GEOGRAPHY

INDIA – SIZE AND LOCATION

Location
India, located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere, spans between latitudes 8°4’N and
37°6’N, and longitudes 68°7’E and 97°25’E. The Tropic of Cancer, at 23°30’N, cuts through
the country, dividing it into roughly two equal halves. In terms of size, India covers
approximately 2.4% of the world’s total geographical area, ranking it as the 7th largest
country globally.

Size
The country shares its borders with a total land boundary of about 15,200 km. Including the
coastlines of Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep, the mainland boasts a
coastline stretching 7,516.6 km. India is geographically defined by its mountainous borders
in the northwest, north, and northeast.

South of approximately 22° north latitude, the land begins to narrow, extending towards the
Indian Ocean, and forming the Arabian Sea to the west and the Bay of Bengal to the east.

India’s standard time is determined by the Standard Meridian of India, passing through
Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh, located at 82°30’E longitude. This meridian serves as the
reference for the country’s time zone. The map illustrates India’s geographic extent and the
position of the Standard Meridian.

India and Her Relationship with World

India occupies a central position between East and West Asia, extending southward from
the Asian continent. It boasts an extensive coastline along the Indian Ocean, unparalleled by
any other country. Throughout history, India has maintained extensive connections with the
world. Its trade in spices, muslin, and other goods reached various countries, while
influences from Greek sculpture and architectural styles such as domes and minarets from
West Asia have left their mark across India.

India and its Neighbours

India shares its land borders with several countries:
  Pakistan and Afghanistan in the northwest
 China (Tibet), Nepal, and Bhutan in the north
 Myanmar and Bangladesh in the east
To the south, across the sea, lie the island nations of Sri Lanka and Maldives. These
geographical and historical links have fostered strong relationships between India and its
neighbors, shaping cultural exchanges and diplomatic ties over time.

PHYSICAL FEATURES OF INDIA

Major Physiographic Divisions
The physical features of India are grouped under the following physiographic divisions:

1. The Himalayan Mountains

2. The Northern Plains
3. The Peninsular Plateau
4. The Indian Desert
5. The Coastal Plains
6. The Islands
Let’s discuss each of them in detail:

The Himalayan Mountains

The Himalayan Mountains stretch along India’s northern borders from the Indus River to the
Brahmaputra River, running in a west-east direction. They consist of three parallel ranges:

Great Himalayas (Himadri):

 The northernmost range with the highest peaks averaging 6,000 meters.
 Composed of granite and characterized by asymmetrical folds.
Lesser Himalayas (Himachal):
 South of the Himadri, forming a rugged mountain system.
 Includes the Pir Panjal range, the longest and most significant range.
Outer Himalayas (Shiwaliks):
 The outermost range composed of unconsolidated sediments.
 Features longitudinal valleys known as Duns, such as Dehradun and Kotli Dun.
The Himalayas are divided into regions from west to east:

 Punjab Himalaya: Between Indus and Satluj, also known as Kashmir and
Himachal Himalaya.
 Kumaon Himalayas: Between Satluj and Kali rivers.
 Nepal Himalayas: Between Kali and Teesta rivers.
 Assam Himalayas: Between Teesta and Dihang rivers.
 Eastern Hills (Purvachal): Along the eastern boundary of India, including
Patkai Hills, Naga Hills, Manipur Hills, and Mizo Hills.
The Northern Plain
The Northern Plain in India is formed by the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra river systems
and their tributaries, covering an area of 7 lakh sq. km. It is divided into three sections:

1. Punjab Plains: Formed by the Indus and its tributaries – Jhelum, Chenab,
Ravi, Beas, and Satluj.
2. Ganga Plain: Extends from Ghaggar to Teesta rivers, covering North India,
Haryana, Delhi, U.P., Bihar, Jharkhand, and West Bengal.
3. Brahmaputra Plain: Located in Assam.
The Northern Plains are further divided into four regions based on elevation:

 Bhabar: A narrow belt where rivers deposit pebbles at the foot of the
Shiwaliks.
 Terai: Wet, swampy region created by rivers re-emerging from Bhabar.
 Bhangar: Older alluvium forming terrace-like features above floodplains.
 Khadar: Younger floodplain deposits with fertile soil.

The Peninsular Plateau

The Peninsular Plateau in India is a vast tableland composed of ancient crystalline, igneous,
and metamorphic rocks. It was formed from the breakup and drifting of the ancient
Gondwana landmass. One of its distinctive features is the presence of Deccan Trap black soil
areas.

Divisions of the Peninsular Plateau:

Central Highlands:

 Located north of the Narmada River, covering the Malwa plateau extensively.
 Includes eastward extensions known as Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand.
Deccan Plateau:

 South of the Narmada River, it forms a triangular landmass.

