BAG 2207 PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION TO CROP PRODUCTION

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Agriculture

Agriculture is the science, art and business of cultivating soil, producing crops and raising
livestock.

The cultivation of animals, plants, fungi and other live forms of food, fiber and other products used
to sustain life.

Crop

• A cultivated plant that is grown as food, fodder, fire or fuel.

• A non- animal species or variety that is grown to be harvested as food, livestock fodder,
fibre, fuel or for any other economic purpose. Also includes species from other biological
kingdoms e.g fungi ( mushrooms) , algae ( sea – foods ) and bacterial e.g. bacterial used to
make yogurt.
• Any plant utilized by man for any purpose.

Food crop

• A crop grown specifically for consumption by man.

Cash crop

• A crop produced for its commercial value rather than for use by the grower.

Cover crop

• A crop grown for the protection and enrichment of the soil.

Ratoon crop

• A new crop that grows from the stubble of the crop already harvested. Examples of ratoon
crops include rice, sugar-cane, sorghum, cotton and banana.
Trap crop

A crop planted to attract insect pests from another crop, especially one in which the pests fail to
survive or reproduce.

Crop production

• Management of crops
• Methods by which man translates crop potentialities into the yields he needs.
• The art and science of cultivating and growing crops for subsistence and /or commercial
purposes.

Principle

• A comprehensive and fundamental law, doctrine or assumption.

• A fundamental truth or proposition that serves as the foundation for a system of belief or
behavior or for a chain of reasoning.
• A law or rule that has to be, or can be desirable followed, or is an inevitable consequence
of something, such as the laws observed in nature or the way that a system is constructed.

Principles of crop production

How to go about production of crops

It refers to fundamentals that must be followed or accomplished in order to achieve the growing
and production of crops.

Crop production is fundamental and essential to the supply of raw materials to agro-processing
industries. Common supermarket and domestic products such as breakfast cereals, maize and
wheat flours, bakery and confectionery products, pastes, edible oils, fruit juices, beers, wines and
spirits, nuts, textile products, soaps, etc are all result of appropriate crop production practices.

CROP CATEGORIES
Crops are categorized in various ways, most often by their biological nature and their uses. The
following crop categories composed by A.T.G Elzebroek and H. Wind are based on both biological
nature and uses of the crops:

Category Crops

Beverages Tea, coffee, cacao, tobacco

Edible fruits and nuts Citrus, mango, banana, coconut, cashew, macadamia, peanut

Elastomers Rubber plant

Fibers Cotton, sisal, jute, flax

Forages Napier grass, pastures, Lucerne, clover, lupin

Oil crops Sunflower, oil palm, rapeseed, cottonseed, simsim, corn, castor

Protein crops/ legumes Beans, soybean, peas, grams

Spices and flavorings / Onion, garlic, chilly, brinjal, tomato, clove, bixa
colorings

Starch crops Cereals, tubers, plantains ( cooking bananas)

Sugar crops Sugarcane, sugar beet

Vegetables Fruit vegetable, foliage vegetables, tuber vegetables

Activity 1.1
In the area you come from identify the crops that are cultiated and indicate
which category they belong
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
 _________________________________________________________

Crop Physiology, Ecology and Adaptations

CROP ECOLOGY

Ecology to the study of mutual relations between organism and their environment.

Crop ecology study of mutual relations between crops and the environment.

Crop environment: is made of the abiotic and biotic factors which are distributed in the lithosphere,
pedosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, photosphere etc.

In crop ecology the emphasis is given to climate and soils on growth and performance of crop.

Climate –Average condition of atmosphere at a given time.

Weather: single occurrence or event in the series of condition that make up the climate.

There are different climates that exists in the world which includes;

i. Marine or oceanic climate

ii. Continental climate
iii. Desert climate
iv. Coast or littoralclimate
v. Monsoon climate
vi. Mountain and plateauclimate

COMPONENTS OF WEATHER

The components of weather vary from place to place season to season on earth hence have wet or
dry areas cold or hot etc.

• Temperature
• Precipitation
• Humidity
• Winds and air pressure

Climate controls
Controls of climates include:

• Latitude or sun
• Distribution of land and water massses
• Winds
• Attitudes
• Mountain barriers
• Ocean current
• Stone of various kinds of a number of small other minor controls.

N/B : Sun or insulation is the simple greatest control of climate

Climate controls out upon climate elements producing variety of weather and climate.

Micro – climate

This area small modified climatese.g.under shade trees or dense growing plants.

Macro- climate – climate in large areas e.g. climate of province

TEMPERATURE

Temperature influences many chemical physiological processes in plant e.g. photosynthesis,

Transpiration, water and mineral transportation etc

The rate at which all this processes provide very influence rate of growth of crops e.g

In living things the rate of chemical reaction is roughly doubled for every 100 raise in temperature.

The degree to which temperature affects growth of plant performance will vary with different
crops.

There two types of climate that affect crop production cardinal range of temperature (CRT)and
optimum range of temperature (ORT)

CRT

Lower Limit Optimum range of temp Upper Limit

Outside the CRT the plant will either be stunted in growth or the growth will be abnormally first.

Most plants grow with 4.5 – 3.60c

Optimum temperature will vary with variety and stage of development of the plant e.g. Coffee
Arabic grows well 7.2 – 26.30c.

Maize germination best at 180c after germination requires optimum monthly mean of 23-280c.

At optimum temperature plants grow and yield best

Option temperature: influences quality of plant products e.g. in pineapples, citrus fruits, pyrethrum
etc. Quality of pyrethrum increases with altitude i.e. with decreasing temperatures.

Crops that prefer cool condition

Includes; wheat, barley, Irish potatoes, sugarcane, beans, vetch, field peas and many grasses.They
are damage by hot weather.

Crops which prefer warm seasons

Maize, cotton, sorghum, rice sugar cane, ground nut, cowpeas, soya beans, French beans etc.

Activity 4.1
Explain how low and high temperature effect crop growth and
distribution

ALTITUDE

Acts indirectly by modifying temperature within certain limit i.e for every 100m rise or fall in
attitude the temperatures are generally high of low for 50c

These effects could profoundly affect the geographical distribution of certain crops e.g. tea,
Arabica coffee, pyrethrum e.tc

HUMIDITY
Humidity is water vapor in the air.

Relative humidity; is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere in relation to the amount of
water vapourthat the air can hold in saturation at a given time and at a given temperature.

The lower the relative humidity at a given temperature the more rapidly will air take up water
transpired by leave or evaporation and transpiration

With increases in temperature & decreases in relative humidity there is increase inevapo -
transpiration.

Activity 4.2
Explain how evapotranspiration affect crop growth and distribution

. WIND

Air in motion

It may have the following effects:

• Increase amount of evapotranspiration – hence loss of water

• Encourage soil erosion especially on bare soils reduced by cover crops and lower crops
• If blowing from sea or water surface may have cooling effects on wind ward side. Taken
with moisture may have rainfall on windward side and dry effect of lee ward side.

Activity 4.3
Reading assignment: describe the positive and negative effect of wind on
plant growth and distribution.

