Ethics- deals with principles of ethical concerning preferable modes of conduct;

behaviour in modern society at the the dominant motivation underlying the

level of the person, society and pattern of people’s behaviour.
interaction in the environment and Valuation- the experience of attributing or
other shared resources. assigning value to a thing, idea or event, or
Morality- pertains to the standards of a mere feeling of value.
the right and wrong that an individual Value judgement- a matter of appraisal,
originally picks up from the evaluating or assessing of the desirability
community. of things
Value -It is the good of man’s positive Good-possesses desirable qualities which
attitude. satisfy some preferable needs. Something
-The goal or vision which motivates which is positive or advantageous to
man to act. everybody at all times.
-The principle which guides man’s Ideal- a standard or model of perfection,
action and thinking. excellence, beauty, or goodness.
-Is that which is important to us and is Norm - a rational concept of what ought to
the basis of our choices, decisions, be a; a guide to what should be.
reactions and behaviour. Moral Judgement – an act or process of
-The intrinsic worth of a thing. forming an opinion or making a decision
after careful thought; it is the ability to
Kinds of Values make good decisions about what should be
done which is always based on morality.
1. Biological Values -These are necessary • Standard – it is something that is
to the physical survival of man as an morally correct and acceptable that is used
organism. Ex. life & health, food & to make judgments of a certain action.
shelter, work Morality- is a principle of what is
2. Social Values - These are necessary to considered to be right or wrong, in
the essential needs and fulfilment.Ex. knowing what is good from what is bad. It
leisure, marriage, family & home, parental is the quality of goodness or badness in a
authority, education human act.
3.Rational Values -These are necessary to •Moral Standards- are a set of principles
the functions and fulfilment of the intellect that serve as the actual parameters or
and will. Ex. understanding and control of guides of how an action can be judged.
nature, guide and control of oneself, Moral judgement then operates only in so
solidarity with fellowmen, religion far as the standards are well reasoned by
4. Aesthetic Values - The appreciation of the person’s evaluating capacity.
the natural and artistic beauty of things. Moral – good human act, conforms to the
Ex. talent, elegance, grace, symmetry, rules of right conduct. Ex. Truth telling,
colour helping a friend, studying diligently
5.Moral Values - These are experienced Immoral – an evil human act, violates the
in social or individual conduct. Ex. values rules of right conduct. Ex. Telling lies,
of character and good will, concern, spreading gossip, murder
sympathy, charity, justice Amoral – indifferent human act, neither
6. Affective Values - Affective values good nor bad, in itself. Ex. Breathing,
Experienced in pleasant and difficult sitting, walking, drinking and smiling (no
emotional incidents. ex. Play excitement, moral bearing unless hindered by certain
comfort, delight in food, sex law or due to circumstances.
7.Religious Values- Based on what is Non-moral Standards - are expressed
interpreted to be man’s relationship to and/or exhibited if there are inadequacies
God. ex. Piety, truthfulness, justice concerning the measures of how an action
is judged. Non-moral standards are
Value system- consists of independent arbitrary, which means they are based on
values which are systematically arranged personal feelings, or perceptions, rather
in a pattern in which are subject to than on objective facts, reasons, or
reciprocal or mutual variations. It is an principles.
enduring organisation of beliefs
Foundations of Morality What is Philosophy in relation to
Ethics?