 Extends northeast into Meghalaya, Karbi-Anglong Plateau, and North Cachar
Hills.
Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats:

Western Ghats:

 Parallel to the western coast of India.

 Continuous and can only be crossed through passes.
 Higher elevation ranging from 900 to 1600 meters.
 Includes Anamudi as its highest peak.
Eastern Ghats:

 Stretch from the Mahanadi Valley to the Nilgiris in the south.

 Discontinuous and irregular, dissected by rivers flowing into the Bay of
Bengal.
 Lower elevation averaging around 600 meters.
 Mahendragiri (1,501 meters) is the highest peak in the Eastern Ghats.
The Indian Desert
The Indian Desert is situated on the western margins of the Aravali Hills. Here are some key
characteristics:

 Sandy Plain with Sand Dunes: The region is covered with extensive sand
dunes.
 Low Rainfall: Receives very minimal rainfall, averaging below 150 mm per
year.
 Dry Climate: Has a dry climate with sparse vegetation.
The Coastal Plains

Coastal plains are flat, low-lying areas adjacent to the ocean. In India, there are two main
coastal plains:

Eastern Coastal Plain

 Location: It stretches between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal.
 Regions: Known as the Northern Circar in the north and the Coromandel
Coast in the south.
 Rivers: Major rivers like the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri form
extensive deltas here.
 Significant Feature: Lake Chilika, a notable brackish water lagoon, is found
along this coast.
Western Coastal Plain

 Location: Positioned between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea.
 Divisions:
 Konkan: Northern part, spanning from Mumbai to Goa.
 Kannad Plain: Central stretch.
  Malabar Coast: Southern part, known for its lush greenery and
scenic beauty.
The Islands of India
An island is a piece of land surrounded by water, and India is blessed with two major island
groups:

Lakshadweep Islands

 Composition: Made up of small coral islands formerly known as Laccadive,

Minicoy, and Amindive.
 Geographical Division: The islands are broadly categorized into:
 Andaman Islands: Located in the north.
 Nicobar Islands: Situated in the south.
 Climate: These islands experience an equatorial climate characterized by high
humidity and thick forest cover.
India’s varied geography provide significant opportunities for future development due to
several reasons:

 Mountains: Are the crucial sources of water and forest resources.

 Northern Plains: Known as the granaries of the country, supporting early
civilizations with fertile agricultural lands.
 Plateau: Rich in mineral resources, contributing significantly to India’s
industrialization.
 Coastal Regions and Islands: Provide ideal locations for fishing, port
activities, and tourism, contributing to economic growth and development

DRAINAGE

Drainage Systems in India

In India, the drainage systems are categorized into two main groups: the Himalayan rivers
and the Peninsular rivers.

Himalayan rivers:

 These rivers are mostly perennial, meaning they flow throughout the year.
 They are fed by rainwater as well as melted snow from the high mountains.
 Major rivers like the Indus and the Brahmaputra originate from the northern
mountain ranges.
  Himalayan rivers have long courses from their source in the mountains to
where they meet the sea.
Peninsular rivers:

 Peninsular rivers are seasonal, relying heavily on rainfall for their flow.
 Most of these rivers originate in the Western Ghats and flow eastwards
towards the Bay of Bengal.
 Compared to Himalayan rivers, Peninsular rivers have shorter and shallower
courses.
The Himalayan Rivers
The Himalayan rivers, including the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra, are integral to India’s
geography and culture, each forming extensive river systems with significant hydrological
and ecological importance.

1) The Indus River System:

The Indus River is one of the longest rivers globally, stretching approximately 2900 km. It
originates in Tibet near Lake Mansarovar and enters India through the Ladakh region of
Jammu and Kashmir, where it carves through picturesque gorges. In Pakistan, the Indus is
joined by major tributaries including the Satluj, Beas, Ravi, Chenab, and Jhelum near
Mithankot. These tributaries contribute significantly to the Indus River’s flow and form an
extensive river basin crucial for agriculture and water resources in the region.

2) The Ganga River System:

The Ganga, originating as the Bhagirathi from the Gangotri Glacier, is joined by the
Alaknanda at Devaprayag in Uttarakhand. It emerges from the Himalayas into the plains at
Haridwar, where it begins its journey through northern India. The Ganga is augmented by
numerous tributaries from the Himalayas, including major rivers like the Yamuna, Ghaghara,
Gandak, and Kosi.