RAINFALL OR WATER
Water natural or artificial is one of the major factor that affect crop distribution & performance.

Water plays certain important roles in the growth and performance of crops

a. Water provides hydrogen for manufacture of carbohydrate

6CO2 + 12H20 E+ chlorophyll CH200 +6H20 + 602 through photolysis for electrons for
fixation.

b. Water acts as solvent and transport medium for plant nutrients and hormones
c. Keeps the plant cells turgid e.g sunflower plant through its complex relations with osmotic
substances such as salts in the cells. Also through this process we get cell elongation.
d. Cools plants during transpiration where we have latent heat of evaporations.
e. Acts as a medium for all chemical reactions within the plants.

Water forms large portion of the plant about 60-90%

There are several factors affect this percentage

• Stage of growth
• Part of plant
• Environment where crop to growing

NB: Amount of water that is found in plant at harvest is very small. Estimate indicate that for a
plant to produce 1kg dry matter the plant requires 250-1000kg of water.

e.g.Alfalfa require ≤ 850kg H20 to make 1 kg

Barley require ≤ 800

Maize, sugar beans above 310 kg of water

Pig weed – about 300 kg

This means the amount of rainfall needed by crops to grow varies within species and variety.

Water stress occurs when there is no enough water for plant to complete the lifecycle

Plant responds to water stress by;

i. Reverse stomata rhythm

ii. Develop deep root system common in nee
iii. Sheds leaves – reduces transpiration e.g. sunflower.
iv. Develop small leaves tropical of xerophytes – reduce surface area hence lower
transpiration.
v. Hastening speeding life cycle i.e. tendency to mature earlier e.g. maize rice
Important characteristics of rainfall

• Amount
• Distributions
• Reliability
• Intensity
• Effectiveness

Activity 4.4
Reading assignment: describe the above characteristics of rainfall and
give their effects on crop production

Ways to preserve or systematically use water for production.

i. Mulching – Decrease evapo-transpiration and water run off

- Increase water infiltration
- Reduce erosion
ii. Breeding for early maturing crop varieties e.g. katumani composite maize
iii. Early planting (dry planting) planting few days before rain practiced on dry areas for maize.
iv. Controlling – speed of water run off / water infiltration within the soil.
v. Proper weeding
vi. Humus application – improves soil structure and water holding capacity.
vii. Fertilizer application e.g. apply of phosphates – encourage root development more roots
means covering greater soil area hence plant will be able to obtain more water e.g. sorghum
has extensive root system.
viii. Use of conservation tillage systems.

LIGHT

Light determines the rate of photosynthesis and growth response of plants.

Light Intensity and Photosynthesis

Light provides the energy needed for photosynthesis.

Light intensity: Amount of light incident on a surface e.g.Leaves or Earth surface

It’s usually measured in units called foot candles. For maximum photosynthesis on one leave of
plant it requires atleast 2500 f.c

This is called the saturation point. Above the saturation point there is no further increase in
photosynthesis occurs.

In practice most crops grow best at full sunlight (approximately 10000f.c)

This is because of phenomenon called mutual shading i.e. although the top leaves may have 10,000
f.c the lower leaves may have 500 f.c because they are shaded by the upper ones of the total light
energy that fall on the earth upper atmosphere only about 44% is available for photosynthesis.
Only about 1-2% of solar energy received at crop field during growth of plants is stored by
photosynthesis.

This is due to presence of dust particles of water vapouretc. in the atmosphere which tends to
intercept some of the light that will otherwise reach the earth surface.

Plants respond differently to varying light intensity some require bright zone while others prefer,
under shade e.g Cotton – bright, Coffee of tea – light shading.

Duration of Light

Day light hours tend to get longer (summer) as you move away from the equator.

In equator the variation of light and dark hour is almost negligible.

The response of crops to length of days is termed as photoperiodism.

Plants respond differently to varying day length best of this response may be classified as – short
day, long day, and day neutral

Short day plants

Require short day lengths before they can flower. Remain vegetative as long as days lengths are
long e.g. most variety of rice, sugarcane, sorghum, millet, soybeans, dry beans, coffee etc.

Long day plants

Require long day length before they can flower. Remain vegetative until the day length is longer
than certain critical period e.g.barley; pyrethrum, oats, spinach, radish, red cloves, small grains
except rice, cabbage, potatoes, sun flower.

Day neutral plants

Flower independent of day lengths.

Most tropical plants have adapted or bread to be day neutral e.g. cotton, beans, cassava, sunflower,
soya beans, potatoes rice tomatoes etc.

N/B: Most full weather crops have long day response where most warm weather crops have short
day response.

Other plants which responses to light include: Formation of chlorophyll, formation of xanthophyll

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE AGRICULTURE PRODUCTION

There are four categories of factors that influence agriculture activities in any area.
• Human factors
• Biotic factors
• Climatic factors
• Edaphic factors

Human factors

Are factors in human beings or the way human beings do things.

They include;

• Level of education and technology

Low level of education cause poor development of farming activities for example Farmers are
un aware of timings and they tend depend on supersitions, fate and traditions

Education solves this problems some of the areas it is appied includes;

Mathematics - measurement, calculations, accounting and analysis

Science – observation, interpretations ,solving problem

English – help to understand the technical language used in agriculture.

High level of education and technology leads to the following achievements:-

• Proper method and timing of doing things

 • Use of right type and amount of input

• Making of right decisions based on proper observations.

Health

To be successful in faming one need to be healthy, focused and determined.

Poor health – is a threat to farming

It has the following effects on farming

• Shortage of farm lobour – death and illness

• Increase in the cost living for patients and relatives
• Low living standards – all income goes to medication
• Low food supply and increased poverty
• Poor and low agriculture development - resources to be used in agriculture are used
on the patients
Economy

Liberalization of Kenyan economy- resulted to dumping of cheaply produced goods resulting to

reduced prices of our agricultural goods this has led to loss and low income to farmers. However
it has the following advantages;

• Availability of international market to sell the produce

• Diversification due different ecological zones in this country we can produce different
varieties of produce for sale

Government policy

Involves enactment of laws that govern production marketing and distribution of produce

To encourage production government should come up with polices that that regulate import of
goods by:

• Heavy taxation of imports

 • Subsiding of the growing locally produced commodities

• Quality control

• Conservation of natural resources

• Improving pest and diseases control that affect both plants and animals

• Transport and communication

Agriculture produce are transported from the farmer to the consumer. good and well maintained
infrastructure ensures that the produce get to the market in good time

Cultural practices and religious beliefs

They affect what communities produce and consume

Pastoral communities produce consume meat and milk

Religious belief affect consumption pattern hence what they produce

Diversification is required for a community and country to achieve food security ronic media and
ICT help to access market information and research

Market forces

This refers to demand and supply

Demand- quantity of goods and services that consumers are willing and able to buy at a given
price at a given period of time.

Supply – quantity of goods and that producers are able and wiling to sell at a given price in a
given period of time.

When supply increase prices decreases and this increases the demand of the commodities.

Demand and supply is also influenced by income taste preferences technology etc
 Activity 2.1
Explain how HIV/AIDS has affected crop production in your area

BIOTIC FACTORS

Are living organisms that affect agriculture production.

