
the fundamental particles of atoms.

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A Swedish chemist J. Berzelius- (1779-1848) determined the atomic masses of elements. A number
of his values are close to the modern values of atomic masses. Berzelius also developed the system
of giving element a symbol.

1.1.1 Evidence of Atoms

It is not possible actually to see the atoms but the nearest possibility to its direct evidence is by
using an electron microscope. A clear and accurate image of an object that is smaller than the
wavelength of visible light, cannot be obtained. Thus an ordinary optical microscope can measure
the size of an object upto or above 500 nm (lnm = 10-9m). However, objects of the size of an atom
can be observed in an electron microscope. It uses beams of electrons instead of visible light,
because wavelength of electron is much shorter than that of visible light.

Animation 1.3:Made of Atom

Source & Credit: imgur

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Fig. (1.1) shows electron microscopic photograph of a piece of

a graphite which has been magnified about 15 millions times.
The bright band in the figure are layers of carbon atoms.
In the 20th century, X-ray work has shown that the diameter of
atoms are of the order 2x10-10 m which is 0.2 nm. Masses of atoms
range from 10-27 to 10-25 kg. They are often expressed in atomic
mass units (amu) when 1 amu is = 1.661 x 10-27 kg. The students
can have an idea about the amazingly small size of an atom from
the fact that a full stop may have two million atoms present in it. Fig (1.1) Electron microscopic

photograph of graphite

1.1.2 Molecule

A molecule is the smallest particle of a pure substance which can exist independently. It may
contain one or more atoms. The number of atoms present in a molecule determines its atomicity.
Thus molecules can be monoatomic, diatomic and triatomic, etc., if they contain one, two and three
atoms respectively. Molecules of elements may contain one, two or more same type of atoms. For
example, He, Cl2, O3, P4, S8. On the other hand, molecules of compounds consist of different kind of
atoms. For example, HCl, NH3, H2SO4,C6H12O6.
The sizes of molecules are definitely bigger than atoms. They depend upon the number of atoms
present in them and their shapes. Some molecules are so big that they are called macromolecules.
Haemoglobin is such a macromolecule found in blood. It helps to carry oxygen from our lungs to
all parts of our body. Each molecule of haemoglobin is made up of nearly 10,000 atoms and it is
68,000 times heavier than a hydrogen atom.

1.1.3 Ion

Ions are those species which carry either positive or negative charge. Whenever an atom of an
element loses one or more electrons, positive ions are formed.

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A sufficient amount of energy is to be provided to a neutral atom to ionize it.

A → A + + e-

This A+ is called a cation. A cation may carry +1, +2, +3, etc.charge or charges. The number of charges
present on an ion depends upon the number of electrons lost by the atom. Anyhow, energy is always
required to do so. Hence the formation of the positive ions is an endothermic process. The most
common positive ions are formed by the metal atoms such as Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+ , Al3+, Fe3+, Sn4+, etc.
The chapter on chemical bonding will enable us to understand the feasibilities of their formation.
When a neutral atom picks up one or more electrons, a negative ion is produced, which is called an
anion.
− -
B +e → B
Energy is usually released when an electron is added to the isolated neutral atom, Therefore, the
formation of an uninegative ion is an exothermic process.The most common negative ions are
F − ,Cl − , Br − , S 2− etc.
The cations and anions possess altogether different properties from their corresponding neutral
atoms. There are many examples of negative ions which consist of group of atoms like OH-, CO32-,
SO42-, PO43-, MnO41-, Cr2O72- etc. The positive ions having group of atoms are less common e.g. NH4+
and some carbocations in organic chemistry.

1.1.4 Molecular Ion

When an atom loses or gains an electron, it forms an ion. Similarly, a molecule may also lose or
gain an electron to form a molecular ion, e.g., CH4+, CO+, N2+
Cationic molecular ions are more abundant than anionic ones.
These ions can be generated by passing high energy electron
beam or α-particles or X-rays through a gas. The break down
of molecular ions obtained from the natural products can
give important information about their structure.

Animation 1.4: Molecules

Source & credit: wikimedia

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1.2 RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS

Relative atomic mass is the mass of an atom of an element as compared to the mass of an
atom of carbon taken as 12.
The unit used to express the relative atomic mass is called atomic mass unit (amu) and it is 1/12
th of the mass of one carbon atom, On carbon -12 scale, the relative atomic mass of 126C is 12.0000
amu and the relative atomic mass of 11 H is 1.008 amu. The masses of the atoms are extremely
small. We-don’t have any balance to weigh such an extremely small mass, that is why we use the
relative atomic mass unit scale.
The relative atomic masses of some elements are given in the following Table (1.1).

Table (1.1) Relative atomic masses of a few elements

Relative Atomic Mass Relative Atomic Mass
Element (amu) Element (amu)

H 1.008 Cl 35.453
O 15.9994 Cu 63.546
Ne 20.1797 U 238.0289

These element have atomic masses in fractions and will be explained in the following article on
isotopes.

1.3 ISOTOPES

In Dalton’s atomic theory, all the atoms of an element were considered alike in all the properties
including their masses. Later on, it was discovered that atoms of the same element can possess
different masses but same atomic numbers. Such atoms of an element are called isotopes.
So isotopes are different kind of atoms of the same element having same atomic number, but
different atomic masses. The isotopes of an element possess same chemical properties and same
position in the periodic table. This phenomenon of isotopy was first discovered by Soddy. Isotopes
have same number of protons and electrons but they differ in the number of neutrons present in
their nuclei.

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Carbon has three isotopes written as 126 C , 136 C , 146 C and expressed as C-12, C-13 and C-14. Each of these
have 6-protrons and 6 electrons. However, these isotopes have 6, 7 and 8 neutrons respectively.
Similarly, hydrogen has three isotopes 11 H , 21 H , 31 H called protium, deuterium and tritium. Oxygen
has three, nickel has five, calcium has six, palladium has six, cadmium has nine and tin has eleven
isotopes.

Animation 1.5: Basic Concepts

Source & Credit: pixshark

1.3.1 Relative Abundance of Isotopes

The isotopes of all the elements have their own natural abundance. The properties of a particular
element, which are mentioned in the literature, mostly correspond to the most abundant isotope
of that element. The relative abundance of the isotopes of elements can be determined by mass
spectrometry.

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Table (1.2) shows the natural abundance of some common isotopes.

Table (1.2) Natural abundance of some common isotopes.

Element Isotope Abundance (%) Mass (amu)
Hydrogen 1
H, 2 H 99.985, 0.015 1.007825, 2.01410
Carbon 12
C, 13C 98.893, 1.107 12.0000, 13.00335
Nitrogen 14 99.634, 0.366 14.00307 15.00011
N, 15 N
Oxygen 15.99491, 16.99914, 17.9916
16
O, 17 O, 18O 99.759, 0.037, 0.204
Sulphur 32
S, 33S, 34S, 36S 95.0, 0.76, 4.22, 0.014 31.97207, 32.97146, 33.96786, 35.96709
Chlorine 36
Cl, 37 Cl 75.53, 24.47 34.96885, 36.96590
Bromine
79
Br, 81Br 50.54, 49.49 78.918, 80.916

We know at present above 280 different isotopes occur in nature. They include 40 radioactive
isotopes as well. Besides these about 300 unstable radioactive isotopes have been produced
through artificial disintegration. The distribution of isotopes among the elements is varied and
complex as it is evident from the Table (1.2). The elements like arsenic, fluorine, iodine and gold,
etc have only a single isotope. They are called mono-isotopic elements.
In general, the elements of odd atomic number almost never possess more than two stable isotopes.
The elements of even atomic number usually have larger number of isotopes and isotopes whose
mass numbers are multiples of four are particularly abundant. For example, l6O, 24Mg, 28Si, 40Ca and
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Fe form nearly 50% of the earth’s crust. Out of 280 isotopes that occur in nature, 154 have even
mass number and even atomic number.