Rationality - is man’s capacity to reason ∙ It is the systematic study of ideas and
which implies that his/her desire for truth issues;
is an in-born ability. A man can use his/her ∙ a reasoned pursuit of fundamental
rationality in evaluating an act whether it truths and the good;
is moral or not. By using this capacity, ∙ a quest for comprehensive
he/she can evaluate the act itself, the understanding of the world;
intention, as well as the consequences. ∙ a study of principles and conduct.
Impartiality - involves man’s decision to
always aim to decide for what is just, Branches of Philosophy and its relation to
equal, and balanced weighing of things Ethics
that are devoid of any biassed judgement Epistemology
or pre-judgement. - Studies the criteria of knowledge
Freedom- freedom of the will and the and truth.
freedom of the act are the subjective parts - Man exists as a being endowed
of morality. Freedom consists of the power with intellect and will.
which each man possesses to determine - How do we know what we know?
his/her life and to move it in a direction Are we certain that everything we
that he/she chooses. However, man is not know is true? What is good?
free in order that he/she might use his/her Which is right?
freedom to kill others or to destroy Metaphysics
him/herself. Freedom therefore is the - Studies begin in so far as they are
achievement of a responsible life in beings.
accordance with the moral law. - Man exists as a rational moral
Being – That whose act is to be; that being.
which exists - Why do beings exist? Why do we
Acts – an entity which perfects and consider beings as one, true, good
determines a thing according to its nature. and beautiful? Why does evil exist?
Essence – That by which a being is what it
is (Quiddity). Cosmology
Nature – Dynamic essence; the principle - Studies the general nature of the
and cause of motion and rest of a thing in world.
which it is necessarily and not - What is the world made of? Is there
accidentally. a Creator? What laws and
Principle–that from which something principles govern the order and
proceeds in any way structure of the universe?
Truth – conformity of a thing and the
intellect. Social and Political Philosophy
Wisdom – Knowledge of all things by the - Studies the nature of society and
highest causes. the relation between the individual,
the community, and the state.
What is Philosophy? - Ethics deals with the moral order
which includes the social order.
∙ came from the Greek words, Philo - What is an ideal society? What
and Sophia which means love justifies political authority? Is there
(friendship) and wisdom a universal set of human rights?
respectively, literally meaning love
of wisdom. Aesthetics
∙ Investigates all things in their - Studies the essence and perception
of art, beauty and taste.
ultimate causes, reasons, and - Ethics stands for moral goodness;
principles through reason alone. Aesthetics for beauty. Goodness
and beauty are transcendental
attributes.
 - What is Beauty? What is or has been done right.
considered as a work of art? Does Evil – absence of goodness.
art have an ethical responsibility? Reason – it enables people to reflect on or
examine the underlying meaning of things
Logic and reality.
- Studies the correct process of Freedom—man’s ability to act in
thinking with the principles of accordance to his/her will and preferences.
valid reasoning and argument. Norm – it is a principle of right action
- Logic is the science of right binding upon the members of a group and
thinking. Ethics is the science of serving to guide, control or regulate proper
right living. Right living and acceptable behaviour.
presupposes right thinking. Character – the set of qualities that make
- What is a valid argument? How can somebody distinctive. A
we recognize fallacies? How do we creating process involving prudent choices
determine good from bad of values. The habit of doing well at all
reasoning? times.