Pests

Affect agriculture in the following ways;

• Feed on the whole or part of the plant

• Rodents feed on the whole plants

• Invertebrate feed on part of it e.g. leaves this lowers the photosynthetic area leading to
reduction in quality and quantity

• Transmit crop diseases

• Injure plants part during feeding exposing the plant to secondary infection.

• Increase the cost of production.

Parasites

Live in or on the another organism hence they are either endoparasite or ectoparasite.

Decomposers
The act on plant and animal materials causing rotting of the materials to produce manure

Pathogens

• Include viruses bacterias and fungi

• Reduce quality and quantity of agricultural produce

• Are of economic importance since they cause death

Predators

Kills and feed on other animals

Predators that feed on pest are of importance though there are others that kill beneficial animals

Pollinators

Transfer pollen grains from the stamens to the pistil of another flower causing pollinations.

Cross pollination help in production of new improved varieties

They include insect and birds

Nitrogen fixing bacteria's

Found in the nodules of the leguminous plant like beans.

Convert free nitrogen to nitrate which help plants mals

Activity 2.2
Reading assingment; describe the various crop pest and parasite and
explain hoew they affect crop production in your country
Irrigation and drainage
Irrigation makes agriculture possible in areas previously unsuitable for intensive crop production.
Irrigation transports water to crops to increase yield, keep crops cool under excessive heat
conditions. It helps to have continuous irrigation from planting until harvest. In other situations,
irrigation is viewed as insurance against occasional drought.

Irrigation has the following advantages

• Improving crop quality (most noticeable for vegetable crops)

• Significantly increasing crop yields, particularly on sandy soils which have low moisture-
holding capacities
• Increasing opportunities for double cropping (planting soybeans after wheat in the same
year)
• Providing a means of liquid fertilizer application

IRRIGATION

It’s the artificial application of water in the soil so as to supplement the available rain or to grow
crops when there are no rains.

There are four primary types of irrigation:

• Surface irrigation,
• Sprinkler irrigation,
• Drip or trickle irrigation, and
• Subsurface irrigation (or "sub irrigation").

Surface Irrigation - With surface irrigation, water flows directly over the surface of the soil. The
entire surface can be flooded. The water can be applied through furrows between the rows (for row
crops).
 Activity 8.1

• Reading assignment; describe the methods used in surface

irrigation

Sprinkler Irrigation - With sprinkler irrigation, water is sprayed through the air from pressurized
nozzles, and falls like rain on the crop.

Variable-Flow Irrigation - Variable-flow irrigation sprinkler head improves the precision of

water and farm chemical applications.

Trickle or Drip Irrigation - Trickle or drip irrigation supplies water directly onto or below the
soil surface through "emitters' that control water flow.

Sub- surface irrigation - With sub- surface irrigation, the water table is artificially raised either
through blocking ditches or by supplying water through the perforated pipes also used for
subsurface drainage.

Potential Environmental Concerns

Environmental concerns related to irrigation include

• Depletion of the water source (falling water tables or reduced water levels in streams or
reservoirs),
• Soil erosion due to over-application,
• Runoff and leaching of chemicals,
• Salinization of the soil (salt-buildup)
 Best Management Practices

1. Minimize water use. Apply only enough water to meet crop needs. This can be determined
through regular soil moisture monitoring or through a "checkbook" system to monitor
water applied and crop needs.
2. Irrigation efficiency. Use efficient irrigation systems such as drip irrigation to minimize
evaporation.
3. Apply water at rate the soil can absorb. Runoff due to excess irrigation can cause soil
erosion.
4. Uniform Irrigation. Make sure water is applied uniformly. This makes the water more
efficient, and reduces the chance of runoff and leaching in certain areas where water may
be overapplied.
5. Provide good drainage. Salinization in areas of low rainfall can be minimized by
providing good drainage along with the irrigation, to leach salts down through the soil
profile.

Activity 8.2

• Reading assignment: describe the factors that influence the

choice of an irrigation system
.
Drainage

The purpose of agricultural drainage is to remove excess water from the soil in order to enhance
crop production. In some soils, the natural drainage processes are sufficient for growth and
production of agricultural crops, but in many other soils, artificial drainage is needed for efficient
agricultural production.

Surface drainage is the removal of water that collects on the land surface.

Best Management Practices

Traditionally, the goals of drainage were to:

1. Maximize crop yield and

2. Minimize costs of drainage installation.

Controlled drainage can be combined with sub- surface irrigation to improve yields while
protecting water quality. Sub- surface irrigation is irrigation back through the subsurface drain
tiles.

Activity 8.3

• Reading assignment: read on the importance of drainage in crop

production

Introduction to Plant nutrients:

Although the soil may supply a large number of minerals only 13(in addition to carbon, Hydrogen
and Oxygen) have been proven to be essential for higher plant life growth. These are in two
categories: major elements and minor elements, depending on their importance to the plant.
Major elements –Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium calcium magnesium and sulfur required %+dry
matter

Minor Elements: iron, Boron, manganese, Zinc molybdenum, copper and chlorine required in parts
(….) per unit of dry matter

Foliar analysis: are used to determine nutrients requirements from the mineral composition of
plants.

Soil reaction PH

This is the degree of acidity or alkalinity of the soil, determined by relative number of hydrogen
ions (H+) and hydroxyl ions (OH-) in soil solution. When PH is below 7, soil reaction is acid, above
7, soil reaction is alkaline at 7 the soil is neutral

An abnormally high soil PH (above 7) or low PH (below 4) is toxic to plant roots . Within the
acceptable range the PH affects plant growth directly or indirectly soil PH affects nutrients
availability and also some soil organisms , especially bacteria, PH may be used to control some
solid diseases soil PH can be adjusted through liming for alkalinity or addition of some
Nitrogenous fertilizers for acidity (also Sulphur) Soil texture also influence PH status for acidity
(also Sulphur) Soil texture also influence PH status, Clay soils more difficult neutralize then silts
sandy soils…

The nutrient requirements of crops are determined by correlating crop response with mineral
content of plant tissue and soil unfortunately the total nutrient content of the oil does not usually
give a true picture of related to carbon –exchange capacity (CEC) of the soil, soil reaction (PH)
and organic matter cycles in many plants severe shortage of certain nutrients produce characteristic
“Deficiency symptoms” which are often used as diagnostic technique. However a good farmer
does not wait up to this pathetic point

The level of crop response to fertilizers is related to part to the productive capacity of the soil and
productive and soil condition. Crops grown on soils of low productive capacity show a Max
response at lower level of fertility than those grown on soils of high productive capacity.
Fertilizer may be solid liquid or gaseous. Fertilizer may be dissolved in irrigation water or be
applied to the foliage. N2 May be applied into the soil in form of ammonia gas since it is heavier
than air and dissolves quickly in the soil moisture

Proper placement and timing are important in fertilization to be effective , fertilizer must be applied
where and when the plant needs it

Methods of placement:

• Broadcasting application –scattered before planting, and then incorporated by planting

• Top dressing
• Side dressing –put along the plant buried into the soil
• Band placement –in between the rows or ring –round the base free crop
• Plough sole placement –behind the plough in the bottom of furrows
• Starter solution –dissolved in supplemental transplanting water
• Foliar application
• Fertigation - irrigation water
• Timing of the application –consider N2 –after flush (rows)

Composite is prepared by piping plant residues either in a heap or a in a pit. The materials should
be turned over at intervals to facilitate even decomposition. Besides adding (effective
microorganisms) EM to accelerate decomposition other additives such as Ammonia Sulphate can
be added e.g. to dry maize stalks to increase N2 and encourage bacterial decomposition. There is
need to control temperatures during composting so as to ensure quality of the composite, hence
the need to keep on sprinkling some water during composting . The ready compost manure should
be shaped from sunlight and rain I order to conserve the nutrients.