With a length exceeding 2500 km, the Ganga flows southeastward and bifurcates at the
northernmost point of the Ganga Delta in Farakka, West Bengal. The Bhagirathi-Hooghly
branch continues southward through deltaic plains to the Bay of Bengal, while the
mainstream flows into Bangladesh, eventually merging with the Brahmaputra to form the
Meghna River. The Sundarbans Delta, formed by these rivers, is one of the largest mangrove
ecosystems globally and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

3) The Brahmaputra River System:

Originating in Tibet east of Mansarovar Lake, the Brahmaputra River is slightly longer than
the Indus. It descends from Tibet through the Namcha Barwa (7757 m) where it makes a
dramatic ‘U-turn’ before entering India as the Dihang in Arunachal Pradesh. In Assam, the
Dihang is joined by major tributaries like the Dibang and Lohit to form the Brahmaputra.
This mighty river flows through Assam and Bangladesh, where it converges with the Ganga
to form the Meghna River before draining into the Bay of Bengal. The Brahmaputra Basin
supports diverse ecosystems and is vital for agriculture and transportation in the region.

These Himalayan river systems not only provide essential water resources for millions of
people but also shape the landscapes, economies, and cultures of the regions they traverse.
Their seasonal flows, influenced by monsoonal patterns and glacial melt, underscore their
dynamic nature and the challenges and opportunities they present for sustainable
development and environmental conservation.

The Peninsular Rivers

In Peninsular India, the rivers are primarily divided by the Western Ghats mountain range.
These rivers flow eastwards and drain into the Bay of Bengal, forming deltas at their
mouths. However, the Narmada and Tapi rivers are exceptional as they flow westwards and
create estuaries.

1) The Narmada Basin: The Narmada River originates in the Amarkantak hills in Madhya
Pradesh. It passes through the picturesque Marble Rocks near Jabalpur and cascades down
steep rocks at Dhuadhar Falls. The Narmada basin covers parts of Madhya Pradesh and
Gujarat.

2) The Tapi Basin: The Tapi River rises in the Satpura ranges in Betul district of Madhya
Pradesh. Its basin spans across Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.

3) The Godavari Basin: The Godavari is the largest Peninsular river, stretching about 1500
km. It begins from the slopes of the Western Ghats in Nasik district of Maharashtra. The
Godavari basin covers regions of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, and Andhra
Pradesh. It is often referred to as Dakshin Ganga and is fed by several tributaries including
the Purna, Wardha, Pranhita, Manjra, Wainganga, and Penganga.

4) The Mahanadi Basin: Originating in the highlands of Chhattisgarh, the Mahanadi River
flows for about 860 km through Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Odisha.

5) The Krishna Basin: The Krishna River starts from a spring near Mahabaleshwar and
travels approximately 1400 km through Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh.

6) The Kaveri Basin: Rising from the Brahmagiri range of the Western Ghats, the Kaveri
River spans about 760 km across Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.

Lakes
Lakes play a diverse and crucial role in India’s geography, offering various sizes and
characteristics that benefit both nature and human activities.

Types of Lakes:

 Permanent Lakes: These lakes retain water throughout the year.

 Seasonal Lakes: Some lakes only fill during the rainy season and may dry up
subsequently.
 Glacial Lakes: Formed by glaciers and ice sheets, these lakes are often found
in the Himalayan region.
 Artificial Lakes: Created by human activities such as damming rivers or
excavations.
Examples of Lakes:

 Ox-bow Lakes: Formed when a meandering river cuts off and forms a curved
lake.
 Lagoons: Coastal lakes formed by spits and bars, like Chilika Lake, Pulicat
Lake, and Kolleru Lake.
 Inland Drainage Lakes: Lakes like Sambhar Lake in Rajasthan, which are
seasonal and used for salt production.
Himalayan Freshwater Lakes:

 Lakes of glacial origin, such as Wular Lake in Jammu and Kashmir, the largest
freshwater lake in India.
 Other significant lakes include Dal Lake, Bhimtal, Nainital, Loktak, and
Barapani, all contributing to the beauty and ecology of their regions.
Importance of Lakes:

 Regulating River Flow: Lakes help regulate river flow, mitigating floods during
heavy rains and maintaining water levels during dry periods.
 Hydropower: Many lakes serve as reservoirs for hydel power generation.
 Climate Regulation: Lakes moderate local climates and sustain aquatic
ecosystems.
 Natural Beauty and Recreation: Lakes enhance natural beauty, attract
tourists, and provide recreational opportunities like boating and fishing.
Role of Rivers in the Economy
Rivers play a fundamental role in the economy of nations around the world, including India.

