1

Summary

Science and Technology Class 01

Overview of the Subject- 5:07 PM

• Relevance - 13-14 Questions in Prelims & 2-4 questions in mains

• Sources- 9th & 10th NCERT, The Hindu, Indian Express, Monthly Magazine, Youtube
channels, www.Indiascience.in, Prasarbharti

• Topics to be covered in the class:

• 1. Space technology

• 2. Nuclear Technology

• 3. ICT and Robotics

• 4. IPR

• 5. Defence technology

• 6. Contribution of Indian scientists

Space Technology- 5:34 PM

• Newton's three laws of motion

• Vector & scalar

• Kepler's laws of planetary motion

• Centripetal force

• Topics to be covered under space-

• Types of orbits

• Types of satellites

• Types of rockets of ISRO

• Past missions of ISRO

• Future missions of ISRO

• Space debris

Kepler's law of Planetary motion- 6:20 PM

• Every planet revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit with the sun being at one of the
foci of the ellipse.

• Planets sweep the equal area in equal time.

• The square of the time period of revolution of a planet is proportional to the cube of the
semi-major axis of the ellipse.
Types of Orbits - 7:01 PM

• Satellites can orbit around the earth because the earth provides the necessary centripetal
force for a stable orbit.

• This centripetal force is because of gravitational attraction between the earth and the
satellite.

• We can categorize orbits based on many parameters:

• 1. Based on height-

• -Low earth orbit (LEO)- 180-2000 Km

• -Medium earth orbit (MEO)- 2000-35785 Km

• -Geosynchronous and high earth orbit (>35785 Km)

• LEO is easier to achieve and useful for earth observation.

• However, they can only monitor a small part of the earth.

• Higher orbits are more difficult to achieve, they can monitor a large part of the earth
simultaneously.

• However, resolution suffers hence, higher orbits are generally used for communication
satellites.

• 2. Based on inclination-

• -Equatorial orbits (zero degrees)

• -Polar orbit (90 degrees)

• -Inclined orbit (rest)

• Polar launches are more difficult because they do not get any assistance from earth rotation.

• However polar orbits are more useful for earth observation because the earth is rotating
below it and the satellite revolves around the earth hence it can monitor all points of the
earth by being in a polar orbit.

• Because of the curvature of the earth polar orbits are very useful to monitor poles.

• 3. Based on earth's motion -

• -Rotation on its axis (Geosynchronous) -Satellites in such orbit, orbit around in a way that
their orbital motion is synchronized with the earth's rotation on its axis i.e satellite will
complete one revolution in one side real day which is 23 hours, 53 min, 4 sec.

• A special case of Geosynchronous is geostationary.

• Satellites in geostationary orbit above the equator will seem to be fixed above a point on the
equator.

• These orbits are very useful for communication satellites as we can maintain communication
channels without worrying about loss of line of sight due to the earth's rotation and
satellite's revolution.
 • The altitude is 35,786 Km.

• Launching into these orbits is regulated by the International Telecommunication Union an

agency of the UN.

Topics to be covered in the next class- Continuation of the topic 'Space technology

Summary

Science and Technology Class 02

Doubts are taken for the previous class (05:07 PM)

• Diagrams and charts are shown for Torque (Refer to the chart) (05: 26 PM)

Geo Transfer Orbit (05:36 PM)

• To attain Geosynchronous or Geo stationery a satellite is first placed into a highly elliptical
orbit whose perigee can be very less but the apogee will be in the range of 36000 km.

• When the satellites reach the apogee They can be given a boost so that they can achieve the
desirable geosynchronous or geostationary orbit.

• The intermediate orbits are called Geo Transfer orbits.

•
Sun Synchronous orbit (05:52 PM)

• In a Sun-synchronous orbit, satellite orientation is fixed relative to the sun throughout the
year thus whenever a satellite crosses a point on earth sun's position in the sky is almost the
same hence satellite will cross the point earth at the same local solar time.

• This is a very useful characteristic for Earth observation satellites because scientists can
collect data across several years and compare the changes for a particular region without
worrying about extreme changes in lighting and shadow.

• How to achieve sun synchronous

• Earth is not a perfect sphere because of this satellites orbits often do not remain fixed.