Limitations of composting

Low availability of composting materials yet large amounts are needed for application

Very high labour requirements

Shortage of water in some areas

Low reliance in intensive agriculture due to inadequacy of materials

GREEN MANURES

Green manures is a type of cover crop grown primarily to add nutrients and organic matter to the
soil. Typically a green manure crop is grown for specific period of time then ploughed under and
incorporated in to soil . Green manures usually perform multiple functions that include
improvement and soil protection in the following areas.

1. Nitrogen fixation: crop ……

2. Increase in organic matter
3. Transfer of plant nutrients form sub soil to top soil for use by the crops
4. Suppression of weeds by the ploughing under
5. Control of soil erosion improvement of soil structure
6. Prevention of soil compaction and formation of hardpan

GREEN MANURE CROP HAVE THE FOLLOWING PROPERTIES

1. Rapid growth
2. Have N2 content preferably a legume
3. Be highly vegetative or leafy
4. Be capable of rapid rotting

LIMITATIONS OF GREEN MANURING

1. Cost may be too high for immediate growing season

2. Water consumption by cover crop may limit the growth of the main crop

FARM YARD MANURE

Farm yard manures are prepared basically using animal’s waste products e.g. dung, excreta,
droppings and urine, plus their bedding i.e. waste straw and any other materials and waste water
from washings of their premises.
Manures from different animals have different qualities which are further determined by age of the
animals, nutritional value and their feeds, amount and type of bedding materials used and the
method of preparation of FYM. However, in general FYMs have the following properties:

• They are rich in nutrients ( rich is relative)

• A small portion of N2 is directly available as and when FYM decomposes.
• When dung / droppings and urine are mixed, a balanced nutrition is made available to the
plants.
• Availability of K and P from FYM is similar to those of inorganic sources.
• Application of FYM improves soil fertility and structure.

Application of FYM improves soil fertility and structure. FYMs from different animals require
different application rates due to the variations. For example: Sheep manure is high in N and K,
pig manure is relatively low in N and K, chicken manure is very concentrated especially in N and
should be used sparingly.

NPK values / compositions of different FYMs NPK in %

Manure N-P-K

Chicken 1.1 – 0.8 – 0.5

Dairy Cow 0.25-0.15-0.25

Steer 0.7-0.3-0.4

Horse 0.7 – 0.3 -0.6

Rabbit 2.4 – 1.6 – 0.6

Sheep 0.7-0.3 -0.0

Reading assignment describe the process and methods of composting

Harvesting handling and storage of crop products

Harvest
In agriculture, the harvest is the process of mature crops from the files.

Reaping is the cutting of grain or pulse for harvest, typically using a scythe, sickle or reaper. The
harvest marks the end of the growing season, or the growing cycle for a particular crop. On smaller
farms with minimum mechanization, harvesting is the most labour intensive activity of the
growing season. On large, mechanized farms, harvesting utilizes the most expensive and
sophisticated farm machinery e.g. the combine harvester. Harvesting in general include an
immediate post- harvest handling- all the actions taken immediately after removing the crop from
the field – cooling, sorting, cleaning, packing –up to the point of further on farm processing, or
shopping to the wholesale or consumer market.

Harvest timing is a critical decision that balances the likely weather conditions with the degree of
crop maturity. Weather conditions such as frost, rain and unreasonable warm or cold periods can
affect yield and quality. An earlier harvesting date may avoid damaging conditions, but results in
poor yield and quality. Delaying harvest may result in a better harvest, but increases the risk of
weather problems. Timing of the harvest often amounts to a significant gamble. The above
narrative refers mostly to grains/ cereals and pulses. Cotton on large scale farms in developed
countries is picked/ harvested by sophisticated machinery.

There are other types of harvests with peculiar characteristics:-

• Harvesting of vegetable – leaves e.g. kales as the crops.

• Coffee picking – just like fruit trees- ripe beans picked.
• In Brazil, the berries dry ( Mbuni), trees shaken by machines and fallen beans taken away
by conveyors. Timing is critical.
• Tea plucking traditionally by hand, but picking machines, being introduced.
• Harvesting of tobacco leaves- just life vegetables, but leaves ( dry cured, flue cured, fire
cured)
• Banana harvesting- mature bunches harvested, next plants left growing while harvested
plant is stumped.
• Below- ground harvesting- involves Irish potatoes, sweet potatoes, peanuts, cassava, yams,
sugar beet, etc. For some – at the end of plant growth e.g. Irish potatoes, while others e.g.
sweet potato plant growth continues.
 Some – hand digging applied, for others, small machinery being introduced.

• Sugar harvesting – by hand and machinery – sugarcane and sugar beet both in this category.

Post harvesting handling

Post – harvest handling is the stage of crop production immediately following harvesting,
including cooling, cleaning, sorting and packing. The instant a crop is removed from the ground
or separated from its parent plant, it begins to deteriorate. Post-harvest treatment largely
determined final quality, whether a crop is sold for fresh consumption, or used as an ingredient in
a processed food product. Effective handling decreases post- harvest losses.

The most important goals of post-harvest handling are keeping the product cool, to avoid moisture
loss and slow down undesirable chemical changes, and avoid physical damage such as bruising,
to delay spoilage. Sanitation is also an important factor, to reduce the possibility of pathogens e.g
afflatoxins in wet cereals.

After the field, post – harvesting processing is usually continued in a packing house or store. This
can be simple shed, providing shade and running water, or a large – scale, sophisticated,
mechanized facility, with conveyor belts, automated sorting and packing stations, walk – in
coolers, etc. in mechanized harvesting, processing may also begin as part of the actual harvest
process, with initial cleaning and sorting performed by the harvesting machinery.

Initial post- harvest storage conditions are critical to maintaining quality. Each crop has an
optimum range for storage temperature and humidity.