1.3.2 Determination of Relative Atomic Masses of Isotopes by Mass Spectrometry

Mass spectrometer is an instrument which is used to measure the exact masses of different
isotopes of an element. In this technique, a substance is first volatilized and then ionized with the
help of high energy beam of electrons. The gaseous positive ions, thus formed, are separated on
the basis of their mass to charge ratio (m/e) and then recorded in the form of peaks. Actually mass
spectrum is the plot of data in such a way that (m/e) is plotted as abscissa (x-axis) and the relative
number of ions as ordinate (y-axis).

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First of all, Aston’s mass spectrograph was designed to identify the isotopes of an element
on the basis of their atomic masses. There is another instrument called Dempster’s mass
spectrometer. This was designed for the identification of elements which were available in
solid state.
The substance whose analysis for the separation of isotopes is required, is converted into the
vapour state. The pressure of these vapours is kept very low, that is, 10-6 to 10-7 torr. These
vapours are allowed to enter the ionization chamber where fast moving electrons arc thrown
upon them. The atoms of isotopic element present in the form of vapours, are ionized. These
positively charged ions of isotopes of an element have different masses depending upon the
nature of the isotopes present in them.
The positive ion of each isotope has its own (m/e) value. When a potential difference (E) of
500-2000 volts is applied between perforated accelerating plates, then these positive ions are
strongly attracted towards the negative plate. In this way, the ions are accelerated.

These ions are then allowed to pass through a strong magnetic field of strength (H), which will
separate them on the basis of their (m/e) values. Actually, the magnetic field makes the ions
to move in a circular path. The ions of definite m/e value will move in the form of groups one
after the other and fall on the electrometer.

The mathematical relationship for (m/e) is

m/e = H 2 r/2E

Where H is the strength of magnetic field, E is the strength of electrical field, r is the radius of
circular path. If E is increased, by keeping H constant then radius will increase and positive ion
of a particular m/e will fall at a different place as compared to the first place. This can also be
done by changing the magnetic field. Each ion sets up a minute electrical current.
Electrometer is also called an ion collector and develops the electrical current. The strength of
the current thus measured gives the relative abundance of ions of a definite m/e value.
Similarly, the ions of other isotopes having different masses are made to fall on the collector
and the current strength is measured. The current strength in each case gives the relative
abundance of each of the isotopes. The same experiment is performed with C-12 isotope and
the current strength is compared.
This comparison allows us to measure the exact mass number of the isotope Fig. (1.2), shows
the separation of isotopes of Ne. Smaller the (m/e) of an isotope, smaller the radius of curvature
produced by the magnetic field according to above equation.

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In modern spectrographs, each ion strikes a detector, the ionic current is amplified and is fed to the
recorder. The recorder makes a graph showing the relative abundance of isotopes plotted against
the mass number.

Fig (1.3) Computer plotted graph

Fig(1.2) Diagram of a simple Mass for the isotopes of neon

Spectrometer

The above Fig (1.3) shows a computer plotted graph for the isotopes of neon.
The separation of isotopes can be done by the methods based on their properties. Some important
methods are as gaseous diffusion, thermal diffusion, distillation, ultracentrifuge, electromagnetic
separation and laser separation.

1.3.3 Average Atomic Masses

Table (1.1) of atomic masses of elements shows many examples of fractional values. Actually
the atomic masses depend upon the number of possible isotopes and their natural abundance.
Following solved example will throw light on this aspect.

Example (1):

A sample of neon is found to consist of 2010 Ne , 1021 Ne and 2210 Ne in the percentages of 90.92%, 0.26%,
8.82% respectively. Calculate the fractional atomic mass of neon.

Solution:

The overall atomic mass of neon, which is an ordinary isotopic mixture, is the average of the de-
termined atomic masses of individual isotopes. Hence
20x90.92 + 21x0.26 + 22x8.82
Average atomic mass = = 20.18 Answer
100

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Hence the average atomic mass of neon is 20.18 amu

It is important to realize that no individual neon atom in the sample has a mass of 20.18 amu. For
most laboratory purposes, however, we consider the sample to consist of atoms with this average
mass.

1.4 ANALYSIS OF A COMPOUND - EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR

FORMULAS

Before we go into the details of empirical and molecular formulas of a compound, we should be
interested to know the percentage of each element in the compound. For this purpose all the
elements present in the compound are first identified.
This is called qualitative analysis. After that the compound is subjected to quantitative analysis
in which the mass of each element in a sample of the compound is determined. From this we
determine the percentage by mass of each element. The percentage of an element in a compound
is the number of grams of that element present in 100 grams of the compound.

Mass of the element in the compound

Percentage of an element = x 100
mass of the compound

Example (2):

8.657 g of a compound were decomposed into its elements and gave 5.217 g of carbon, 0.962 g of
hydrogen, 2.478 g of oxygen. Calculate the percentage composition of the compound under study.

Solution:

Applying the formula

Mass of carbon 5.217 g
Percentage of carbon = x 100 = x 100 = 60.28 Answer
Mass of the compound 8.657 g

Mass of hydrogen 0.962 g

Percentage of hydrogen = x 100 = x 100 = 11.11 Answer
Mass of the compound 8.657 g
Mass of oxygen 2.478 g
Percentage of oxygen = x 100 = x 100 = 28.62 Answer
Mass of the compound 8.657 g

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The above results tell us that in one hundred grams of the given compound, there are 60.26 grams
of carbon, 11.11 grams of hydrogen and 28.62 grams of oxygen.
Percentage composition of a compound can also be determined theoretically if we know the formula
mass of the compound. The following equation can be used for this purpose.

Mass of the element in one mole of the compound

Percentage of an element = x 100
Formula mass of the compound

1.4.1 Empirical Formula

It is the simplest formula that gives the small whole number ratio between the atoms of different
elements present in a compound. In an empirical formula of a compound, AxBy, there are x atoms
of an element A and y atoms of an element B.
The empirical formula of glucose (C6H12O6) is CH2O and that of benzene (C6H6) is CH.
Empirical formula of a compound can be calculated following the steps mentioned below:
1. Determination of the percentage composition.
2. Finding the number of gram atoms of each element. For this purpose divide the mass of each
element (% of an element) by its atomic mass.
3. Determination of the atomic ratio of each element. To get this, divide the number of moles of
each element (gram atoms) by the smallest number of moles.
4. If the atomic ratio is simple whole number, it gives the empirical formula, otherwise multiply
with a suitable digit to get the whole number atomic ratio.