• Orbit in itself starts rotating such type of motion is called precisional motion.

• Generally, the precisional motion of orbits is not desirable.

• In a sun-synchronous orbit, we make it desirable. Erath's position concerning the sun

changes also because of Earth's revolution around it. If we can achieve a precision that
 cancels out the daily change in the position of the sun because of Earth's Revolution we can
achieve sun-synchronous.

• It is often achieved at an inclination of 94-96 degrees because of this it is also called a polar
sun-synchronous orbit. Height is 500-800 km.

• With one degree of precision every day we can achieve sun-synchronous.

Types of Satellites (06:33 PM)

• Mainly 3 types of satellites:

• a)Communication satellites

• b)Earth observation or Remotes sensing satellites

• c)Satellite navigation

Communication satellites (06:38 PM)

• These satellites maintain a communication channel between two points on earth that are far
away from each other.

• They are often placed in Geosynchronous/Geostationary orbits.

• ISRO has one of the most extensive communication satellite programs named INSAT in the
Asia Pacific region.

• Recently ISRO has changed the nomenclature from GSAT to CMS for communication
satellites.

• Applications:

• Radio, Television,

• Education: ISRO under Edusat prog provides satellite-based instructions for free throughout
the country.

• Healthcare: With help of satellites Rural hospitals and colleges can be connected to speciality
hospitals in cities.

• VSAT (Very small aperture terminal):

• These are Ground stations with small antennas(1-4 meters) that can maintain satellite
connectivity and with the help of these stations, we can transfer data from one location to
another.

• Cospas-Sansat

• It is a satellite-aided search and rescue program with the help of an emergency beacon an
aeroplane or a ship or even a person lost in remote areas can be located. India is a member
of this program.

Earth observation satellite (07:17 PM)

• These satellites with the help of powerful techniques such as Radar imaging synthetic
aperture radar, Light detection, and ranging, spectroscopy, and Hyperspectral imaging among
 others can collect data about a particular region of the earth which can be used to determine
physical, Chemical even biological properties for a particular reason.

• It can be useful across many areas such as:

• a)Soil monitoring in agriculture

• b)Geology and geomorphology

• c)Environmental monitoring such as forest

• d)Renewable energy capacity

• e)Ocean sciences

• f)Weather information

• g)Natural resource monitoring

• h)Disaster management

• i)Implementation of Government schemes

• ISRO has dedicated satellites for different objectives recently ISRO changes the nomenclature
of satellites and they will be called EOS

• They are generally placed into LEO, Polar sun-synchronous orbit, and sometimes even in
Geosynchronous, Geostationary rotations.

NISAR mission (07:58 PM)

• Record fine Images. It is a remote-sensing technique

• NASA And ISRO have collaborated.

• Objective: Disaster Monitoring and Environmental Monitoring

The topic for the next class: Satellite navigation and Rockets of ISRO

Summary

Science and Technology Class 03

Discussion on the Previous Class (5:06 PM)

Satellite Navigation (5:18 PM)

• These satellites allow a small electronic receiver to know its precise location (i.e. latitude,
longitude, and altitude) with high accuracy.

• The point needs to be in the line of sight of at least four satellites to know its precise
locations.

• GPS - USA

• GLONASS - Russia

• Galileo - Europe
• Beidou - China

• NAVIC - India

• NAVIC

•
• It stands for Navigation of Indian Constellation.

• It is a navigational satellite system, developed by ISRO.

• It comprises seven IRNSS (Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System) satellites.

• Three satellites in geostationary and four in geosynchronous.

• Similar to other navigational satellite systems, it provides two types of services, standard
services for civilian use and restricted services for military use.

NAVIC GPS

It is regional. NAVIC services are available in India and 1500

It is a global satellite system.
km beyond India's border.

There are 7 satellites There are 32-33 satellites.

Satellites are placed in geostationary and geosynchronous

Satellites are placed in medium earth orbit.
orbits.

Very low cost compared to GPS. Higher cost.

• These satellites have applications in many areas, such as:

• (a) Areal, terrestrial and marine navigation.

• (b) vehicle tracking

 • (c) Integration with mobile phones.