Also certain crops cannot be effectively stored together as unwanted chemical interactions can
result. Various methods of high –speed cooling, and sophisticated refrigerated and atmosphere-
controlled environments, are employed to prolong freshness, especially in large scale operations.
Regardless of the scale of harvest, from a small scale farm to industrialized farm, the basic
principles of post – harvest handling for most crops are the same:
 • Handle with care to avoid damage (cutting, crushing and bruising)
• Cool immediately and maintain in cool conditions (potatoes)
• Cull (remove damaged items)

Storage of grain (maize cereals and pulses (beans, grams) at the small scale farms with no cooling
facilities or other sophisticated facilities. What to do:

• After harvest, dry the grain to the accepted level to avoid aflatoxin infestation- prefers
warm, moist environment.
• Avoid re-absorption of moisture which may bring aflatoxin infestation.
• Treat the grain against storage pest infestation, e.g. weevils or GGB ( Great Grain Borer)
• Storage in a ventilated store / atmosphere, and in appropriate bags for drying to continue.
Use ventilated gunny bags.
• Control vermin’s and rodents- through traps and rat guards.

Post-harvest losses (grains)

Grains may be lost in pre harvest, harvest and post-harvest stages.

• Pre harvest losses- by insects, weeds and rusts.

• Harvest losses – Losses due to shuttering of grain during shelling and winnowing.
• Post-harvest losses – through grain threshing, winnowing, drying, transportation, storage
and processing. Also by birds and rodents.

SOIL
Soil is the unconsolidated minerals or material on the immediate surface of the earth. That serves
as natural medium for growth of land plants.

It’s the natural medium for the growth of land plants on the surface of the earth composed of
organic of mineral materials.

It’s from the soil that all living plants and animal directly or indirectly obtain their food supply.

Climate, topography/ relief parent materials, organism and time are the five soil forming function.

Climate and topography and interaction with organism determine the environment of soils.
Organism also determined the type, amount and placement of organic material that accumulate the
soil.

They also function to recycle nutrients from deep within soil profile to the soil surface as well as
mediating many important soil reactions.

Constituents of soil

It constitute of three phase

i. Solid phase – minerals and organic matter

ii. Liquid phase – moisture and water
iii. Gases phase – air

Solid phase

Minerals are derived from parent rock through the process of weathering. They are made up of
different sizes sometimes referred to as particle size composition.

They are:

Clay – 0.002mm diameter

Silt – 0.02 – 0.002 mm diameter

Fine sand 0.2 – 0.02 mm diameter

Coarse sand – 2.00- 0.2 mm diameter

Gravel or rock – 2.0 mm diameter

With each of the above category there are great medium or fine in each of them.

Clay particles are colloidal in nature. A colloid can be organic or inorganic matter with very
small particle size and correspond to large surface area per until mass or particles with effective
diameter of 1m.

Clay particle are responsible to a great extent for the physical and chemical properties of soil.

Depending on proportion of sand, clay or silt the soil may be defined as sandy soil, clay loam
etc.

Soils which are sand predominant are referred to as light soils: Clay predominate – heavy soils.

The term refers to the easy in which soil can be ploughed.

Organic Matter

Organic matter consists of plant and animal residue in various stages of decomposition.

The term humus defines the final product of decay of organic matter. Humus like clay is
colloidal in nature and influences to some extents the physical chemical properties of certain
soils e.g. High water holding capacity.

Cation exchange capacity

Capacity of soils to exchange cations e.g H2+, Ca2+, NH4+ for an equivalent amount of other cation
without undergoing any change in structures. Takes place in organic and clay soil. It’s a rough
indicator of potential fertility of soils and extends to which fertilizers and lime will react with it.

Dark colour of the soils i.e the humus gives warmth to the soils in the tropics

Organic matter also serves to:

a. Supply nutrients in the soil

b. Improve soil structure

Liquid phase / soil moisture

The proportional of soil water is dynamic, varies with seasons and types of soil.

When you add water to dry soil it first occupies the micro – poles when they are saturated then it
occupies the macro- poles.

Water in the soils is held with varying forces, depending on the proximity of water film to soil
particles.

The easy with which plant roots will remove water from the soil depends on the tenacity with
which water is held by soil particles.

Based upon the tenacity with which water is held by soil particles soil water may be classified as
follows:

Free water also called drainage water or Gravitational or superfluous water

Free water – Water held in excess of field capacity it occupies the macro-poles and is easily lost
through drainage. Held by forces of less than 1/10 of atmosphere it’s undesirable as nutrients are
lost through it.
Capillary water

It’s held in the soil by capillary actions occupies parts of micro-pores. A soil holding its maximum
of capillary water after removal of gravitation water is said to be at field capacity.

At field capacity the water is held with forces at least 1/3 atmosphere.

Sandy soils have no proportion of capillary water since there pores are too large to hold water by
capillary action.

Capillary water is vitally important to plants.

Water between field capacity and wilting point is referred to as available water.

When all capillary water is lost the soils is said to be at wilting point.

Hydroscope water

It’s the water that remains when you remove all capillary water. It’s held with forces between 31-
10, 0000atmps.

It’s unavailable to plants

Clay soil hold relatively larger quantities of hydroscopic water, while sandy soils may hold none.

Gaseous phase / air

This is nitrogen, oxygen, carbon and other trace gaseous. Soil air is usually dissolved in soils water
and its composition in soil is variable. It varies with seasons & soil types.

e.g the soil air composition in rainy season is different from when its day.

Composition in heavy soil is different from that in light soils. Composition of air in soil is slightly
different from that in atmosphere and the composition can be represented as follows.

N% CO2% O2 %

Soils 78.6 0.2-0.6 20.3

Atmosphere 79 0.03 21

Carbon dioxide in soils comes from three sources

i. Atmosphere dissolved in rain water

 ii. Direct diffusion as a product of microbial and plant respiration
iii. Decomposition of organic matter

Oxygen

All living thing needs oxygen for respiration. Less oxygen supply leads to less water and nutrient
uptake by the roots of the crops.

Roots development slows down below soil oxygen content of 10% and will actually stop if the
oxygen drops to 5%.

Plants vary in their ability to transport oxygen from the aerial parts to their roots. E.g. rice which
is able to transport for aerial part since it has parenchyma cells.

Toxic gases

Comes about due to the process of decomposition e.g. hydrogen sulphide. These gases may hinder
growth of certain crops.

N/B: There is relatively little that can be done by a farmer to change or alter the composition of
soil air however certain precautions should be taken.

Don’t plant immediately after incorporation of green manure since there is high carbon dioxide
content in the soil.

Activity 5.1
Describe the type of soil that are found in your area

Physical Properties Of Soil

Soil texture

Refers to the proportions of various soil separates or soil particles which includes; sand, silt and
clay.

This soil texture determined soil drainage and complexion.

Sandy soil drains easily hence less water for the crop and nutrients are lost.
Soil structure

It’s the arrangement of various textural components of the soil. When soil separates are arranged
in a way that they crump together this called soil aggregation.

When the soil particles are well aggregated i.ecrumps not too large or too fine the soil is said to
have good crump structures.

If there is little or no aggregation of soil clump the soil is said to have paddled structure.

The cultural practice favors formation of soil structure

a. Addition of organic matter e.g. manure

b. Ploughing the soil at the right moisture content and using the right machinery
c. Addition of certain chemicals like gypsum to alkaline soils (CaSo42H2O) to get rid of Al3+
and replace absorbed minerals and lime to acidic soils.
d. Crop rotation

Importance of good soil structure

i. Ensure good proportion of water & Air in soil

ii. Proper aeration and drainage
iii. Creates favorable environment of plant roots.
iv. Good water holding capacity

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

The presence or absence of element/nutrients in the soil and PH and determines the chemical
properties of soil.