Example (3):

Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) contains 40.92% carbon, 4.58% hydrogen and 54.5% of oxygen by mass.
What is the empirical formula of the ascorbic acid?

Solution:

From the percentages of these elements, we believe that in 100 grams of ascorbic acid, there are
40.92 grams of carbon, 4.58 grams of hydrogen and 54.5 grams of oxygen.

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Divide these masses of the elements (or percentages) by their atomic masses to get the number of
gram atoms.

4.58g
No. of gram atoms of hydrogen = = 4.54 gram atoms
1.008 gmol −1

54.5g
No. of gram atoms of oxygen = = 3.406 gram atoms
16 gmol −1

40.92g
No. of gram atoms of carbon = = 3.41 gram atoms
12.0 gmol−1

Atomic ratio is obtained by dividing the gram atoms with 3.406, which is the smallest number.

C:H:O =
3.41
:
4.54 3.406
:
3.406 3.406 3.406

C:H:O = 1 : 1.33 : 1

To convert them into whole numbers, multiply with three

C:H:O = 3(1 : 1.33 : 1) = 3 : 4 : 3 Answer

This whole number ratio gives us the subscripts for the empirical formula of the ascorbic acid
i.e.,C3H4O3.

1.4.2 Empirical Formula from Combustion Analysis

Those organic compounds which simply consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen can be analyzed
by combustion. The sole products will be CO2 and H2O. These two products of combustion are
separately collected.

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Combustion Analysis

A weighed sample of the organic compound is placed in the combustion tube. This combustion tube
is fitted in a furnance. Oxygen is supplied to burn the compound. Hydrogen is converted to H2O
and carbon is converted to CO2. These gases are absorbed in Mg (ClO4)2 and 50% KOH respectively.
(Fig 1.4). The difference in the masses of these absorbers gives us the amounts of H2O and CO2
produced. The amount of oxygen is determined by the method of difference.

Fig(1.4) Combustion analysis

Following formulas are used to get the percentages of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, respectively.

Mass of CO 2 12.00
% of carbon = x x 100
Mass of organic compound 44.00

Mass of H 2 O 2.016
% of hydrogen = x x 100
Mass of organic compound 18

The percentage of oxygen is obtained by the method of difference.

% of oxygen = 100 - (% of carbon + % of hydrogen) .

Example (4):

A sample of liquid consisting of carbon, , hydrogen and oxygen was subjected to combustion
analysis. 0.5439 g of the compound gave 1.039 g of CO2, 0.6369. g of H2O.
Determine the empirical formula of the compound.

Solution:

Mass of organic Compound = 0.5439 g

Mass of carbon dioxide = 1.039g
Mass of water = 0.6369 g

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Element % No. of Gram Atomic Empirical

atoms Ratio formula

1.039 g 12.00
x x100 52.108 4.34
C 0.543 g 44.00 = 4.34 =2
12 2.17
=52.108

0.6369 g 2.016
x x100 13.11 13.01
0.5439 g 18 = 13.01 =6 C2 H 6O
H 1.008 2.17
=13.11

100 − (52.108 + 13.11) 34.77 2.17

= 2.17 =1
=34.77 16.00 2.17
O

1.4.3 Molecular Formula

That formula of a substance which is based on the actual molecule is called molecular formula. It
gives the total number of atoms of different elements present in the molecule of a compound. For
example, molecular formula of benzene is C6H6 while that of glucose is C6H12O6.
The empirical formulas of benzene and glucose are CH and CH2O respectively, so for these
compounds the molecular formulas are the simple multiple of empirical formulas. Hence
Molecular formula = n (Empirical formula)
Where ‘n’ is a simple integer. Those compounds whose empirical and molecular formulae are the
same are numerous. For example, H2O, CO2, NH3 and C12H22O11 have same empirical and molecular
formulas. Their simple multiple ‘n’ is unity. Actually the value of ‘n’ is the ratio of molecular mass
and empirical formula mass of a substance.
Molecular mass
n=
Empirical formula mass

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Example (5):

The combustion analysis of an organic compound shows it to contain 65.44% carbon, 5.50%
hydrogen and 29.06% or oxygen. What is the empirical formula of the compound? If the molecular
mass of this compound is 110.15 g.mol-1. Calculate the molecular formula of the compound.

Solution:

First of all divide the percentage of each element by its atomic mass to get the number of gram
atoms or moles.
65.44 g of C
No of gram atoms of C = = 5.45 gram atoms of C
12 g / mol

5.50 g of H
No of gram atoms of hydrogen = = 5.46 gram atoms of H
1.008 g / mol

29.06 g of O
No of gram atoms of oxygen = = 1.82 gram atoms of O
16.00 g / mol

Molar ratio:
C : H : O
5.45 : 4.46 : 1.82

Divide the number of gram atoms by the smallest number i.e 1.82

C :H : O

5.45 5.46 1.82

: :
1.82 1.82 1.82

3 : 3 : 1
Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are present in the given organic compound in the ratio of 3:3:1. So
the empirical formula is C3H3O.

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In order to determine the molecular formula, first calculate the empirical formula mass.

Empirical formula mass = 12 x 3 + 1.008 x 3 + 16 x 1 = 55.05 g/mol

Molar mass of the compound = 110.15g.mol-1

Molar mass of the compound 110.15

n= = =2
Empirical formula mass 55.05

Molecular formula = n (empirical formula)

= 2 (C3H3O) =C6H6O2 Answer
There are many possible structures for this molecular formula.

1.5 CONCEPT OF MOLE

We know that atom is an extremely small particle. The mass of an individual atom is extremely
small quantity. It is not possible to weigh individual atoms or even small number of atoms directly.
That is why, we use the atomic mass unit (amu) to express the atomic masses.
For the sake of convenience, the atomic mass may be given in any unit of measurement i.e. grams,
kg, pounds, and so on.
When the substance at our disposal is an element then the atomic mass of that element expressed
in grams is called one gram atom. It is also called one gram mole or simply a mole of that element.
Mass of an element in grams
Number of gram atoms or moles of an element =
Molar mass of an element

For example

1 gram atom of hydrogen = 1.008 g

1 gram atom of carbon = 12.000 g
and 1 gram atom of uranium = 238.0 g
It means that one gram atom of different elements have different masses in them. One mole of
carbon is 12 g, while 1 mole of magnesium is 24g. It also shows that one atom of magnesium is
twice as heavy as an atom of carbon.
The molecular mass of a substance expressed in grams is called gram molecule or gram mole or
simply the mole of a substance.

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Mass of molecular substance in grams

Number of gram molecules or moles of a molecular substance =
Molar mass of the substance

For example

1 gram molecule of water = 18.0 g

1 gram molecule of H2SO4 = 98.0 g
and 1 gram molecule of sucrose = 342.0 g

It means that one gram molecules of different molecular substances have different masses.
The formula unit mass of an ionic compound expressed in grams is called gram formula of
the substance. Since ionic compounds do not exist in molecular form therefore the sum of atomic
masses of individual ions gives the formula mass. The gram formula is also referred to as gram
mole or simply a mole.
Mass of the ionic substance in grams
Number of gram formulas or moles of a substance =
Formula mass of the ionic substance
1 gram formula of NaCl = 58.50 g
1 gram formula of Na2CO3 = 106 g
1gram formula of AgNO3 = 170g
Itmayalsobementionedherethationicmassofanionicspeciesexpressedingramsiscalledonegramionor
one mole of ions.

