Hill’s Chemistry for Changing Times
Fifteenth Edition
Lecture Outlines
Lecture 2
Atoms
David Maynard,
California State University, San Bernardino
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
2.1 Atoms
• All atoms have the same structure.
– At the core is a dense nucleus comprised of two
subatomic particles.
▪ Protons (positively charged).
▪ Neutrons (no associated charge).
– Orbiting the nucleus is a another cloud of subatomic
particles.
▪ Electrons (negatively charged).
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 2
Figure 2.2: Basic Structure of an Atom
• Access the text alternative for slide images.
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 3
2.1 Atoms
• An atom can be characterized by the number of protons it
has or by its overall mass.
– Atomic number:
▪ The number of protons in the nucleus.
▪ Atoms with the same atomic number exhibit the same chemical
properties and are considered to belong to the same element.
– Mass number:
▪ The number of protons plus neutrons in the nucleus.
▪ Electrons have negligible mass.
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 4
2.1 Atoms
• Electrons determine the chemical behavior of atoms.
– These subatomic components are the parts of the atom
that come close enough to each other in nature to interact.
• Electrons are associated with energy.
– Electrons have energy of position, called potential
energy.
– Electrons occupy energy levels, or electron shells, of an
atom, which are actually complex, three-dimensional
volumes of space called orbitals.
▪ Orbitals are where electrons are most likely to be found.
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 5
2.1 Atoms
• Electron shells have specific numbers of orbitals that may be
filled with electrons.
– Atoms that have incomplete electron orbitals tend to be more
reactive.
– Atoms will lose, gain, or share electrons in order to completely
fill their outermost electron shell.
– These actions are the basis of chemical bonding.
– As electrons move to a lower energy level, closer to the nucleus,
energy is released.
– Moving electrons to energy levels farther out from the nucleus
requires energy.
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 6
2.2 Ions and Isotopes
• Ions—atoms that have gained or lost one or more
electrons.
• Isotopes—atoms that have the same number of protons
but different numbers of neutrons.
– Most elements in nature exist as mixtures of different
isotopes.
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 7
Figure 2.5: Isotopes of the Element Carbon
• Access the text alternative for slide images.
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 8
2.3 Molecules
A molecule is a group of atoms held together by energy in
the form of a chemical bond.
There are 3 principal types of chemical bonds:
1. Ionic.
2. Covalent.
3. Hydrogen.
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 9
2.3 Molecules
– Ionic bonds involve the • Fig. 2.7a The formation of ionic
bonds in table salt.
attraction of opposite
electrical charges.
– Molecules comprised of
these bonds are often
most stable as crystals.
• Access the text alternative for slide images.
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 10
2.3 Molecules
Covalent bonds form between two atoms when they share
electrons.
– The number of electrons shared varies depending on how
many the atom needs to fill its outermost electron shell.
– Covalent bonds are very strong and are directional.
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 11
2.3 Molecules
Some atoms may be better at attracting the shared electrons
of a covalent bond.
– This creates tiny partial negative and positive charges
within the molecule, now called a polar molecule.
– Polar covalent bonds form when the shared electrons of
a covalent bond spend more time in the vicinity of a
particular atom.
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 12
2.3 Molecules
Hydrogen bonds are weak electrical attractions between the
positive end of one polar molecule and the negative end of
another.
– Each atom with a partial charge acts like a magnet to bond
weakly to another polar atom with an opposite charge.
– The additive effects of many hydrogen bonding
interactions can add collective strength to the bonds.
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 13
2.3 Molecules
– Water molecules are polar • Figure 2.10 (a and b) Hydrogen
and can form hydrogen bonding in water molecules.
bonds with each other.
• Access the text alternative for slide images.
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14
Atoms: The Greek Idea (1 of 2)
~ 384 B.C.E., Aristotle:
All matter is composed of
four elements and all matter
is continuous, not atomistic.
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Atoms: The Greek Idea (2 of 2)
~ 450 B.C.E., Leucippus and Democritus
Atomos: The point at which matter can no longer be
subdivided.
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Lavoisier: The Law of Conservation of
Mass (1 of 2)
Early 1700s Lavoisier
Law of conservation of
mass: During a chemical
change, matter is neither
created nor destroyed.