Elements ( soil nutrients)

The elements present in soil are those that may be used directly or indirectly by the plants.

Those elements that plant must get from air or soil to make this food are called essential elements.
They include

• Macro elements they are required by the plants in relatively large quantities, they include
Hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, potassium, nitrogen
• Micro elements or minor elements they are required by the plants in relatively small
quantities, they include iron, manganese, copper, zinc, chlorine, cobalt, Boron. calcium
iron

Measures to overcome deficiency

 • Application of fertilizers
• Incorporation of crop residue
• Weeding
• Soil conservation to retain the top soil
• Crop- rotation including requires and good grass grains
• Agro forestry

Soil reaction

This is the soil PH

PH of soil is measure of acidity and alkalinity of soil.

It’s the –ve log 10 of hydrogen ion (H+) (i.e. Log 10H+) activity or concentration.

Also defined as the reciprocal of Log10H+ concentration or activity in the soil.

Its measured in a scale of 1- 14 where PH 1 to 6 is acidic and 8- 14 is alkaline

PH 7 – Neutral

Importance of PH

Affects availability of plant nutrients e.g. at low PH the soils are acidic and micro nutrients are
available while macro nutrients are unavailable and the vice versa is true

Certain plant requires neutral or slightly acid soils but an abundant application of active calcium.

This crop includes: alfalfa or Lucerne, sweet clover, grey clover etc.

Activity of soil micro-organisms

This particularly affect the nitrifying bacteria i.e.azotobacter. They are eliminated at PH level that
5.7.

Earth worms – also eliminated at low soil PH

Activity 5.2
Describe the micro and macro nutrients required by the plants and their
deficiencies
TILLAGE IN CROP PRODUCTION

Seedbed preparation in crop production

Tillage: this mechanical manipulation of the soil using tools and agricultural machinery for the
purpose of creating favorable soil physical foundations that are necessary for seed germinations
and subsequent crop growth.

Objectives Of Tillage

i. Management of crop residue or any other of plant material Tillage help to incorporate
the residue in the soil which in return;
• Increase organic matter of soil of hence fertility
• Improve soil structure
• Assistance in maintenance or improve water infiltration
• Checks soil temp
• Improve physical condition for the soil hence help in seed germination
ii. Control competing vegetation weeds, for nutrients,water,space
iii. Helps plant roots to penetrate better in the soil
iv. helps in leveling the soil surface hence improve irrigation, drainage and check soil
erosion
v. Improve soil aeration promote evaporation especially in temperate condition.
Tilth; the term refers to the physical character of the soil after it has undergone are necessary tillage
operation for seed bed operation.

Means of Seedbed Preparation

Manual Way/Method

It’s the use of hand tools eg jembes and fork jembes by small scale farmers whos main aim is
subsistence farming.

Use of Draft Animals

E.g. horses,donkeys,oxens which are common in Far East country

Use fuel Powered Machinery

Common in modern agricultural where tractor drawn implements are used in land preparation

Advantages of mechanical land preparation

i. Timeliness of operation ; here machines are faster

 ii. Less laborious
iii. Gives the farmer the ability to produce more
Challenges

• Full mechanism is only possible in production of annual crops e.g. wheat, barley

• Farmer holdings in the developing countries are too small for economical mechanization.
e.g central province , part of western Kenya , parts of Kisii.
• The attempts to produce machines with low power for small holders is a problem since
they would be inefficient or too expensive
• It a threat manual labors especially in crop like tea, coffee.

Types Of Tillage Operation

i. Primary tillage
ii. Secondary tillage
iii. Tertiary tillage
iv. Minimum tillage / reduced
Primary Tillage

In the first Major operation carried out immediately after crop harvesting and is normally carried
out to prepare the soil for the incoming crops.

It’s also done on virgin land where: vegetation has been cleared.

Primary tillage is carried out once twice or more than that. The farmer decides depending on:

i. Condition of the land

ii. Vegetation type
For Land previous after crop is only done once. Primary tillage involves opening up and turning
of the soil. It also enables the burying of vegetation that was on top.

Three types of ploughs are used

i. Mould board plough

• Commonly used on large scale operation:
• Can be engine power or animal power plough
• Used mainly to open virgin land
• Able to achieve reasonable depth and normally very effective
• Allows the farmer to be able to incorporate the residue
Disadvantage

Required high power

ii. Disc plough

• Widely used
• Helps one to achieve 30-60% of residue incorporation
• Disc able to cut residue easily and effectively

Chisel Plough

Ineffective to residue incorporation and only achieve 25%

Advantage

Helps to break and hard pan

Time of tillage operations is influenced by

• Climate

• Type of soil – light or heavy clay virgin or not

• General weather of the particular day
• Type of implements available
• Capital availability
• Normally recommend to plough when soil are dry to save soil structure from distraction
and helps the weeds to dry up.
• Ploughing during wet season destroys soil structure and creates soil compaction.

Recommended you plough one to two months before rain

a) This gives the soil enough time to weather

b) Allow weeds to germinate & then destroy during secondary operation.

c) Allow enough time for vegetation to decomposition.

Depth of ploughing depends on;

• Types of plough

• Type of soil
• Whether land is virgin or not
• However general variation of depth is 8-12cm

Its normally unnecessary to grow below 12 cm this is because

 i. Require a lot of fuel

ii. Reduced rate of ploughing

iii. Heavier clay may be brought to the surface which are low in nutrients & lively restrict
iv. May create problem in root development
v. The deeper you go the more likely you bring more of weed seeds on the surface.
N/B In case of hard pan it is recommended that you go beyond 13cm deep.

Secondary Tillage / harrowing

Tillage before you plant the crop

Normally carried act at comparatively lower depth than primary

Involves all other tillage carried after primary tillage but before planting

Objectives

• Help to break large soil aggregate to provide environment for seed germination.

• Help farm or compact the seed bed to the required bulk density up to 1.4 g/cm3
• Help to kill weeds and any volunteer crops
• Help you level the land; create ridges, opens up the furrows etc.

Implements used are:

Harrows

• Are of several types – Disc hurrow, Most commonly used , spike tooth

• Disc harrow penetrates the soil easily hence give good soil penetration
• Its capable to ride over obstacles with ease

Ridge plough

• Employees two mould boards

• Able to cut ridges 20-25cm high and 40-50cm wide

Rotary cultivator

• Does both primary and secondary operation at he same time

• Commonly found in small scale farming

TERTIARY TILLAGE
 • Normally refers to as inter- tillage or inter-cultivation

• Normally done post planting i.e. after planting

Objective

• Controlling weed ( main objective)

• Help incorporate dressed fertilizers

• Improve water infiltration in the soil
• Improve soil aeration

There two common implements used

i. Row cultivator
• Applicable in crops grown in rows
• Used for weeding row crops
• Has a series of blades attached to a horizontal bar

ii. Rotary hoes

• Used in crops not planted in rows
• Are a series of spokes which have no rims but mounted on axle
• Able to scratch and penetrate the soil breaking the soil crust and kill weed seedlings

iii. Hand tools

• Panga
• Jembes
• Fork jembes

Minimum or Reduced Tillage

Practice of reducing the physical manipulation of the soil.