Mass of the ionic species in grams

Number of gram ions or moles of an species =
Formula mass of the ionic species

For example

1 g ion of OH- = 17g

1 g ion of SO42-=96g
1 g ion of CO32- =60g
So, the atomic mass, molecular mass, formula mass or ionic mass of the substance expressed
in gram is called molar mass of the substance.

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Example (6):

Calculate the gram atoms (moles) in

(a) 0.1 g of sodium.
(b) 0.1 kg of silicon.

Solution
Mass of element in gram
(a) No. of gram atoms =
Molar mass

Mass of sodium = 0.1 g

Molar mass = 23 g/mol

0.1g
Number of gram atoms of sodium = = 0.0043 mol
23 gmol−1

= 4.3 x 10-3 mol Answer

(b) First of all convert the mass of silicon into grams.
Mass of silicon = 0.1 kg = 0.1 x 1000 = 100 g
Molar mass = 28.086 gmol-1

100 g
Number of gram atoms of silicon = = 3.56 moles Answer
28.086 gmol−1

Example (7):

Calculate the mass of 10-3 moles of MgSO4.

Solution:

MgSO4 is an ionic compound. We will consider its formula mass in place of molecular mass.
Mass of the ionic substance
Number of gram formula or mole of a substance =
Formula mass of the ionic substance

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Formula mass of MgSO4 = 24 + 96 = 120 gmol-1

Number of moles of MgS04 = 10-3moles
Applying the formula

Mass of MgSO4
10-3 =
120 gmol −1

Mass of MgSO4 = 10-3 moles x 120gmol-1

= 120 x 10-3 = 0.12 g Answer

1.5.1 Avogadro's Number

Avogadro's number is the number of atoms, molecules and ions in one gram atom of an element,
one gram molecule of a compound and one gram ion of a substance, respectively.
To understand Avogadro's number let us consider the following quantities of substances.
1.008 g of hydrogen = 1 mole of hydrogen = 6.02 x 1023 atoms of H
23 g of sodium = 1 mole of Na = 6.02 x1O23 atoms of Na
238 g of uranium = 1 mole of U =6.02x1023atomsofU
This number, 6.02 x 1023 is the number of atoms in one mole of the element. It is interesting to know that
differentmassesofelementshavethesamenumberofatoms.Anatomofsodiumis23timesheavierthanan
atomofhydrogen.Inordertohaveequalnumberofatomssodiumshouldbetaken23timesgreaterinmass
than hydrogen. Magnesium atom is twice heavier than carbon; i.e. 10g of Mg and 5 g of C contain the same
number of atoms.
18 g of H2O =1 mole of water =6.02x1023moleculesofwater
180 g of glucose = 1 mole of glucose = 6.02 x 1023 molecules of glucose
342 g of sucrose = 1 mole of sucrose = 6.02 x 1023 molecules of sucrose
Hence, one mole of different compounds has different masses but has the same number of
molecules.
When we take into consideration the ions, then

96 g of SO42- = 1 mole of SO42- = 6.02 x 1023 ions of SO42-

62 g of NO3- = 1 mole of NO3- = 6.02 x 1023 ions of NO3-

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From the above discussion, we reach the conclusion that the number 6.02 X 1023 is equal to one
mole of a substance. This number is called Avogadro’s number and it is denoted by NA.
Following relationships between amounts of substances in terms of their masses and the number
of particles present in them, are useful

Mass of the element x NA

1) Number of atoms of an element =
Atomic mass

Mass of the compound x NA

2) Number of molecules of a compound =
Molecular mass
Mass of the ion x NA
3) Number of ions of an ionic species =
Ionic mass

When we have compounds of known mass we can calculate the number of atoms from their
formulas. In 18 g of water there are present 6.02 x 1023 molecules of H2O, 2 x 6.02 x 1023 atoms of
hydrogen and 6.02 x 1023 atoms of oxygen. Similarly, in 98g of H2SO4, it has twice the Avogadro’s
number of hydrogen atoms, four times the Avogadro’s number of oxygen atoms and the Avogadro’s
number of sulphur atoms.
Some substances ionize in suitable solvents to yield cations and anions. The number of such ions,
their masses, number of positive and negative charges can be easily calculated from the known
amount of the substance dissolved. Let us dissolve 9.8 g of H2SO4 in sufficient quantity of H2O to
get it completely ionized. It has 0.1 moles of H2SO4. It will yield 0.2 mole or 0.2 x 6.02 x 1023 H+ and
0.1 moles or 0.1 x 6.02 x 1023 SO42- etc. Total positive charges will be 0.2 x 6.02 x 1023 and the total
negative charges will be 0.2 x 6.02 x 1023 (because each SO42-, has two negative charges). The total
mass of H+ is (0.2 x 1.008)g and that of SO42- is (0.1 x 96) g.

Example (8):

How many molecules of water are there in 10.0 g of ice? Also calculate the number of atoms of
hydrogen and oxygen separately, the total number of atoms and the covalent bonds present in the
sample.

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Solution:

Mass of ice (water) = 10.0 g

Molar mass of water =18gmol-1
Mass of water in gram
Number of molecules of water = x Avogadro's number
Molar mass of water in g mol −1
10
= -1
x 6.02 x 1023
18 g mol

Number of molecules of water = 0.55 x 6.02 x 1023 = 3.31 x 1023 Answer

One molecule of water contain hydrogen atoms =2
3.31 x 1023 molecules of water contain hydrogen atoms = 2 x 3.31 x 1023
= 6.68 x 1023 Answer
One molecule of water contains oxygen atom =1
3.31 x 1023 molecules of water contain oxygen atoms = 3.31 x 1023 Answer
One molecule of water contains number of covalent bonds =2
3.31 x 1023 molecules of water contain number of covalent bonds = 2 x 3.31 x 1023
= 6.68 x 1023 Answer
Total number of atoms of hydrogen and oxygen = 6.68 x 1023 + 3.31 x 1023
= 9.99 x 1023 Answer

Example (9):

10.0 g of H3PO4 has been dissolved in excess of water to dissociate it completely into ions.
Calculate,
a) Number of molecules in 10.0 g of H3PO4.
b) Number of positive and negative ions in case of complete dissociation in water.
c) Masses of individual ions.
d) Number of positive and negative charges dispersed in the solution.