• (d) Precise timing

• (e) Disaster Management

• GAGAN

• It stands for GPS-aided Geo Augmented Navigation.

• It is used for civilian aeroplanes mainly

• This was developed by the Airport Authority of India and ISRO, jointly.

• It can be used to tell the precise location of aeroplanes at any time.

Launch vehicles of ISRO (6:35 PM)

• The purpose of the launch vehicle is to send a manned or unmanned mission, to space.

• It can have the following major components:

• (a) Payload box

• (b) Engine - There can be two types, Airbreathing, and non-air breathing

• Non-air breathing engines carry fuel and oxygen together, For example, PSLV, GSLV, etc.

• Air-breathing engines fulfil their oxygen requirement from the atmosphere. For example, Jet,
Ramjet, and Scramjet.

• ISRO has developed the VIKAS engine, which operates using liquid fuel.

• Rocket fuel (Propellant)

• It can be of two types, Solid fuel, and liquid fuels.

• Solid Fuels

• Solid fuels are simpler, safer, and cheaper.

• However, once they start burning the resulting thrust cannot be controlled.

• For example, HTPB (Hydroxy Terminated Poly Butadiene)

• Liquid Fuels

• The flow of liquid fuel to the engine can be regulated. Hence, the resulting thrust can also be
regulated.

• However, liquid fuels require special transportation and storage infrastructure, because of
safety issues. It makes them expensive.

• For example, UDMH (Unsymmetrical Dimethylhydrazine)+N2O4, MMH (Mono

methylhydrazine)+MON(Mix of nitrogen oxides)

• Launch vehicles of ISRO

• (a) Past
 • (i) Satellite Launch vehicle

• (ii) Augmented satellite Launch vehicle

• (b) Present

• (i) Polar satellite Launch vehicle

• (ii) Geosynchronous satellite Launch vehicle Mk 3

• (iii) Launch Vehicle Mark 3

• (iv) Small Satellite Launch Vehicle

• (c) Future

• (i) Next-Generation Launch Vehicle

• (ii) SCRAMJET

PSLV (7:19 PM)

• It is one of the world's oldest and most reliable launch vehicles.

• It has four stages which operate between solid and liquid fuels (solid, liquid, solid, liquid)

• Capacity is about 1750 kg in 600 km polar orbit, and 1425 kg in geosynchronous transfer
orbit.

• It is capable of placing multiple satellites into different orbits.

• Some of the key launches such as IRNSS, Chandrayaan 1, etc took place with the help of PSLV.

GSLV Mk II

• It was designed to launch the communication satellite in geosynchronous transfer orbits.

• It has three stages, solid, liquid, and cryogenic

• The capacity is 2500 kg in GTO and 5000 kg in the LEO.

LVM 3(GSLV MK III)

• As of now, It is the most powerful rocket of ISRO with a capacity of 8000kg in the LEO and
4000 kg in GTO

• It has three stages, solid, liquid, cryogenic

• Recently, it made the record of launching 36 satellites of about 6000 kg, in LEO.

• These satellites belonged to one web.

• In the past, it has also been launched for the Chandrayaan 2.

Cryogenic stage (7:35 PM)

• "Cryo" signifies very low temperatures.

• In the cryogenic stage, fuel or oxidizer or both can be stored at very low temperatures in the
liquid stage.
 • For example, liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen.

• Such engines pose engineering challenges, because of associated thermal and structural
problems.

• However, they provide more thrust than typical solid or liquid fuel.

Small satellite Launch vehicle (7:40 PM)

• It is a small rocket with less capacity (500 kg in LEO), and it can be deployed in less time and
cost less.

• It has three stages. All the stages use solid fuel.

• The first SSLV launch failed. It was not able to achieve the desired orbit.

• Recently the second launch occurred which was successful.

Next Generation Launch vehicle (7:52 PM)

• ISRO is planning to design a rocket, to launch a payload of 10000 kg in a geosynchronous

transfer orbit and 20000 kg in LEO.

• This rocket will have a variant that will be reusable.

• Reusable rockets reduce the overall cost, as many components of the rocket are made of
rare components which are in limited supply.

