Types of Data

The data is classified into majorly four

categories:
1. Nominal data.
2. Ordinal data.
3. Discrete data.
4. Continuous data.
Types of Data

Types of Data
 Types of Data
There are two general types of data
Quantitative and Qualitative and both are
equally important.
Primary and Secondary Data
Primary data refers to the first hand data
gathered by the researcher himself. Secondary
data means data collected from books, news
paper Magazines, Government notification,
etc.,.
Sources of Collecting Primary Data
(i) Direct personnel Investigation
(ii) Indirect Oral Investigation
(iii) Information sent through enumerators
(iv) Information through correspondance
(v) Mailed questionnaire
(vi) Information collected through telephone
enquiries, through electronic media such as
email, web link, Google forms ect.,.
Sources of Colecting Secoday Data
(i) Census report
(ii) RBI report
(iii) UNESCO report
(iv) Published and Unpublished sources
(v) Books, news papers, magazines, Government
Gazette notifications etc.,.
 SURVEY Vs OBSERVATION
The key difference between an observation
and a survey is that an observation involves
watching and recording behavior without any
direct interaction with individuals being
observed, while a survey involves asking
people questions directly to obtain
information about their attitudes, beliefs, and
behaviors.
 EXEPERIMENTS
An experiment is a procedure designed to test
a hypothesis as part of the scientific method.
The two key variables in any experiment are
the independent and dependent variables.
The independent variable is controlled or
changed to test its effects on the dependent
variable.
 Questionnaire and Instrument
.
A questionnaire is a research instrument that
consists of a set of questions (or other types
of prompts) for the purpose of gathering
information from respondents through survey
or statistical study. A research questionnaire is
typically a mix of close-ended questions and
open-ended questions.
 Questionnaire and Instrument
• A research instrument can include interviews,
tests, surveys, or checklists. The Research
Instrument is usually determined by
researcher and is tied to the study
methodology. This document offers some
examples of research instruments and study
methods.
 Validation of Questionnaire
Validation involves establishing that the
instrument produces data that are reliable
and true. There are a number of ways to
define this, some of which outlined below.
Reliability: the degree to which a
questionnaire will produce the same result if
administered again, or the “test-retest”
concept.
 Validation of Questionnaire
1. Generally speaking the first step in validating
a survey is to establish face validity.
2. The second step is to pilot test the survey on
a subset of your intended population(pilot
study)
3. After collecting pilot study data, enter the
responses into a spreadsheet and clean the
data.
 Validation of Questionnaire
• The major types of validation tests commonly
used while validating a questionnaire are
(1) face validation, (2) content validation,
(3) construct validation, and (4) criterion
validation. There are six steps commonly used
in the validation method of many empirical
research methodologies.12 Nov 2020
 Sampling Plan
A sampling plan is an outline based on which
research is conducted. A sampling plan
outlines the individuals chosen to represent
the target population under consideration for
research purposes. It is crucial to verify that
the sampling plan is representative of all kinds
of people to draw accurate conclusions.
 Sample Size
The sample size is defined as the number of
observations used for determining the
estimations of a given population. The size of
the sample has been drawn from the
population. Sampling is the process of
selection of a subset of individuals from the
population to estimate the characteristics of
the whole population.
Sample Size Calculation
Sample size is a statistical concept that involves determining the
number of observations or replicates (the repetition of an experimental
condition used to estimate the variability of a phenomenon) that should be
included in a statistical sample. It is an important aspect of any empirical
study requiring that inferences be made about a population based on a
sample. Essentially, sample sizes are used to represent parts of a population
chosen for any given survey or experiment. To carry out this calculation,
set the margin of error, ε, or the maximum distance desired for the sample
estimate to deviate from the true value. To do this, use the confidence
interval equation above, but set the term to the right of the ± sign equal to
the margin of error, and solve for the resulting equation for sample size, n.
The equation for calculating sample size is shown below.

•
• Sample size calculation formula – sample size
determination
• With all the necessary terms defined, it’s time
to learn how to determine sample size using a
sample calculation formula.
• Your confidence level corresponds to a Z-
score. This is a constant value needed for this
equation.
• Here are the z-scores for the most common
confidence levels:
• 90% – Z Score = 1.645
• 95% – Z Score = 1.96
• 99% – Z Score = 2.576
• If you choose a different confidence level,
various online tools can help you find your
score
Necessary Sample Size = (Z-score)2 * StdDev*(1-StdDev) / (margin of
error)2
Here is an example of how the math works, assuming you chose a
90% confidence level, .6 standard deviation, and a margin of error
(confidence interval) of +/- 4%.

((1.64)2 x .6(.6)) / (.04)2

( 2.68x .0.36) / .0016
.9648 / .0016
=603
603 respondents are needed, and that becomes your sample size.
 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Sampling :
A technique adopted to select a sample from a
population is called sampling.
Samping Techniques can be classified into
1) Probability Samping methods
2) Non-Probability Samping methods
 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Probability sampling methods are listed as
follows
i) Simple Random Sampling
2) Statistified Random Sampling
3) Systematic Random Sampling
4) Cluster Sampling
5) Multistage Samping
 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Non-Probability sampling methois are
i) Purposive samping
ii) Judgement samping
iii) Quota Samping
iv) Snowball Sampling