Solution:

(a) Mass of H3PO4 =10 g

Molar mass of H3PO4 =3 + 31 + 64 = 98
No. of molecules of H3P04 = Mass of H PO
= 3 4
x 6.02 x 1023
Molar mass of H 3 PO 4

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 1.BASIC CONCEPTS eLearn.Punjab

10
= −1
x 6.02 x 1023
98 g mol
= 0.102 x 6.02 x 1023
= 0.614 x 1023
= 6.14 x 1022 Answer
(b) H3PO4 dissolves in water and ionizes as follows
H3PO4 � 3H+ +PO43-
According to the balanced chemical equation
H3PO4 : H+
1 : 3
6.14 x 1022 : 3 x 6.14 x 1022
6.14 x 1022 : 1.842 x 1023
Hence, the number of H+ will be 1.842 x 1023
H3PO4 : PO43-
1 : 1
6.14 x 1022 : 6.14 x 1022
Hence, the number of PO43- will be 6.14 x 1022 Answer
(c) In order to calculate the mass of the ions, use the formulas
Total mass of H +
Number of H + = x 6.02 x 1023
Ionic mass of H +

Total mass of H +
1.842 x 1023 = x 6.02 x 1023
1.008
1.842 x 1023 x 1.008
Total mass of H + = = 0.308 g
6.02 x 1023
3- Total mass of PO 43-
No. of PO 4 = 3-
x 6.02 x 1023 molecules
Ionic mass of PO 4
Total mass of PO 43-
6.14 x 1022 = x 6.02 x 1023
95
6.14 x 1022 x 95
Total mass of PO 43- = = 9.689g Answer
6.02 x 1023

(d) One molecule of H3PO4 gives three positive charges in the solution
6.14 x 1022 molecules of H3PO4 will give =3 x 6.14 x 1022
= 1.842 x 1023 positive charges Answer

Number of positive and negative charges are always equal. So the number of negative charges
dispersed in the solution = 1.842 x 1023

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 1.BASIC CONCEPTS eLearn.Punjab

1.5.2 Molar Volume

One mole of any gas at standard temperature and pressure (STP) occupies a volume of 22.414 dm3.
This volume of 22.414 dm3 is called molar volume and it is true only when the gas is ideal (the idea
of the ideality of the gas is mentioned in chapter three).
With the help of this information, we can convert the mass of a gas at STP into its volume and vice
versa.
Hence we can say that
2.016 g of H2 = 1 mole of H2 = 6.02 x 1023 molecules of H2 = 22.414 dm3 of H2 at S.T.P
16g of CH4 = 1 mole of CH4 = 6.02 x 1023 molecules of CH4= 22.414 dm3 of CH4 at S.T.P.
It is very interesting to know from the above data that 22.414 dm3 of each gas has a different mass
but the same number of molecules. The reason is that the masses and the sizes of the molecules
don't affect the volumes. Normally, it is known that in the gaseous state the distance between
molecules is 300 times greater than their diameters.

Example (10):

A well known ideal gas is enclosed in a container having volume 500 cm3 at S.T.P. Its mass comes
out to be 0.72g.What is the molar mass of this gas.

Solution:

We can calculate the number of moles of the ideal gas at S.T.P from the given volume.

22.414 dm3or 22.414 cm3of the ideal gas at S.T.P = 1 mole

1
1 cm3of the ideal gas at S.T.P = mole
22414
1
500 cm3of the ideal gas at S.T.P = x 500
22414
= 0.0223 moles
We know that
Mass of the gas
Number of moles of the gas =
Molar of the gas
Mass of the gas
Molar mass of the gas =
Number of moles of the gas
0.72 g
Molar mass of the gas = = 32 g mol-1 Answer
0.0223 mole

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1.6 STOICHIOMETRY

With the knowledge of atomic mass, molecular mass, the mole, the Avogadro’s number and the
molar volume, we can make use of the chemical equations in a much better way and can get many
useful information from them.
Chemical equations have certain limitations as well. They do not tell about the conditions and the
rate of reaction. Chemical equation can even be written to describe a chemical change that does
not occur. So, when stoichiometeric calculations are performed, we have to assume the following
conditions.
1. All the reactants are completely converted into the products.
2. No side reaction occurs.
Stoichiometry is a branch of chemistry which tells us the quantitative relationship between
reactants and products in a balanced chemical equation.
While doing calculations, the law of conservation of mass and the law of definite proportions are
obeyed.
The following type of relationships can be studied with the help of a balanced chemical equation.

1) Mass-mass Relationship

If we are given the mass of one substance, we can calculate the mass of the other substances
involved in the chemical reaction.

2) Mass-mole Relationship or Mole-mass Relationship

If we are given the mass of one substance, we can calculate the moles of other substance and vice-
versa.

3) Mass-volume Relationship

If we are given the mass of one substance, we can calculate the volume of the other substances and
vice-versa.Similarly, mole-mole calculations can also be performed.

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Example (11):

Calculate the number of grams of K2SO4 and water produced when 14 g of KOH are reacted with
excess of H2SO4. Also calculate the number of molecules of water produced.

Solution:

For doing such calculations, first of all convert the given mass of KOH into moles and then compare
these moles with those of K2SO4 with the help of the balanced chemical equation.
Mass of KOH = 14.0 g
Molar mass of KOH = 39 + 16 + 1 = 56 g/mol
14.0 g
Number of moles of KOH = = 0.25
56 g mol-1

Equation: 2KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

To get the number of moles of K2SO4, compare the moles of KOH with those of K2SO4.
KOH : K 2SO 4
2 : 1
1
1 :
2
0.25 : 0.125

So, 0.125 moles of K2SO4 is being produced from 0.25 moles of KOH
Molar mass of K2SO4 = 2 x 39 + 96
= 174 g/mol
Mass of K2SO4 produced = No. of moles x molar mass
= 0.125 moles x 174 g mol-1
=21.75g

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To get the number of moles of H2O, compare the moles of KOH with those of water
KOH : H 2O
2 : 2
1 : 1
0.25 : 0.25

So, the number of moles of water produced is 0.25 from 0.25 moles of KOH
Mass of water produced = 0.25 moles x 18 g mol-1
= 4.50 g
Number of molecules of water = No. of moles x 6.02 x 1023
= 0.25 moles x 6.02 x 1023 molecules per mole
= 1.50 x 1023 molecules Answer
Example (12):

Mg metal reacts with HCl to give hydrogen gas. What is the minimum volume of HCl solution (27%
by weight) required to produce 12.1g of H2. The density of HCl solution is 1.14g/cm3.
Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Solution:

Mass of H2 produced = 12.1 g

Molar mass of H2 = 2.016 g mol-1

Mass of H2 12.1g
Moles of H =
=6.0 = 2
moles
Molar mass of H 2.016 g mol-1 2

To calculate the number of moles of HCl, compare the moles of H2 with those of HCl
H2 : HCl
1 : 2
6 : 12

So, 12 moles of HCl are being consumed to produce 6 moles of H2.