• The reusable variant will have less capacity, compared to the variant which can be used only
once.

The Topic for the next class: Achievements of the ISRO, Future missions of ISRO

Summary

Science and Technology Class 04

Brief Discussion on the Last Class (5:07 PM)

Clarification for Last Class (5:22 PM)

• The payload capacity of GSLV Mk II is 6000 kg( For Low earth orbit)

Space Missions of ISRO (5:14 PM)

• Past Missions: Chandrayaan 1, Astrosat, Mars Orbital Mission, Chandrayaan 2

• Near Future Mission: Aditya L1, Gaganyaan, Chandrayaan 3

• Mission by End of Decade: Mars Orbital Mission 2, Shukrayaan, Xposat, Space Station

Aditya L1 Mission(5:46 PM)

• Aditya refers to the fact that it is a solar mission. L1 refers to lagrangian point 1.

• It is ISRO's first dedicated solar observatory which will study the outermost layers of the sun,
i.e. Photosphere, Chromosphere, and corona.
 • These layers will be studied in multiple wavelengths like visible light, ultraviolet light, infrared
light, and X-rays.

• It will carry seven payloads with the following objectives:

• (a) To study solar Corona and the mechanism of coronal mass ejection.

• (b) To study the variation of solar wind properties.

• (c) To understand the heating mechanism of the solar corona.

• (d) To measure the strength of solar particles as they travel through the interplanetary
region.

• (e) Aditya Mission is going to be kept at Lagrange point 1, about 1.5 million km away from
earth, towards the sun.

•
• A very powerful solar flare can be a cause of concern because it can lead to power outages,
can destroy satellites functioning and we can witness auroras not just on poles, but at other
latitudes as well.

• Solar Corona is the aura of plasma that extends millions of km into the sky.

• Plasma is the fourth state of matter, which exists at very high temperatures. At such high
temperatures, electrons come out of the atom and coexist together with positive ions.

Lagrangian Points and Halo Orbits (7:09 PM)

•
• Three body problems i.e. three objects of comparable mass, and their movement only
because of gravitational attraction are very complex to analyze.

• Lagrange found an exception, if the third object is very small, compared to the other two
massive objects, then we can find five special points in space.

• At these five points, the third smaller object can maintain a stable orbit.

• However, the required centripetal force will come from, the combined gravitational effect of
two heavier objects.

• For any two gravitationally bound systems, we can get five Lagrange points.

• For example, Sun-earth, Earth-Moon, Sun-Jupiter, etc.

• The unique characteristic of Lagrange point is that they can be orbited around.

• Thus Aditya's mission will orbit around L1, which is approximately 1.5 million km away from
the earth towards the sun. This orbit is called the Halo orbit.

• The actual orbit around the sun will be a complicated three-dimensional orbit.

• This is because, the L1 point itself is revolving around the sun, along with Earth's revolution.

• The benefit of the L1 point is, that we can continuously monitor the sun without any eclipse
and at the same time, can maintain the communication channel with earth.

• NASA has a famous mission called SOHO around L1.

• L2 point is suitable for astronomy. It is also 1.5 million km from earth, however, opposite to
the sun earth direction.

• A telescope can observe deep space without coming into the shadow of the earth or the
moon.
 • Here, the James Webb space telescope has been placed. It is a collaboration between, NASA,
the European space agency, and the Canadian space agency.

• L3 is not very useful, because it always remains behind the sun.

• While L1, L2, and L3 are semi-stable, L4 and L5 are examples of stable equilibrium. In the
future, they will also be useful.

Gaganyaan Mission (7:53 PM)

• ISRO is planning for a manned space mission for the first time.

• A group of three astronauts will spend 5-7 days, in low earth orbit

• before the manned mission, two missions will be launched to check the feasibility of the
manned mission.

• Challenges to Gaganyaan Mission

• (a) When all stages of the rocket, separate properly and the orbital module carrying
astronauts will be safely ejected into orbit, one part of the mission will become successful.

• (b) Spending time in space in microgravity conditions, with no safety from cosmic radiation,
and a limited supply of food, water, and oxygen will be very challenging.

• (c) reentry into the atmosphere will generate a lot of heat and will require precision.