Role in the Economy:

 Water Supply: Rivers provide essential freshwater for drinking, agriculture,

and industrial processes, supporting livelihoods and economic activities.
 Irrigation: Water from rivers is extensively used for irrigation, enabling
agricultural productivity and food security.
  Navigation: Rivers serve as natural transportation routes, facilitating trade
and commerce by connecting inland areas to coastal ports and international
markets.
 Hydropower Generation: Many rivers are harnessed for hydropower,
producing electricity for residential, industrial, and commercial use,
contributing significantly to energy security.
River Pollution:

 Causes: Increasing demands from domestic, municipal, industrial, and

agricultural sectors have led to widespread pollution of rivers. Untreated
sewage, industrial effluents, and agricultural runoff laden with chemicals
degrade water quality.
 Consequences: River pollution harms aquatic life, affects human health
through contaminated drinking water, and diminishes the aesthetic and
recreational value of rivers.
 Mitigation Efforts: Governments and environmental agencies have launched
initiatives to mitigate river pollution. Action plans include sewage treatment
plants, stricter regulations on industrial discharge, and awareness campaigns
to promote responsible water use.

HISTORY

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

When the early morning hours of 1789 arrived, Paris was in a panic. There were rumours
that the King would start shooting at the people. As people began to assemble, they broke
into several government facilities to find weapons.

The battle resulted in the death of the Bastille’s commander, and the inmates were let free.
Because the Bastille symbolised the king’s autocratic rule, many detested it. People
demonstrated against bread’s exorbitant price. The French King was put to death as a result
of a fresh set of circumstances.

French Society During the Late Eighteenth

Century
In 1774, Louis XVI became the next monarch of France. France’s finances were severely
damaged by the war. The thirteen American colonies were assisted by France, under Louis
XVI, in gaining their freedom from Great Britain. Taxes were raised to cover ongoing costs,
like those associated with operating government buildings and colleges, the judiciary, and
the army. In the eighteenth century, France was split up into three estates.

Throughout the mediaeval ages, the feudal system was a component of the society’s
estates. Peasants made up 90% of the population, although very few of them owned the
land they farmed. The Church, nobles, and other wealthy third estate members owned sixty
per cent. Members of the top two estates, the clergy and nobility, were born with particular
privileges.

These member groups enjoyed feudal privileges and were free from paying taxes. Every
member of the third estate was required to pay taxes to the state. These taxes consisted of
taille, a direct tax, and several indirect levies, which were imposed on common goods like
tobacco and salt.

The Struggle to Survive

The need for food grains increased quickly as a result of the population growth. Because of
the inability of grain production to meet demand, bread prices increased quickly. The
disparity between the rich and the poor grew as a result of the low wages given to the
labourers. Every time a hailstorm or drought decreased the yield, things became worse.

A Growing Middle Class Envisages an End to Privileges

Peasants used to take part in uprisings against shortages of food and taxation. The third
estate group was now well-off and had access to new ideas and knowledge. The eighteenth
century saw the emergence of new socioeconomic classes known as the middle class, who
made their fortunes by making woollen and silk fabrics that were either exported or
purchased by the wealthier segments of society.

They also expanded their abroad trade. Administrative officials and lawyers were examples
of the third estate. A person’s merit determines their social standing.

All of these groups were well-educated and held the view that no social group should be
given advantages just by birth. A person’s social standing must instead be determined by his
or her merit. Rousseau suggested a new system of governance based on a social compact
between the people and their representatives.

In a similar vein, Montesquieu suggested allocating authority among the legislative,

executive, and judicial branches of government. This kind of government was implemented
in the USA. To cover the costs, Louis XVI intended to impose additional taxes.

The Outbreak of the Revolution

The monarch of France lacked the authority to levy taxes. To approve plans for increased
taxes, they had to convene a meeting of the Estates-General, a political assembly that the
three estates sent delegates. On May 5, 1789, Louis XVI held a meeting to approve plans for
more taxes. There were members of the third estate who were well-educated and rich, as
well as representatives from the first and second estates.

Every estate was entitled to one vote under the premise. However, advocates of the third
estate insisted on one vote for each member. The third estate protestors walked outside as
the demand was denied. They promised not to leave until a constitution restricting the
monarch’s powers was written for France.

People had to wait in queue for hours and bread costs increased as a result of the harsh
winter. There were rumours that the manor’s lords employed brigand bands to destroy the
ripe crops. Peasants began stealing stored grain out of fear and set fire to paperwork that
listed manorial dues.

Nobility escaped their residences. Louis XVI acknowledged the National Assembly and
agreed that a constitution would henceforth serve as a check on his authority. On August 4,
1789, the Assembly adopted a resolution ending the feudal system of duties and taxes. The
Church’s holdings were seized, and tithes were eliminated.

France Becomes a Constitutional Monarchy

The National Assembly finished drafting the constitution in 1791, with the primary goal
being to curtail the monarch’s authority. These authorities were now divided and delegated
to the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government. France adopted a
monarchy with a constitution.

Unfortunately, not all citizens were able to exercise their right to vote. Instead, voters
selected a group of electors who then selected the Assembly. Voting rights were granted to
men over 25 who paid taxes equivalent to at least three days’ worth of labourer’s
compensation.