Mass of HCl =Moles of HCl x Molar mass of HCl
= 12 moles x 36.5 g mol-1
= 438 grams

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 1.BASIC CONCEPTS eLearn.Punjab

We know that HCl solution is 27% by weight, it means that

27 g of HCl are present in HCl solution = 100 g

100
1 g is present in HCl solution =
27
100
438 g are present in HCl solution = x 438 = 1622.2 g
27
Density of HCl solution = 1.14 g/cm3
Mass of HCl solution
Volume of HCl =
Density of HCl
1622.2 g
= = 1423 cm3 Answer
1.14 gcm −3

1.7 LIMITING REACTANT

Having completely understood the theory of stoichiometry of the chemical reactions, we shift
towards the real stoichiometric calculations. Real in the sense that we deal with such calculations
very commonly in chemistry. Often, in experimental work, one or more reactants is/are deliberately
used in excess quantity. The quantity exceeds the amount required by the reaction’s stoichiometry.
This is done, to ensure that all of the other expensive reactant is completely used up in the chemical
reaction. Sometimes, this strategy is employed to make reactions occur faster. For example, we
know that a large quantity of oxygen in a chemical reaction makes things burn more rapidly. In
this way excess of oxygen is left behind at the end of reaction and the other reactant is consumed
earlier. This reactant which is consumed earlier is called a limiting reactant. In this way, the amount
of product that forms is limited by the reactant that is completely used. Once this reactant is
consumed, the reaction stops and no additional product is formed. Hence the limiting reactant
is a reactant that controls the amount of the product formed in a chemical reaction due to
its smaller amount.

The concept of limiting reactant is analogous to the relationship between the number of “kababs”
and the “slices” to prepare “sandwiches”. If we have 30 “kababs” and five breads “having 58 slices”,
then we can only prepare 29 “sandwiches”. One “kabab” will be extra (excess reactant) and “slices”
will be the limiting reactant. It is a practical problem that we can not purchase exactly sixty “slices”
for 30 “kababs” to prepare 30 “sandwiches”.

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 1.BASIC CONCEPTS eLearn.Punjab

Consider the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to form water.

2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)

When we take 2 moles of hydrogen (4g) and allow it to react with 2 moles of oxygen (64g), then we
will get only 2 moles (36 g) of water. Actually, we will get 2 moles (36g) of water because 2 moles
(4g) of hydrogen react with 1 mole (32 g) of oxygen according to the balanced equation. Since less
hydrogen is present as compared to oxygen, so hydrogen is a limiting reactant. If we would have
reacted 4 moles (8g) of hydrogen with 2 moles (64 g) of oxygen, we would have obtained 4 moles
(72 g) of water.

Identification of Limiting Reactant

To identify a limiting reactant, the following three steps are performed.

1. Calculate the number of moles from the given amount of reactant.
2. Find out the number of moles of product with the help of a balanced chemical equation.
3. Identify the reactant which produces the least amount of product as limiting reactant.

Following numerical problem will make the idea clear.

Example (13):

NH3 gas can be prepared by heating together two solids NH4Cl and Ca(OH)2. If a mixture containing
100 g of each solid is heated then
(a) Calculate the number of grams of NH3 produced.
(b) Calculate the excess amount of reagent left unreacted.

2NH4Cl (s) + Ca (OH)2 (s) CaCl2(s) + 2NH3 (g) + 2H2O(l)

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 1.BASIC CONCEPTS eLearn.Punjab

Solution:

(a) Convert the given amounts of both reactants into their number of moles.
Mass of NH 4 Cl = 100g
Molar mass of NH 4 C1 = 53.5g mol-1
100 g
Mass of NH 4 Cl = = 1.87
53.5g mol-1
Mass of Ca(OH) 2 = 100 g
Molar mass of Ca(OH) 2 = 74 g mol-1
100 g
Moles of Ca(OH) 2 = = 1.35
74 g mol-1

Compare the number of moles of NH4Cl with those of NH3

NH4Cl : NH3
2 : 2
1 : 1
1.87 : 1.87
Similarly compare the number of moles of Ca(OH)2 with those of NH3.
Ca(OH)2 : NH3
1 : 2
1.35 : 2.70
Since the number of moles of NH3 produced by l00g or 1.87 moles of NH4Cl are less, so NH4Cl is the
limiting reactant. The other reactant, Ca(OH)2 is present in excess. Hence
Mass of NH3 produced = 1.87 moles x 17 g mol-1
= 31.79 g Answer

(b) Amount of the reagent present in excess

Let us calculate the number of moles of Ca(OH)2 which will completely react with 1.87 moles of
NH4Cl with the help of equation. For this purpose, compare NH4Cl and Ca(OH)2

NH4Cl : Ca (OH)2
2 : 1
1
1 :
2

1.87 : 0.935

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 1.BASIC CONCEPTS eLearn.Punjab

Hence the number of moles of Ca(OH)2 which completely react with 1.87 moles of NH4Cl is 0.935
moles.
No. of moles of Ca(OH)2 taken =1.35
No. of moles of Ca(OH)2 used = 0.935
No. of moles of Ca(OH)2 left behind = 1.35 - 0.935 = 0.415
Mass of Ca(OH)2 left unreacted (excess) = 0.415x74 = 30.71 g Answer
It means that we should have mixed 100 g of NH4Cl with 69.3 g (100 - 30.71) of Ca(OH)2 to get 1.87
moles of NH3.

1.8 YIELD

The amount of the products obtained in a chemical reaction is called the actual yield of that reaction.
The amount of the products calculated from the balanced chemical equation represents the
theoretical yield. The theoretical yield is the maximum amount of the product that can be produced
by a given amount of a reactant, according to balanced chemical equation.
In most chemical reactions the amount of the product obtained is less than the theoretical yield.
There are various reasons for that. A practically inexperienced worker has many shortcomings and
cannot get the expected yield. The processes like filtration, separation by distillation, separation
by a separating funnel, washing, drying and crystallization if not properly carried out, decrease
the actual yield. Some of the reactants might take part in a competing side reaction and reduce
the amount of the desired product. So in most of the reactions the actual yield is less than the
theoretical yield.
A chemist is usually interested in the efficiency of a reaction. The efficiency of a reaction is expressed
by comparing the actual and theoretical yields in the form of percentage (%) yield.

Actual yield
% yield = x 100
Theoretical yield

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 1.BASIC CONCEPTS eLearn.Punjab

Example (14):

When lime stone (CaCO3) is roasted, quicklime (CaO) is produced according to the following equation.
The actual yield of CaO is 2.5 kg, when 4.5 kg of lime stone is roasted. What is the percentage yield
of this reaction.
CaCO3 (s) 
→ CaO(s) + CO2(s)
Solution:
Mass of limestone roasted = 4.5 kg = 4500 g
Mass of quick lime produced (actual yield) = 2.5 kg = 2500 g
Molar mass of CaCO3 = 100 g mol-1
Molar mass of CaO = 56 g mol-1
According to the balanced chemical equation
100 g of CaCO3 should give CaO = 56 g
1g of CaCO3 should give CaO = 56 / 100
4500 g of CaCO3 should give CaO = 56 / 100 x 4500
= 2520 g
Theoretical yield of CaO = 2520 g
Actual yield of CaO = 2500 g

Actual yield 2500 g

% yield = x 100 = x 100
Theoretical yield 2520 g
= 99.2 % Answer

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 1.BASIC CONCEPTS eLearn.Punjab