• A small error can end in a disaster.

• (d) There is always a debate about such costly missions vs, the social sector expenditure.

• Benefits of the Gaganyaan Mission

• There are both tangible and non-tangible benefits

• (a) Research and development into space lead to many spin-off technologies.

• For example, Remote surgery, laser surgery, to enhance the shelf life of food (for astronauts),
use of thermal-resistant materials, and some sewage treatment plans, among many others,
have various applications on earth, developed because of space research.

• (b) ISRO can become a key player in space tourism, which is an emerging economic sector.

• (c) ISRO aims to build a space station. A successful manned mission will be the first step in
this direction.

• (d) India projects its space capabilities as soft power. A successful manned mission will
further enhance this capability.

• (e) It will inspire the younger generation to pursue science and technology.

The topics for the next class: Space Debris, Nuclear technology

Summary

Science and Technology Class 05

A brief discussion on the Last class (5:06 PM)

Space Debris (5:36 PM)

• Space Debris is orbital junk that is orbiting around the earth, at a very high speed.

• This debris can collide with space missions and damage satellites, space stations, and other
space assets.

• The main sources of Debris are:

• (a) upper stages of rockets.

• (b) Discarded rocket stages.

• (c) Explosion of rockets or accidents in space.

• (d) Anti-satellite demonstrations.

• (e) Outdated satellites.

• There can be natural sources such as micro-meteorites

• Kessler Syndrome

• A scenario in which the density of low earth orbit is so high that one accident can produce
debris, causing more accidents, and thus, enhancing the likelihood of more collisions.

• This debris is a danger to the existing missions, as well as creates challenges for future
missions.

• Steps to be taken

• (a) Keeping track of larger Debris as part of space situational awareness.

• For example, Project Netra of ISRO.

• (b) Ban on anti-satellite demonstrations.

• (c) Separation of rocket stages at lower altitudes.

• (d) Dedicated missions to destroy existing pieces of debris.

• For example, the Remove Debris Mission led by the University of Surrey, and the Elsa-D
mission by Astroscale.

• An international organization interagency space debris coordination committee aims to

coordinate efforts at a global scale, to take care of space debris issues.

• ISRO is a member.

Nuclear Technology (6:06 PM)

• Basics of Nuclear Technology

• Nuclear Technology in Energy production

• Radioactivity

• Nuclear Technology Application: Agriculture, Medicine, Space, Industry, defence.

Basic of Nuclear Technology

• Atomic number refers to the number of protons.

• Atomic mass refers to the number of protons and neutrons.

• Isotopes are a family of elements that have the same atomic number. For example, Carbon-
12 and Carbon-14, protium, deuterium, and tritium (Isotopes of Hydrogen)

• Isobars are those elements that have the same atomic mass but the same atomic number.

• The protons in the nucleus are held together by a strong nuclear force.

• This force exists between the proton-proton, neutron-neutron, and proton-neutron.

• What is Nuclear technology?

• Nuclear Technology is the application of nuclear reactions. These are the reactions in which
the nucleus or nuclear particles participate.

• There are nuclear reactions, which occur in nature such as nuclear fusion in stars, and the
decay of radioactive substances.

• There are nuclear reactions that can be conducted in a lab setup or an industrial setup.

• These reactions have applications in energy production, agriculture, medicine, space, etc

Nuclear Technology in Energy Production (7:17 PM)

• Energy production can occur in two ways, Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion.

• Nuclear Fission

• In Nuclear fission, a heavy nucleus such as uranium-235 is bombarded with neutrons, so that
a nucleus becomes unstable.

• Because of this instability, it disintegrates into lighter nuclei and produces a huge amount of
energy.

• This energy can be calculated using Einstein's mass-energy equivalence equation, E= Mc^2.

• Here 'C' refers to the speed of light in a vacuum (3*10^8 m/s).

 •
• Nuclear fission reaction produces an excess of neutrons. These neutrons can continue the
fission reaction.

• The reaction will grow exponentially in an uncontrolled manner.

• Such an uncontrolled chain reaction is the mechanism, behind nuclear bombs.

• If we can absorb the excess of neutrons, the reaction becomes a controlled chain reaction,
and energy output can be controlled.