The Declaration of Human and Citizen Rights opened the Constitution. The term “natural
and inalienable” refers to the set of rights that are inherent to every human being from
birth and cannot be taken away. These rights include the right to life, freedom of speech,
freedom of opinion, and equality before the law.

France Abolishes Monarchy and Becomes a Republic

The National Assembly decided to go to war with Austria and Prussia in April 1792. France
adopted Marseillaise as its national anthem. Women took care of their families while males
were gone fighting in the war. Since the Constitution of 1791 granted political rights mainly
to the wealthier segments of society, a sizable portion of the populace requested that the
revolution continue.

There were founded political clubs, the most successful of which were the Jacobins. Small
business owners, artisans including bakers, watchmakers, printers, and shoemakers, as well
as daily wage workers and slaves, were all members of the Jacobin Club. Members of the
Jacobin movement began donning long, striped trousers, like those worn by dockworkers.

The term “those without knee breeches” (sans-culottes) was used to refer to these Jacobins.
The King was taken captive by Jacobins for several hours on August 10, 1792, after they
seized the Palace of the Tuileries. All men who were 21 years of age or older were eligible to
vote in the elections that were held. On September 21, 1792, the monarchy was dissolved
and France was proclaimed a republic. A court sentenced Louis XVI to death on treasonous
charges.

Did Women Have a Revolution?

Since the beginning, women have been involved actively, which has led to significant
improvements in France. Third-estate women had no access to school or job training and
were forced to work for a living. At a monastery, daughters of third-estate nobles were
permitted to pursue their education. Women who held jobs also needed to take care of
their families. Their pay was less than that of men. Women also founded newspapers and
political clubs. Among the most well-known women’s clubs was the Society of Revolutionary
and Republican Women.

They called for the ability to vote and run for political office, as well as equal political rights
with males. Laws were implemented by the revolutionary administration to better the lot of
women. They were allowed to own small companies, divorce became lawful, and education
became mandatory. The government shut down women’s clubs and outlawed their political
activity during the Reign of Terror. In 1946, women in France were granted the right to vote
after great effort.

The Abolition of Slavery

The eradication of slavery in the French colonies was the most significant social reform
implemented by the Jacobin regime. The slave trade started in the seventeenth century.
Local chieftains provided the slaves, who were then branded, shackled, and crammed
aboard ships for the arduous three-month journey over the Atlantic to the Caribbean.

The increasing demand for sugar, coffee, and indigo in European markets was satisfied by
slave labour. Slavery in France received little criticism during the seventeenth century. All
slaves in French colonial possessions were to be freed by law, according to a 1794
Convention. After ten years, Napoleon instituted slavery. Slavery was outlawed in the
French colonies in 1848.
 SOCIALISM IN EUROPE AND THE
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
The Age of Social Change
Following the revolution, discussions about social authority and individual liberties spread
throughout Europe and Asia. Though notions about societal change were changed by
colonial expansion, not everyone supported a total revolution of society. Socialism emerged
from the Russian Revolution as one of the twentieth century’s most influential and potent
social concepts.

Liberals, Radicals and Conservatives

A country that accepted all religions was what liberals desired. They advocated for a
representative, elected parliamentary government that was free from the influence of
dynastic authority and was subject to laws that were interpreted by a skilled court that was
separate from the ruling class.

They desired a government that was chosen by the vast majority of the populace. After the
eighteenth century, conservatives acknowledged change but also held that change should
come gradually and that the past should be respected.

Industrial Society and Social Change

New cities and industrialised regions emerged as a result of the Industrial Revolution, which
also brought about changes in social and economic life. In pursuit of employment, men,
women, and kids flocked to industries. Unfortunately, pay was low and working hours were
lengthy. When there was little market demand for industrial items, unemployment
occurred. Both radicals and liberals succeeded financially in business or trade.

They contend that society can only advance if people’s freedoms are respected, the
impoverished are allowed to work, and the wealthy are allowed to act without limitation.
Monarchs are overthrown by revolutionaries in France, Italy, Germany, and Russia.
Revolutions to establish “nations” with equal rights were discussed by nationalists.

The Coming of Socialism to Europe

By the middle of the nineteenth century, socialism was a widely accepted ideology in
Europe. Socialists opposed private property and believed that it was the source of all
contemporary societal problems. They ran campaigns to change it because they wanted to.
In Indiana (USA), Robert Owen (1771–1858) aimed to establish a cooperative society known
as New Harmony. Louis Blanc (1813–1882) favoured replacing capitalist businesses with
cooperatives through government support.