KEY POINTS

1. Atoms are the building blocks of matter. Atoms can combine to form molecules. Covalent com-
pounds mostly exist in the form of molecules. Atoms and molecules can either gain or lose elec-
trons, forming charged particles called ions. Metals tend to lose electrons, becoming positively
charged ions. Non-metals tend to gain electrons forming negatively charged ions. When X-rays
or α -particles are passed through molecules in a gaseous state, they are converted into molec-
ular ions.
2. The atomic mass of an element is determined with reference to the mass of carbon as a standard
element and is expressed in amu. The fractional atomic masses can be calculated from the
relative abundance of isotopes. The separation and identification of isotopes can be carried out
by mass spectrograph.
3. The composition of a substance is given by its chemical formula. A molecular substance can be
represented by its empirical or a molecular formula. The empirical and molecular formula are
related through a simple integer.
4. Combustion analysis is one of the techniques to determine the empirical formula and then the
molecular formula of a substance by knowing its molar mass.
5. A mole of any substance is the Avogadro’s number of atoms or molecules or formula units of
that substance.
6. The study of quantitative relationship between the reactants and the products in a balanced
chemical equation is known as stoichiometry. The mole concept can be used to calculate the
relative quantities of reactants and products in a balanced chemical equation.
7. The concept of molar volume of gases helps to relate solids and liquids with gases in a quantitative
manner.
8. A limiting reactant is completely consumed in a reaction and controls the quantity of products
formed.
9. The theoretical yield of a reaction is the quantity of the products calculated with the help of a
balanced chemical equation. The actual yield of a reaction is always less than the theoretical
yield. The efficiency of a chemical reaction can be checked by calculating its percentage yield.

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 1.BASIC CONCEPTS eLearn.Punjab

EXERCISE

Q1 Select the most suitable answer from the given ones in each question.
(i) Isotopes differ in
(a) properties which depend upon mass
(b) arrangement of electrons in orbitals
(c) chemical properties
(d) the extent to which they may be affected in electromagnetic field.
(ii) Select the most suitable answer from the given ones in each question.
(a) Isotopes with even atomic masses are comparatively abundant.
(b) Isotopes with odd atomic masses are comparatively abundant.
(c) Isotopeswithevenatomicmassesandevenatomicnumbersarecomparativelyabundant.
(d) Isotopeswithevenatomicmassesandoddatomicnumbersarecomparativelyabundant.
(iii) Many elements have fractional atomic masses. This is because
(a) the mass of the atom is itself fractional.
(b) atomic masses are average masses of isobars.
(c) atomic masses are average masses of isotopes.
(d) atomicmassesareaveragemassesofisotopesproportionaltotheirrelativeabundance.
(iv) The mass of one mole of electrons is
(a) 1.008 mg (b) 0.55 mg (c) 0.184 mg (d)1.673mg
(v) 27 g of A1 will react completely with how much mass of O2 to produce Al2O3.
(a) 8 g of oxygen (b) 16 g of oxygen (c) 32 g of oxygen (d) 24 g of oxygen
(vi) The number of moles of CO2 which contain 8.0 g of oxygen.
(a) 0.25 (b) 0.50 (c) 1.0 (d)1.50
(vii) The largest number of molecules are present in
(a) 3.6g of H2O (b) 4.8g of C2H5OH (c) 2.8g of CO (d) 5.4g of N2O5
(viii) One mole of SO2 contains
(a) 6.02x1023 atoms of oxygen (b) 18.1 x 1023 molecules of SO2
(c) 6.02x1023 atoms of sulphur (d) 4 gram atoms of SO2
(ix) The volume occupied by 1.4 g of N2 at S.T.P is
(a) 2.24 dm3 (b) 22.4 dm3 (c) 1.12 dm3 (d) 112 cm3
(x) A limiting reactant is the one which
(a) is taken in lesser quantity in grams as compared to other reactants.
(b) is taken in lesser quantity in volume as compared to the other reactants.
(c) gives the maximum amount of the product which is required.
(d) gives the minimum amount of the product under consideration.

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 1.BASIC CONCEPTS eLearn.Punjab

Q 2. Fill in the blanks

(i) The unit of relative atomic mass is_________________.
(ii) The exact masses of isotopes can be determined by________________ spectrograph.
(iii) The phenomenon of isotopy was first discovered by .____________________
(iv) Empirical formula can be determined by combustion analysis for those compounds which
have ______ and __________in them.
(v) A limiting reagent is that which controls the quantities of____________
(vi) 1 mole of glucose has_________ atoms of carbon, __________ of oxygen and _______of hydrgen.
(vii) 4g of CH4 at 0°C and 1 atm pressure has _____________molecules of CH4
(viii) Stoichiometric calculations can be performed only when ________________ is obeyed.
Q3. Indicate true or false as the case may be:
(i) Neon has three isotopes and the fourth one with atomic mass 20.18 amu.
(ii) Empirical formula gives the information about the total number of atoms present in
the molecule.
(iii) During combustion analysis Mg(ClO4)2 is employed to absorb water vapours.
(iv) Molecular formula is the integral multiple of empirical formula and the integral
mutiple can never be unity.
(v) The number of atoms in 1.79 g of gold and 0.023 g of sodium are equal.
(vi) The number of electrons in the molecules of CO and N2 are 14 each, so 1 g of each gas
will have same number of electrons.
(vii) Avogadro’s hypothesis is applicable to all types of gases i.e. ideal and non-ideal.
(viii) Actual yield of a chemical reaction may be greater than the theoretical yield.
Q.4 What are ions? Under what conditions are they produced?
Q.5 (a) What are isotopes? How do you deduce the fractional atomic masses of elements
from the relative isotopic abundance? Give two examples in support of your answer.
(b) How does a mass spectrograph show the relative abundance of isotopes of an elment?
(c) What is the justification of two strong peaks in the mass spectrum for bromine; while
for iodine only one peak at 127 amu is indicated?
Q.6 Silver has atomic number 47 and has 16 known isotopes but two occur naturally i.e. Ag-107
and Ag-109. Given the following mass spectrometric data, calculate the average atomic
mass of silver.

Isotopes Mass (amu) Percentage abundance

107
Ag 106.90509 51.84
109
Ag 108.90476 48.16

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 1.BASIC CONCEPTS eLearn.Punjab

Q.7 Boron with atomic number 5 has two naturally occurring isotopes. Calculate the percentage abun
dance of 10B and 11B from the following informations.
Average atomic mass of boron = 10.81 amu
Isotopic mass of 10B = 10.0129 amu
Isotopic mass of 11B =11.0093amu (Ans: 20.002%, 79.992)
Q.8 Define the following terms and give three examples of each.

1. Gram atom 5. Molar volume

2. Gram molecular mass 6. Avogadro’s number
3. Gram formula 7. Stoichiometry
4. Gram ion 8. Percentage yield

Q.9 Justify the following statement!:

1. 23 g of sodium and 238 g of uranium have equal number of atoms in them.
2. Mg atom is twice heavier than that of carbon atom.
3. 180 g of glucose and 342 g of sucrose have the same number of molecules but different number of
atoms present in them.
4. 4.9 g of H2SO4 when completely ionized in water, have equal number of positive and negative
charges but the number of positively charged ions are twice the number of negatively charged ions.
5. One mg of K2CrO4 has thrice the number of ions than the number of formula units when ionized in
water.
6. Two grams of H2,16g of CH4 and 44 g of CO2 occupy separately the volumes of 22.414 dm3, although
the sizes and masses of molecules of three gases are very different from each other.