• This is the mechanism behind the nuclear reactor.

Nuclear Reactors and their major components (7:31 PM)

• Nuclear reactors utilize controlled fission to produce energy.

•
• It has the following major components:

• (a) Fissile material- Those which can undergo fission easily.

 • There are two isotopes of Uranium, U-235, and U-239. Plutonium-239 is also good fissile
material.

• (b) Control Rods- These are used to absorb the excess neutrons.

• These are made of Cadmium, Boron

• (c) Moderators- They are used to slow down the speed of neutrons and slower neutrons are
better at causing fission.

• Water and heavy water are good moderators.

• (d) Coolant- It maintains the temperature of the core by transporting the heat away from the
core of the reactor.

• Often, moderators and coolants are the same.

• For example, water and Heavy water are used as coolants.

• Liquid sodium is a good coolant, but not a good moderator.

Nuclear Fuel Cycle (7:40 PM)

•
• The Nuclear Fuel Cycle signifies all the steps involved in nuclear energy production, as well as
nuclear waste management.

• It comprises two parts: The front end and the back end.

• Front-end steps are the following: Mining, Milling, Enrichment, fabrication process, and
Nuclear fission at the reactor.

• Mining refers to the extraction of uranium ore from a geographical location.

 • Milling refers to the removal of impurities from the uranium ore by crushing and the use of
physical and chemical separation methods.

• Enrichment refers to the removal of uranium 238, from the natural uranium, using isotopic
separation methods.

• It is to increase the concentration of the U-235 in the ore, to 3-5 %.

• (*Natural uranium has more than 99% of uranium 238 and less than 1 per cent of uranium-
235)

• In the fabrication process, enriched uranium is converted into pellets, and embedded into a
tube, which makes one fuel rod.

• Many fuel rods make one assembly and many assemblies, are used in the core of the reactor.

• Depending on the capacity, the reactor can produce energy for up to 4-7 years.

• The backend step comprises of following:

• (a) Interim storage

• Nuclear waste is dangerous. It is removed from the core and is kept in a deep pool of water,
for a few years.

• (b) Spent Fuel reprocessing

• We try to recover useful material, such as fissile material from nuclear waste.

• (c) Final Disposition

• Nuclear waste is deposited in the permanent underground facility.

• Some countries do not use spent fuel reprocessing, such a cycle is called the open nuclear
fuel cycle.

• India's nuclear program is dependent upon spent fuel reprocessing, which is called a closed
nuclear fuel cycle.

The topics for the next class: Nuclear Fission, Nuclear Fusion, Radioactivity

Summary

Science and Technology Class 06

A Brief Discussion on the Last Class (5:13 PM)

Three staged Nuclear Programme of India (5:37 PM)

• The three-stage program was envisaged by Dr Homi Jehangir Bhabha, who is considered the
father of India's nuclear program.

• He realized the limitations being faced by India.

• India has some uranium and a huge amount of thorium, found in the monazite sands of
Kerala.
 • To make India Self-sufficient, in fissile material, three stage program was envisaged.

• In the First stage Pressurized Heavy water reactor with heavy water as moderator and
coolant will be used.

• Enriched Uranium in the reactor will produce fission-based energy.

• However, uranium-238 will not go to waste.

• It can absorb a neutron and get converted into Uranium 239.

• In the second stage, a fast breeder reactor will be used.

• It will use liquid sodium as a coolant and no moderator.

• Plutonium-239 recovered from the first stage will be used as fissile material along with
Thorium-232.

• Thorium can convert into Uranium-233, by absorbing a neutron.

• It doesn't use a moderator, because even though fast neutrons are not good at causing
fission, they readily convert thorium to uranium.

• it is called a fast breeder because the production of Uranium-233 occurs faster than the
fission of Plutonium-239.

• In the third stage, Uranium-233 recovered from the second stage, would be the main fissile
material, along with thorium.

• Thorium can convert into Uranium which will be used in the third stage itself.

• The third stage can go on for 400-500 years, producing 100 Gigawatts of electricity.

Challenges in the Three-Stage Nuclear Programme (5:56 PM)

• The first fast breeder reactor was supposed to become operational in Kalpakkam, Tamil
Nadu, but it still is not operational.