Friedrich Engels (1820–1895) and Karl Marx (1818–1883) contributed further concepts to
this corpus of work. Marx maintained that the capitalists who owned the factories’
investments were the “capitalists” in industrial society, while the labour force provided the
profits for the capitalists. Private property rights and capitalism were overturned. Marx
thought that the society of the future would naturally be communist.

Support for Socialism

As socialist ideologies proliferated throughout Europe by the 1870s, they gave rise to an
international organisation known as the Second International. Workers in Germany and
England established associations to advocate for improved living and working
circumstances. By 1905, socialists and trade unionists had founded the Labour Party and the
Socialist Party.

The Russian Revolution

Socialists seized control of the Russian government during the October Revolution of 1917.
The Russian Revolution was the name given to the events of October 1917 and the fall of
the monarchy in February 1917.

The Russian Empire in 1914

Tsar Nicholas II commanded Russia and its empire in 1914. The Russian Empire stretched to
the Pacific and included modern-day Central Asian states, as well as Georgia, Armenia, and
Azerbaijan. It also included present-day Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, and portions of
Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus. Russian Orthodox Christianity made up the majority of the
population.

Economy and Society

Russians who farmed for both their consumption and the market made up the majority of
the population at the start of the 20th century. Moscow and St. Petersburg were important
industrial hubs. The majority of the output was done by craftsmen, however there were also
big factories and craft enterprises. More factories were established and foreign investment
in the industrial sector rose in the 1890s.

The government oversaw large factories to guarantee minimum wages and set work hours.
The workforce was a socially divided group. Their skill levels also caused them to diverge.
When employees disagreed with employers about layoffs or working conditions, they
banded together despite their differences to cease work.

The majority of the land was farmed by peasants, while considerable domains were owned
by the Orthodox Church, the monarch, and the nobility. Because of their contributions to
the Tsar, nobility gained status and authority. Peasants in Russia want the aristocrats’ land.

A Turbulent Time: The 1905 Revolution

Russia was an autocracy, with the Tsar being above Parliament even at the start of the
twentieth century. Russia, the Social Democrats, and the Socialist Revolutionaries
collaborated with labourers and peasants to seek a constitution during the Revolution of
1905. The year 1904 marked the beginning of hard times for Russian labourers, as the cost
of necessities increased, and their actual pay fell by 20%. Employees went on strike to seek
better working conditions, higher pay, and a decrease in the workday to eight hours.

When the procession arrived at the Winter Palace, it was ambushed by both the police and
the Cossacks. The Bloody Sunday incident set off a chain of events that eventually led to the
1905 Revolution. The Tsar permitted the establishment of an elected consultative
Parliament, or Duma, during the 1905 Revolution. The majority of committees and unions
operated informally after 1905 since they were deemed to be unlawful.

The February Revolution in Petrograd

The people of Petrograd City are split. Workers’ lodgings and factories were situated on the
right side of the River Neva, while official buildings and elegant neighbourhoods like the
Winter Palace were situated on the left. The workers’ quarters were severely impacted by
food shortages. On February 22, a factory was closed on the right bank. The reason
International Women’s Day exists is because women pioneered strikes as well. With workers
encircling the official buildings and trendy quarters, the government declared a curfew.

Duma was placed on leave on February 25. Protesters brandishing signs calling for bread,
wages, improved working hours, and democracy crowded the streets. Although the cavalry
was summoned by the government, they declined to open fire on the protesters.

The Petrograd Soviet was the name given to the assembly of striking workers and soldiers
that formed a “council” or “Soviet” in the same building as the Duma. To govern the nation,
leaders of the Soviet Union and the Duma organised the Provisional Government. A
constitutive assembly chosen by universal adult suffrage would decide Russia’s future. The
February Revolution, led by Petrograd, ended the monarchy in February 1917.

The Revolution of October 1917

The Bolsheviks and the Provisional Government were increasingly at odds. Lenin convinced
the Bolshevik Party and the Petrograd Soviet to consent to a socialist takeover of power on
October 16, 1917. The Soviet Union created a Military Revolutionary Committee led by Leon
Trotsky to plan the seizure.

Ministers were to be arrested and government offices were to be seized by the supporters
of the Military Revolutionary Committee. The ministers had given up before dusk and the
committee had taken control of the city. The Bolshevik move was accepted by the majority
of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets at a meeting in Petrograd.

Stalinism and Collectivisation

The collectivization of agriculture proved to be disastrous during the early stages of the
planned economy.

Soviet Russia’s towns were severely struggling with a shortage of grain by 1927–1928. Stalin
imposed strict emergency protocols. Party members patrolled the grain-producing regions
in 1928, overseeing the collecting of forced grains and conducting raids on wealthy peasants
known as “kulaks.” The land was turned over to peasants after 1917. All peasants were
compelled by the Party to work in collective farms (kolkhoz) starting in 1929. The kolkhoz
profit was divided among the peasants who laboured on the land.