This is achieved through

a. Zero tillage – not supposed to break the soil , apply to seeds that are broadcasted

b. Chemical tillage – weeds destroyed by chemicals no ploughing

c. Minimum cultivation - reduce mechanical manipulation to the level you only plough for
purposes of planting
Objectives / reason for reduced tillage operation

• Effective for soil erosion control

• Able to cultivate large parts of land with little time

• Save on time
• Save on cost of production – reduce lobour

Disadvantages / problems

• Crops stands (pop) are very poor due to failure to give seed maximum soil contact

• Most chemicals are too expensive and beyond the reach of the consumer
• Chemical used require an educated user

SOWING AND PLANTING

Sowing – refers to the distribution of seeds in the field by hand or machines in order for them to
germinate given the ideal condition of air warmth and water

Sowing deals with specifically seeds e.g. grains

Planting is a general term which is the putting of planting maternal or propagates on the soil to
make them germinate or develop roots

There are two categories of plant materials

a. Seed
b. Vegetative materials

Seed this are Grains of cereals and pulses

Vegetative materials: These are plant parts which when planted are capable of producing roots
and develop in into a new plant. They include the following;

• Stem cutting: cassava , sugarcane etc

• Vines- sweet potatoes
• Crowns and splits – e,g pyrethrum and pineapples
• Tubers – Irish potatoes
• Bulbs and bulbils – onions
• Sockers – banana, pineapple
• Rhizomes – kikuyu grass
 • Stolons – strew berry

Reading assignment; describe the above vegetative materials

METHODS OF PLANTING SEED

a) Broadcasting
b) Dibbling
c) Drilling

Broadcasting

Randomly throwing the seeds in the field or Scattering or spreading seed by hand or machinery.

Broadcasted seed may be left exposed or may be forced to incorporate the seed in the soil.

Suitable for crops which don’t require any agronomic or cultural practice after germination.

Disadvantages

• An even distribution of crops in the field

• Does not give uniform sowing depth

Dibbling

• Refers to planting in a stitch

• Involves making a hole and throwing seed at predetermined depth and space and the
covering it with soil.
• Suitable for widely spaced crops e.g. maize , cotton etc.
• Those that require other operation after germination

Disadvantages

• Quite laborious
• Time consuming
• Expensive

Advantage

• Possible to have control over your plant population

• Help achieve rapid and uniform germination

DRILLING
 • Improve method of dibbling method
• Have planter that make furrow at predetermined distance of depth
• The planter opens up the soil, drop the seed and fertilizer pesticide and finally able to cover
in one operation
• Drilled crop include maize, wheat, barley legumes etc.

Major disadvantage

Requires skillful adjustment and operation

Advantages

• Gives uniform plant population

• Very fast
• Less laborers but only suitable on large scale farming

Time of seeding

• This is a function of the region i.e. temperate or tropical.

➢ in temperate region – temperature is a major issue since they experience very low
temperature at some time of the year
➢ in the Tropics : Soil moisture determines planting time
Planting is done on the onset of rain

Time of planting is critical since it limits the length of the growing season

Early planting / seeding is extremely important because;

i. In order to allow the crops to take advantage of the available moisture as the beginning
of the rains.
ii. Allow crops benefit from a phenomenon known as Birch effect i.e Nitrogen flash was
discovered by scientist birch – he advanced this theory that the first two weeks on the
onset of rains the concentration of nitrogen is high on the soil.
iii. Early planted crops are less accessible to insects, pests and diseases.
iv. I have better chances of escaping the weed effect as they are capable of completing the
weed
v. Early planted crop mature early reach the market early when the month is at its peak.

Reading assignment;
Describe the factors that influence depth of planting, spacing, seed rate and plant population
during planting.

Depth of sowing

• The seed has to be covered in order to protect the seed from pest
• Dehydration
• Protect them against weed and splash

Depth of sowing influenced by:

i. Seed size & weight of the seed

ii. Small seed – shallow planted & vice versa. This depends on food reserve on the cotyledon.
iii. Soil texture & structure of the soil for heavy soil where penetration is about repeated plant
the seed a bit shallower.
iv. Sandy soil or lighter plant deeper so that the seed get moisture
v. Amount of moisture in the soil. Dry soil – plant deeper.

SOIL TEMPERATURE

When soil temp are low the planting depth should be shallow

NB: Normally plant seed within the 1st 10cm research has shown any given seed the depth should
be 3-5times the size of that seed.

Small seeded crop e.g. finger millet plant 1.5cm deep, medium seeded cops 2.5 – 5cm deep land
large size crops 7.10cm deep.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE NUMBER OF SEEDPER HOLE

i. Spacing – encompasses the enter and intra row spacing

ii. Widely spaced crop- put more than one seed per hole
iii. Moisture content of the soil if the soil is dry put fever seeds per hole.
iv. Heavy clay soils put more seed peer whole than the lighter soil coz of moisture content.
v. Chemical treatment of the seed. Treated seed not fewer than not treated since they are
protected.
vi. Nature of the seed, soft or hard seed. Hard seed prevent immediate germination hence put
more; since the stand higher chance of never germinating.

SPACING AND SEED RATE

• Spacing – distance between row & distance between plants within the low
• Spacing between the rows – intra row spacing
• Within rows – inter row spacing
• For broadcasted seed spacing refers to the distance between one plant and the next.
 • The overall objective of spacing is to distribute the plants in such a way that that to are
able to get the maximum yield per space per given time

Spacing has several important influences upon factors of production which includes;

i. Plant Population

Wide spacing decreases plant population

Maize spacing is dependent on the ecological zone.

Narrow spacing of rows can increase the yield. Since this increases the population. This statement
is true when other factors are constant.

Closer spacing gives an effective canopy for light interaction hence you expect higher total
photosynthesis.

Extremely high population e.g. maize increases high chances of diseases, crop logging and reduce
size of the grains and end up with no yield.

ii. Time spend in planting

• Closer spacing consumes both seed and time i.e. it call for more capital and labour intensive
iii. Weed control
• Closely spaced crop smother out the weed while widely spaced allow weed to grow.
iv. Pest and disease control
• In crops like ground nut, close spacing eliminate aphids which causes rodent virus.
• Most crops close spacing promotes the problem of fungi disease
v. Crop yield
• Close spacing yield up to a certain point beyond which yield will tear off.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE SPACING

Soil fertility – food reserve base for the plant – low fertility wilder spacing and vice versa

Soil moisture – soil moisture and population is dependent of purpose for growing e.g. for foliage
for high population

Crop species – Crop with a lot of branches – space more widely or soya beans which are able to
spread for their canopy have wide spacing.