Theodicy What is Ethics?

- Studies the nature of God in the - Comes from the Greek word,
context of reason not of faith.
- If morality exists there must be “ethos”, which means custom,
moral law. If moral law exists there characteristic, or habitual way of
must be the ultimate Lawgiver, doing things, or action that is
God. properly derived from one’s
- Does God exist? What are God’s character.
attributes? Why does God allow - Synonymous with the word,
evil and suffering?
Morality, which comes from the
Rational Psychology Latin word, “mos, moris” which
- Studies man’s nature, behaviour, also means tradition or custom.
soul as being endowed with reason Ethics is also known as Moral
and intellect. Philosophy.
- Psychology studies how man - The branch of Philosophy that
behaves; Ethics studies how man deals with the study of what is
ought to behave. good and wrong behavior.
- How does behaviour develop? - The practical science of the
What influences human behaviour? morality of human acts/conduct.
What makes a good person do evil - The study of what is right and
acts? wrong in human behavior in the
pursuit of the good and happy life.
Philosophy of Man/Philosophy of the
Human Person ∙ The first principle of Ethics: “Do
- Studies the origin, nature and good and avoid evil.”
reality of human existence. ∙
- Philosophy of man and Ethics both Science – a systematic study or a
examines topics on how people system of conclusions based on
think, live and interact with their reason clearly demonstrated,
environment. derived from clearly established
- What is the essence of man? What principles and duly coordinated.
is the meaning of life? Are human Morality – the quality of right or
beings inherently good or evil? wrong in human acts.
Human acts – acts done with
Goodness – it is a quality or state of being knowledge and consent.
virtuous.
Happiness –State of pleasure, contentment Ethics according to philosophers:
or joy; satisfaction that something is right Socrates:
 “Ethics is the investigation of life.” providing help to the needy, giving
“The unexamined life is not worth extra effort to guide someone,
living.” exposing oneself to danger for
saving another.
Plato:
“Ethics is the supreme science, the Criteria of Morality
science par excellence.”
Act (End/object of the Act)- It is the
natural purpose of the act; the specific
Desire – wish for something: to want action, the means, what the agent chooses
something very strongly. to do now. The end of the act determines
Purpose – the reason for which something whether the action itself is good or evil.
exists or for which it has been done or Ex. The end of studying is to acquire
made. knowledge and learning, thus it is
Attribute – to think of something as good/moral. The end of killing is taking
caused by a particular circumstance. someone’s life thus it is evil/immoral in
End – the nature or purpose of something. itself.
Culpability – degree of responsibility for
a fault or wrong. Intention (End of the Agent)- It is the
purpose, motive or aim of the doer of the
The Meaning of Good action. It is considered in judging the
Aristotle - defines good as that which fits morality of an act since it utilises the
a function. A good act is that which is knowledge and consent of the doer.
natural to man as a human being endowed Consequently, a good act may be spoiled
with reason and will. by an evil intention and vice versa.
- A good human being is defined as Ex. Earning money is good, but if the
that which fits human nature as a intention is to use the money for abusive
rational being. Every action is vices; the act becomes evil. It would be
intended for the attainment of morally evil to help someone if the
something good. intention is to deceive later. Lying about
- can be a need or a want. something since telling the truth will put
- since a thing is good when it is in someone in danger.
- accordance and fulfils its purpose
and nature. Circumstances - It is the surrounding
Evil- is the absence of good, the result of factor affecting one’s choice.
ignorance due to the imperfection and Circumstances include: who, where, when,
limitation of man’s knowledge. what extent, by whom, by what manner,
Intrinsic Evil- an action is intrinsically and the context of the action. May increase
evil when the nature of the act is defective or decrease the culpability of the act or it
either in excess or by lack of certain good may justify it. A good act done with good
attributes. Actions like murder, stealing intention may still become evil because it
and rape are intrinsically evil. may have been done under the wrong
Extrinsic Evil- an action is extrinsically circumstances. An objectively evil or good
evil when certain factors by way of act may become worse or better by reason
circumstances render the act opposed to of circumstances.
certain good. Eating is an amoral act but Ex. Lying about something may be
becomes extrinsically evil when it justifiable when telling the truth will put
becomes excessive and unhealthy. someone’s life in danger. Helping a friend
to pass the test by cheating is morally evil
Principle of Beneficence since it is against class rules.
- The principle of Beneficence
means that one should prevent or An act is morally good only if these criteria
remove harm or risk of harm, do are morally good, that is, in conformity with
good, or provide a benefit. It is a the order of reason. Both the end of the act and
positive action. Ex. respecting agent must be good and the circumstances
others, being a role model, must be appropriate. A good act may become
evil by reason of circumstance. Ex. The increased competition among fast
Dilemma – a situation in which a difficult food chains in Bacolod city.
choice has to be made between two or
more alternatives, especially equally
undesirable ones.
Consequences – something that follows as
a result.
Dichotomy – separation of different or
contradictory things.
Ethical Dilemmas- are situations in which
there are competing values that seem to
have equal worth. The problem can be
concerned either with a choice between
two competing moral goods or between
which is a lesser evil. The responsible
moral individual, therefore, must be able
to recognize what exactly the ethical issue
at hand is and formulate and state it clearly
as a moral problem
- The individual must try to find the
best balance possible that may honour
the competing values one must
identify the possible choices in a given
ethical situation and weight which one
among them can best meet the interest
of all the involved in question, as well
as provide a satisfactory balance
between the values in question.
- The individual must, therefore,
identify the probable consequences
that a particular choice of action will
bring to the concerned in order to
determine which choice possibly is the
best, given the situation.

Three levels of Moral Dilemma

Individual - this is a moral dilemma which

takes place in the person himself which may
involve family issues, religious values,
personal standards, or personal needs.
Ex. Getting confused about the diploma
program one will take in college.

Organizational - this is a moral dilemma

experienced by the person within an
organization which may be in a business,
medical, or a public sector, which may involve
the supervisory behavior, peer group norms
and behavior, or policy statements and written
rules.
Ex. Being in conflict with the existing policies
of the company you are working in.

Structural - this is a moral dilemma which

may involve institutions, operative, and
theoretical paradigms such as the government
laws and regulations, societal norms and
values, and competitive climate in an industry.