There was a one-third decrease in livestock between 1929 and 1931. Stalin’s regime
tolerated some independent farming but showed indifference towards those who engaged
in it. Despite collectivization, productivity did not rise right away, and the 1930–1933
disastrous harvests claimed almost 4 million lives. Accusations were made across the nation,
and by 1939, nearly 2 million people were incarcerated or housed in work camps.

The Global Influence of the Russian Revolution

and the USSR
Communist parties, such as the Communist Party of Great Britain, were founded in
numerous nations. International participants in the Conference of the Peoples of the East
(1920) included non-Russians from outside the USSR. The Comintern, a global alliance of
socialist parties that supported Bolshevik ideology, was established by him.

The USSR gave socialism a global face and grandeur before the start of World War II. The
USSR grew into a major power, its industries and agriculture flourished, and food was being
provided for the underprivileged. The Soviet Union’s standing as a socialist nation had
deteriorated by the end of the 20th century.
 NAZISM AND THE RISE OF HITLER

Birth of the Weimar Republic

Germany fought in the First World War (1914–1918) against the Allies (England, France, and
Russia) and alongside the Austrian Empire in the early years of the twentieth century. The
conflict had emptied Europe’s resources beyond measure. Belgium and France were
occupied by Germany. However, the US entry into the war in 1917 helped the Allies, who
went on to defeat Germany and the Central Powers in November 1918. The National
Assembly convened in Weimar and drafted a democratic constitution featuring a federal
framework. All adults, including women, cast equal and universal votes to elect deputies to
the German Parliament.

Germany’s colonies abroad were lost. Germany was held accountable under the War Guilt
Clause for both the conflict and the harm the Allies endured. In the 1920s, the Rhineland
was taken over by the Allies.

The Effects of the War

The conflict left a financial and psychological toll on the entire continent. The Republic,
forced to pay reparations, was left financially devastated and carried on the war of guilt and
national humiliation. Democrats, socialists, and Catholics who backed the Weimar Republic
were derisively referred to as “November criminals.” In Europe, the First World War had a
profound effect on politics and society.

Although they are regarded more highly than civilians, soldiers often lead unhappy lives. The
idea of democracy was new and brittle, and it was unable to withstand the instability of
interwar Europe.

Political Radicalism and Economic Crises

The Spartacist League’s revolutionary revolt, which followed the Russian Bolshevik
Revolution’s model, occurred simultaneously with the founding of the Weimar Republic.
They brought down the insurrection with the aid of the Free Corps, an association of former
military personnel. Socialists and Communists became adversaries. The 1923 economic crisis
exacerbated political radicalization.

The French seized Germany’s most important industrial region, the Ruhr, to seize its coal
when Germany refused to pay. The picture of Germans lugging carts full of cash to purchase
a loaf of bread went viral, inspiring compassion from people all across the world. The term
“hyperinflation” was coined to describe this crisis—a state in which prices increase
astronomically.

The Years of Depression

There was some stability between 1924 and 1928. Short-term loan support was
discontinued in 1929 following the crash of the Wall Street Exchange. The United States’
national income dropped by half during the next three years, from 1929 to 1932, as the
Great Economic Depression got underway. Germany’s economy suffered the most. When
they lost their jobs, workers took to the streets with signs that read, “Willing to do any
work.” Young people engaged in illegal activity. Fears of proletarianization, of falling into the
ranks of the working class, and of unemployment plagued the middle class and small
business owners.

Furthermore, the Weimar Republic was insecure politically. Because of some innate flaws,
the Weimar Constitution was brittle and open to tyranny. Proportional representation was
one of its intrinsic flaws. Article 48, which allowed the President the authority to declare a
state of emergency, suspend civil liberties, and rule by decree, was another flaw.

Hitler’s Rise to Power

Hilter became powerful. He was raised in poverty after being born in Austria in 1889. He
enlisted in the army, served as a front-line messenger, was promoted to corporal, and was
awarded medals for valour during the First World War. In 1919, Hitler became a member of
the German Workers’ Party, a little organisation. After seizing control of the group, Hitler
changed its name to the National Socialist German Workers’ Party, which subsequently
evolved into the Nazi Party. He intended to march on Berlin in 1923, take control of Bavaria,
and seize power.

Nazism spread widely during the Great Depression. Following 1929, the middle classes faced
the prospect of impoverishment as banks failed, companies closed, employees lost their
jobs, and enterprises closed. Nazi propaganda fueled optimism for a better future in such
circumstances.

Hitler was a dynamic speaker who touched audiences with his remarks. During his speech,
Hitler pledged to forge a powerful nation, reverse the unfair effects of the Versailles Treaty,
and bring back the honour of the German people. In addition, he pledged young people a
safe future and jobs for job seekers. He pledged to eradicate all outside influences and
thwart any foreign “conspiracies” directed at Germany.