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Lavoisier: The Law of Conservation of
Mass (2 of 2)
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Proust: The Law of Definite
Proportions (1 of 3)
1799, Proust
Law of definite proportions: A compound always contains
the same elements in certain definite proportions.
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Proust: The Law of Definite
Proportions (2 of 3)
Regardless of the source, copper carbonate always has the
same composition.
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Proust: The Law of Definite
Proportions (3 of 3)
The Berzelius experiment illustrates the law of definite
proportions.
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
John Dalton and the Atomic Theory of
Matter (1 of 3)
1803, John Dalton
Law of multiple proportions: Elements may combine in more
than one set of proportions, with each set corresponding to a
different compound.
Table 2.2 The Law of Multiple Proportions
Compound Representationa Mass of N per 1.000 g of O Ratio of the Masses of Nb N superscript b.
Dinitrogen oxide 1 red sphere, 2 blue spheres 1.750 g (1.750
1.750 ÷ 0.4375)
divided by 0.4375 ==4.000
4.000
Nitrogen monoxide 1 red sphere, 1 blue sphere 0.8750 g (0.8750 ÷ 0.4375) =
2.000
0.8750 divided by 0.4375 = 2.000
Nitrogen dioxide 1 red sphere, 1 blue sphere, 1 red sphere
0.4375 g (0.4375 ÷ 0.4375) =
1.000
0.4375 divided by 0.4375 = 1.000
= nitrogen atom and = oxygen atom
bWe obtain the ratio of the masses of N that combine with a given mass of O by dividing
each quantity in the third column by the smallest (0.4375 g).
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
John Dalton and the Atomic Theory of
Matter (3 of 3)
All matter is composed of extremely small particles called
atoms.
All atoms of a given element are alike and differ from the
atoms of any other element.
Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements
combine in fixed proportions.
A chemical reaction involves the rearrangement of atoms.
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Isotopes
Much of John Dalton’s atomic theory has been modified. For
example, John Dalton assumed that all atoms of an element
are alike. He did not understand the existence of isotopes.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different
relative masses.
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 2.5: Isotopes of the Element Carbon
• Access the text alternative for slide images.
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 25
The Mole and Avogadro’s Number (1 of 2)
A mole is the number of atoms in 12.011 grams of
Carbon-12. That number is 6.022 × 1023 atoms and is often
referred to as Avogadro’s Number.
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Molar Mass
The mass, in grams, of one mole of a substance is known
as the molar mass.
This value is the sum of the atomic masses of the elements
in a compound.
For instance, the molar mass of water, H2O, is 18.0 grams or
18.0 g / mol.
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
The Mole and Avogadro’s Number (2 of 2)
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Out of Chaos: The Periodic Table (1 of 3)
1869, Dmitri Mendeleev
Mendeleev arranged the
elements in order of
increasing atomic mass.
He left gaps for yet
undiscovered elements.
He also predicted the
properties of those elements.
When those elements were
eventually discovered, many
of his predictions were found
to be accurate.
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Out of Chaos: The Periodic Table (2 of 3)
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Out of Chaos: The Periodic Table (3 of 3)
Table 2.3 Properties of Germanium: Predicted and Observed
Property Predicted by Mendeleev Observed for
for Eka-Silikon (1871) Germanium (1886)
Atomic mass 72 72.6
Density in gram per cubic3 centimeter
Density (g / cm ) 5.5 5.47
Color Dirty gray Grayish white
Density of oxide (g / cm3 )
Density of oxide in gram per cubic centimeter
EsO2 : 4.7 GeO2 : 4.703
Boiling point of chloride EsCl4 : below 100 °C GeCl4 : 86 °C
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Atoms: Real and Relevant
Atoms are a very real
concept. It is even possible
to observe computer-
enhanced images of atoms.
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Green Chemistry (1 of 2)
Green Chemistry means replacing rare or hazardous
substances with more abundant or less hazardous
substances.
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Green Chemistry (2 of 2)
One example of green chemistry technology is the
replacement of mercury fluorescent light bulbs with efficient
mercury-free light bulbs.
Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