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 1.BASIC CONCEPTS eLearn.Punjab

Q.10 Calculate each of the following quantities.

a) Mass in grams of 2.74 moles of KMnO4. • (Ans: 432.92g)
b) Moles of O atoms in 9.00g of Mg (N03)2. • (Ans: 0.36 mole)
c) NumberofOatomsin10.037gofCUSO4.5H2O. • (Ans: 2.18 x 1023 atoms)
d) Massinkilogramsof2.6x1020moleculesofSO2. • (Ans: 2.70x10-5 kg)
e) Moles of Cl atoms in 0.822 g C2H4Cl2. • (Ans: 0.0178 moles)
f) Mass in grams of 5.136 moles of Ag2CO3. • (Ans: 1416.2 g)
g) Mass in grams of 2.78 x 1021 molecules of • (Ans: 0.7158 g)
CrO2Cl2. • (Ans: 0.816 moles, 4.91 x 1023 formula units)
h) Number of moles and formula units in 100g of
KClO3. • (Ans: 4.91 x 1023 K+, 4.91x 1023 CIO3-1, 4.91x 1023
i) Number of K+ ions, CIO-3 ions, Cl atoms, and O Cl-1,1.47x 1024 O atoms)
atoms in (h).

Q.11 Aspartame, the artificial sweetner, has a molecular formula of C14H18N2O5.

a) What is the mass of one mole of aspartame? (Ans: 294 g mol-1)
b) How many moles are present in 52 g of aspartame? (Ans: 0.177mole)
c) What is the mass in grams of 10.122 moles of aspartame? (Ans: 2975.87
d) How many hydrogen atoms are present in 2.43 g of aspartame?(Ans: 8.96 x 1022 atoms of H)

Q.12 A sample of 0.600 moles of a metal M reacts completely with excess of fluorine to form 46.8 g of MF2.
a) How many moles of F are present in the sample of MF2 that forms? (Ans: 1.2 moles)
b) Which element is represented by the symbol M? (Ans:calcium)

Q.13 In each pair, choose the larger of the indicated quantity, or state if the samples are equal.
a) Individual particles: 0.4 mole of oxygen molecules or 0.4 mole of oxygen atoms.
(Ans: both are equal)
b) Mass: 0.4 mole of ozone molecules or 0.4 mole of oxygen atoms. (Ans: ozone)
c) Mass: 0.6 mole of C2H4 or 0.6 mole of I2. (Ans: I2)
d) Individual particles: 4.0 g N2O4 or 3.3 g SO2. (Ans: SO2)
e) Total ions: 2.3 moles of NaCIO3 or 2.0 moles of MgCl2. (Ans: MgCl2)
f) Molecules: 11.0 g H2O or 11.0 g H2O2. (Ans:H2O)
g) Na+ ion: 0.500 moles of NaBr or 0.0145 kg of NaCl. (Ans: NaBr)
h) Mass: 6.02 x 1023 atoms of 235U or 6.02 x 1023 atoms of 238U. (Ans: U238)
Q.14 a) Calculate the percentage of nitrogen in the four important fertilizers i.e.,
(i) NH3 (ii) NH2CONH2(urea) (iii) (NH4)2SO4 (iv) NH4NO3.
(Ans: 82.35%, 46.67%, 21.21%, 35%)
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b) Calculate the percentage of nitrogen and phosphorus in each of the following:

(i) NH4H2PO4 (ii) (NH4)2HPO4 (iii) (NH4)3PO4
(Ans: (i)N=12.17%,P=26.96% (ii)N=21.21%,P=23.48% (iii)N=28.18%,P=20.81%)
Q.15 Glucose C6H12 O6 is the most important nutrient in the cell for generating chemical potential
energy. Calculate the mass % of each element in glucose and determine the number of C, H and
O atoms in 10.5 g of the sample.
(Ans: C=40%, H=6.66%, 0 =53.33%, C=2.107x1023, H=4.214x1023, O=2.107x 1023)
Q.16 Ethylene glycol is used as automobile antifreeze. It has 38.7% carbon, 9.7 % hydrogen and
51.6% oxygen. Its molar mass is 62.1 grams mol-1. Determine its empirical formula.?

(Ans: CH3O)
Q.17 Serotenin (Molar mass = 176g mol-1) is a compound that conducts nerve impulses in brain
and muscles. It contains 68.2 % C.6.86 % H, 15.09 % N, and 9.08 % O. What is its molecular formu-
la.
(Ans: C10H12N2O)
Q.18 An unknown metal M reacts with S to form a compound with a formula M2S3. If 3.12 g of M
reacts with exactly 2.88 g of sulphur, what are the names of metal M and the-compowad M2S3?
(Ans: Cr; Cr2S3)
Q.19 The octane present in gasoline burns according to the following equation.
2C8H18 (l) + 25O2 (g) 
→ 16CO2 (g) + 18H2O(l)
a) How many moles of O2 are needed to react fully with 4 moles of octane?
(Ans: 50 moles)
b) How many moles of CO2 can be produced from one mole of octane?
(Ans: 8 moles)
c) How many moles of water are produced by the combustion of 6 moles of octane?
(Ans: 54 moles)
d) If this reaction is to be used to synthesize 8 moles of CO2 how many grams of oxygen are
needed? How many grams of octane will be used?
(Ans: 400 g: 114 g)
Q.20 Calculate the number of grams of Al2S3 which can be prepared by the reaction of 20 g of Al
and 30 g of sulphur. How much the non-limiting reactant is in excess?
(Ans: 46.87g; 3.125g)
Q.21 A mixture of two liquids, hydrazine N2H4 and N2O4 are used in rockets. They produce N2 and
water vpours. How many grams of N2 gas will be formed by reacting 100 g of N2H4 and 200g of
N2O4. (Ans: 131.04g)
2N2H4 + N2O4 
→ 3N2 + 4H2O

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Q.22 Silicon carbide (SiC) is an important ceramic material. It is produced by allowing sand (SiO2 )
to react with carbon at high temperature.

SiO2 + 3C 
→ SiC + 2CO
When 100 kg sand is reacted with excess of carbon, 51.4 kg of SiC is produced. What is the
pecentage yield of SiC? (Ans: 77%)

Q.23 a. What is stoichiometry? Give its assumptions? Mention two important laws, which help
to perform the stoichiometric calculations?
b. What is a limiting reactant? How does it control the quantity of the product formed?
Explain with three examples?
Q.24 a. Define yield. How do we calculate the percentage yield of a chemical reaction?
b. What are the factors which are mostly responsible for the low yield of the products in
chemical reactions?
Q.25 Explain the following with reasons.
i) Law of conservation of mass has to be obeyed during stoichiometric calculations.
ii) Many chemical reactions taking place in our surrounding involve the limiting reactants.
iii) No individual neon atom in the sample of the element has a mass of 20.18 amu.
iv) One mole of H2SO4 should completely react with two moles of NaOH. How does Avoga-
dro’s number help to explain it.
v) One mole of H2O has two moles of bonds, three moles of atoms, ten moles of elec-
trons and twenty eight moles of the total fundamental particles present in it.
vi) N2 and CO have the same number of electrons, protons and neutrons.

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