Hitler adopted a new political strategy, which was backed by large-scale demonstrations and
open gatherings of supporters. Hitler was referred to in Nazi propaganda as a messiah, a
saviour, and someone who had come to save people from their plight.
The Destruction of Democracy
On January 30, 1933, President Hindenburg extended to Hitler the offer of the
Chancellorship, the top post in the cabinet of ministers. The Weimar Constitution’s
guarantees of civic rights, including freedom of expression, the press, and assembly, were
suspended by the Fire Decree of February 28, 1933. The infamous Enabling Act, which
created a dictatorship in Germany, was approved on March 3, 1933.

The army, judiciary, media, and economy were all taken over by the state. These included
the Gestapo (secret state police), the SS (protection squads), criminal police, and the
Security Service (SD), in addition to the ordinary police already in place in green uniforms
and the SA, or Storm Troopers.

Reconstruction
Hitler tasked economist Hjalmar Schacht with bringing about economic recovery, to achieve
full employment and production through a state-funded work-creation initiative. The well-
known German motorways and the Volkswagen, the people’s car, were the products of this
initiative.

Under the motto “One people, One empire, and One leader,” Hitler rejected the League of
Nations in 1933, retook the Rhineland in 1936, and united Austria and Germany in 1938.
Schacht cautioned Hitler against making significant armament investments because the
government was still operating on a deficit.

The Nazi Worldview

Nazis are associated with a belief system and a way of life. Their worldview maintained that
there was only a racial hierarchy and no equality among humans. Hitler’s racism was derived
from the ideas of intellectuals such as Herbert Spencer and Charles Darwin. The Nazis’ basic
thesis was that the stronger race would prevail and the other races would be wiped out.

The best race in the world, the Aryan race maintained its purity, grew stronger, and took
over the globe. Hitler’s philosophy also included the geographical idea of Lebensraum, or
“living space.” Hitler planned to move eastward and widen the German borders to physically
gather all Germans in one location.

The Racial Utopia

War and genocide evolved into two sides of the same coin. Following its division, Germany
acquired a large portion of northwest Poland.
Poles were compelled to abandon their houses and possessions. Large-scale murders of
Polish intellectuals occurred, and Polish children who appeared to be Aryans were taken
from their mothers and subjected to examinations by so-called “race experts.”

The Nazi Cult of Motherhood

Children in Nazi Germany were taught that women and men were separate. Girls were
instructed to become good mothers and raise children who were pure-blooded Aryans,
while boys were trained to be assertive, manly, and steel-hearted. In addition to taking care
of their homes, keeping the race pure, and instilling Nazi ideals in their children, girls also
had to keep their distance from Jews. However, not every mother received the same
treatment. Those that urged ladies to have more children were given Honours Crosses.

For four kids, a bronze cross; for six, a silver cross; and for eight or more, a gold cross.
Women who continued to interact with Jews, Poles, and Russians were dragged around the
town wearing blackened faces and shorn hair, with signs that said, “I have sullied the
honour of the nation,” hanging around their necks.

The Art of Propaganda

The Nazis used terms such as “special treatment,” “euthanasia,” “final solution” (for the
Jews), “selection,” and “disinfection” to refer to mass executions. “Evacuation” refers to
sending individuals to death chambers. Gas chambers, which resembled bathrooms
furnished with phoney showerheads, were designated as ‘disinfection spaces’.

Nazi ideologies were disseminated via radio, cinema, posters, eye-catching slogans, and
leaflets. Stereotypes and markings were applied to Orthodox Jews, who were called rats,
vermin, and pests. The Nazis tried equally hard to win over all the various segments of
society. They claimed that the Nazis alone could handle all of their issues to gain their
support.

Ordinary People and the Crimes Against Humanity

Individuals began speaking in Nazi vernacular and viewing the world through Nazi lenses.
They sincerely thought Nazism would bring wealth and improve people’s quality of life, but
they also harboured animosity and resentment towards Jews.

Pastor Niemoeller criticised the strange lack of outspoken opposition from common
Germans to the heinous and well-planned crimes carried out by the Nazi regime. In her
book “The Third Reich of Dreams,” Charlotte Beradt explains how the Nazi prejudices about
the Jews came to be believed by the Jews themselves.

Knowledge about the Holocaust

Germany was vanquished at the end of the war. The Jews wanted the world to remember
the horrors and sufferings they had gone through during the Nazi extermination operations,
widely known as the Holocaust, while the Germans were consumed with their predicament.

The Nazi leadership gave petrol to its employees so they could destroy any proof of guilt
that was lying about in their workplaces after they lost the war.