Time of planting – Late planted crop – wide spacing recommended – reduces competition of
moisture

The actual spacing is determined by regional you are planting

Some crops will compensate for wider spacing by producing tillers e.g. wheat.
 PLANTING AND HARVESTING
Planting
Sowing – refers to the distribution of seeds in the field by hand or machines in order for them to
germinate given the ideal condition of air warmth and water

Sowing deals with specifically seeds e.g.grains

Planting is a general term which is the putting of planting materials or propagates on the soil to
make them germinate or develop roots

Havesting is the removal of produce from the field after the crop is mature. Sevearal activities
are carried out after harvesting so as to preapare the produed for either storage or market

PLANTING MATERIALS

There are two categories of planting materials

c. Seed
d. Vegetative materials

Seed: this are grains of cereals and pulses planted to geminate and produce a new plant

Vegetative materials: These are plant parts which when planted are capable of producing roots
and develop in into a new plant. They include the following;

• Stem cutting: cassava , sugarcane etc

• Vines- sweet potatoes
• Crowns, slips and splits – e.g pyrethrum and pineapples
• Tubers – Irish potatoes
• Bulbs and bulbils – onions, sisal
• Suckers – banana, pineapple, sugarcane
• Rhizomes – kikuyu grass
• Stolons – strawberry
 Reading assignment; describe the above vegetative materials

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

METHODS OF PLANTING SEEDS

d) Broadcasting
e) Dibbling
f) Drilling

Broadcasting

Random throwing the seeds in the field or Scattering or spreading seed by hand or machinery.

Broadcasted seed may be left exposed or may be forced to incorporate the seed in the soil.

Suitable for crops which don’t require any agronomic or cultural practice after germination.

Disadvantages

• uneven distribution of crops in the field

• Does not give uniform sowing depth

Dibbling

• Refers to planting in a stitch

• Involves making a hole and throwing seed at predetermined depth and space and the
covering it with soil.
• Suitable for widely spaced crops e.g. maize , cotton etc
• Those that require other operation after germination

Disadvantages

• Quite laborious
• Time consuming
 • Expensive
Advantage

• Possible to have control over your plant population

• Help achieve rapid and uniform germination

DRILLING

• Improve method of dibbling method

• Have planter that make furrow at predetermined distance of depth
• The planter opens up the soil, drop the seed and fertilizer pesticide and finally able to cover
in one operation
• Drilled crop include maize, wheat, barley legumes etc.
Major disadvantage

Requires skillful adjustment and operation

Advantages

• Gives uniform plant population

• Very fast
• Less laborers but only suitable on large scale farming

Time of seeding/planting

• This is a function of the region i.e. temperate or tropical.

➢ in temperate region – temperature is a major issue since they experience very low
temperature at some time of the year
➢ in the Tropics : Soil moisture determines planting time
Planting is done on the onset of rain

Time of planting is critical since it limits the length of the growing season

Early planting / seeding is extremely important because;

vi. In order to allow the crops to take advantage of the available moisture as the beginning
of the rains.
vii. Allow crops benefit from a phenomenon known as Birch effect i.e Nitrogen flash was
discovered by scientist birch – he advanced this theory that the first two weeks on the
onset of rains the concentration of nitrogen is high on the soil.
viii. Early planted crops are less accessible to insects, pests and diseases.
ix. I have better chances of escaping the weed effect as they are capable of competing the
weed
 x. Early planted crop mature early reach the market early when the month is at its peak.

Depth of sowing/planting

• The seed has to be covered in order to protect the seed from pest
• Dehydration
• Protect them against wind and rain splash

Depth of sowing influenced by:

vi. Seed size & weight of the seed

Small seed – shallow planted &vice verse is true. This depends on food reserve on the
cotyledon.
vii. Soil texture & structure of the soil for heavy soil where penetration is abit diffucult plant
the seed a bit shallower.
viii. Sand soil or lighter soil plant deeper so that the seed get moisture
ix. Amount of moisture in the soil. Dry soil – plant deeper wet soils plant abit shallower
x. Soil temperature
When soil temp are low the planting depth should be shallow

NB: Normally plant seed within the 1st 10cm, research has shown any given seed, the depth
planting should be 3-5times the size of that seed.

Small seeded crop e.g finger millet plant 1.5cm deep and medium 2.5 – 5cm deep, large size 7-
10cm deep.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE NUMBER OF SEEDPER HOLE /seed rate

vii. Spacing – encompasses the enter and intra row spacing

Widely spaced crop- put more than one seed per hole
viii. Moisture content of the soil - if the soil is dry put fewer seeds per hole.
ix. Heavy clay soils put more seed per whole than the lighter soil because of moisture content.
x. Chemical treatment of the seed. Treated seed plant fewer than not treated since they are
protected.
xi. Nature of the seed: soft or hard seed coat . Hard seed coat prevent immediate germination
hence put more, since they stand higher chance of never germinating.
SPACING

• Spacing – distance between row & distance between plants within the row
• Spacing between the rows – intrarow spacing
• Within row – intrarow spacing
• For broadcasted seed spacing refers to the distance between one plant and the next.
• The overall objective of spacing is to distribute the plants in such a way that that to are
able to get the maximum yield per space per given time

Spacing influences several factors of production which include the following:

1. Plant Population

Wide spacing decreases plant population and close spacing increases the crop population

Narrow spacing of rows can increase the yield. Since this increases the population. This statement
is true when other factors are constant.

Closer spacing gives an effective canopy for light interaction hence you expect higher total
photosynthesis.

Extremely high population e.g maize increases high chances of diseases, crop logging and reduce
size of the grains or end up with no yield.

2. Time spent in planting

• Closer spacing consumes both seed and time i.e it call for more capital and labour intensive
3. Weed control

• Closely spaced crop smothers the weed while widely spaced allow weed to grow.
4. Pest and disease control

• In crops like ground nut, close spacing eliminate aphids which transimit viral diseases.
• Most crops close spacing promotes the presence of fungi disease
5. Crop yield

• Close spacing increases yield up to a certain point beyond which yield will decrease.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE SPACING

Soil fertility – food reserve base for the plant – low fertility wilder spacing and vice verse is true

Soil moisture – soil moisture and population is dependent on purpose for growing the crop e.g for
foliage for high population

Crop species – Crop with a lot of branches – space more widely or soa beans which are able to
spread for their canopy have wide spacing.

Time of planting – Late planted crop – wide spacing recommended – reduces competition of
moisture

The actual spacing is determined by region you are planting

Some crops will compensate for wider spacing by producing tillers e.g wheat.

Reading assignment: describe the factors that influence depth of

planting,spacing, seed rate and plant population during planting.

Field practices

All activities carried out in the field from the time the crop germinate to the time its ready for
harvesting.

1. Gapping
2. Thinning
3. Weeding
4. Pest and disease control
5. Earthing up
6. Staking
7. Watering/irrigation
8. Mulching
9. Top dressing

Harvesting

Harvesting crops involves getting the crop out of the field and transporting to market. Most crops
are harvested in the field once they are mature, except for hay which is cut several times over the
course of the summer.
Field crops are harvested by machine, while small fruits and other food crops are typically
harvested by hand, although in certain cases, they may be harvested by machine.

Reading assignment read on the post-harvest practices carried out on

grains, fruits and vegetables