• There have been many challenges to the three-stage program, such as

• (a) Spent Fuel reprocessing, is technologically challenging and expensive.

• (b) India is still not part of the Nuclear Supplier Group.

• In the past, this restricted supply of uranium to India from other countries.

• (c) There has been a powerful pressure group, against the production of Nuclear power.

• Because of the opposition to nuclear projects many projects were delayed.

• (d) Some accidents from the past such as Chornobyl Disaster, 1986 have further intensified
opposition to Nuclear power.

• (e) Historic Nuclear deal with the US, in 2008 and a waiver from NSG seemed like nuclear
power production will take off, however in 2011, because of the Fukushima disaster
triggered by Tsunami, in Japan, there was global opposition to Nuclear power.
 • (f) Cost of renewable energy especially solar energy, started coming down in the last decade,
and the government focused more on that.

Nuclear Fusion (7:17 PM)

• Nuclear Fusion involves the fusion of lighter nuclei, to form a heavy nucleus at a very high
temperature.

• This is a natural process inside the core of stars, where at high temperatures, hydrogen
nuclei fuse to form helium nuclei.

• In the process, energy is released, which can be calculated using einstein's mass-energy
equivalence, E=mc^2.

• 4 Hydrogen nuclei fuse to form two helium atoms, 2 positrons, and huge energy.

• Fusion happens at very high temperatures because when nuclei are closer, there is a
powerful electromagnetic repulsion, which has to be overcome.

• Nuclei require very high energy, hence very high temperature, so that they can come closer
enough for strong nuclear force to start acting and nuclei can fuse.

• On Earth, many experiments are going on to attain nuclear fusion.

• Recently a fusion experiment at Lawrence Livermore Lab, in California, US was able to

achieve a net energy gain using fusion for the first time.

• To do this, we used about 200 laser beams, in a very small volume containing deuterium and
tritium, so that they can fuse.

• Such a setup is called Inertial fusion.

• Another approach is to have magnetic fusion, using a device called a Tokamak.

• It is a toroid shape device that uses a powerful magnetic field, to contain deuterium and
tritium plasma, at very high temperatures, so that they can fuse.

• For example, the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER). It is a

collaboration between various countries and is situated in France. It aims to produce 500
MW of fusion power.

• Other examples are China's Artificial Sun (Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak
(EAST)), Joint European Torus(JET), Aditya Tokamak, Steady State Superconducting -1 (SST-1),
Steady State Superconducting -2 (SST-2).

Benefits of nuclear Fusion (7:36 PM)

• Both Fusion and fission are clean sources of energy, but fusion has additional advantages.

• (a) It produces more energy than fission for equal mass.

• (b) There is no risk of a reactor meltdown because the quantity of fuel in the reactor is very
small which doesn't allow the chain reaction to happen.

• Also, fusion requires a lot of prerequisites, if any of the parameters are not fulfilled, fusion
will automatically stop.
 • (c) Fusion doesn't produce long-lived radioactive waste.

• (d) Fusion doesn't require enriched material, thus, Tokamak cannot be used for any type of
nuclear weapon.

• (e) Raw material for fusion is deuterium, which can be found in any water source, and tritium
which can be made in the lab.

Topics for Next Class: Radioactivity

Summary

Science and Technology Class 07

A brief discussion on the previous Class (5:09 PM)

Radioactivity(5:51 PM)

• Certain nuclei are not very stable.

• To attain stability they emit particles, which are called alpha, beta, and gamma.

• (*refer to the video of the class for equation)

• An alpha particle is helium nuclei.

• In alpha decay, the atomic number decreases by 2 and the atomic mass by 4.

• In beta decay, the beta particle can be an electron or positron.

• A beta particle is emitted from an atomic nucleus, transforming the original nuclide to an
isobar of that nuclide.

• This means the atomic number increases by 1, but the atomic mass doesn't change.

• Gamma is a high-energy light particle.

• Radioactive samples, decay following a relationship, where their number becomes half and
half in the constant time.

• This time is called the half-life.

• For example, carbon-14 has a half-life of 5730 years.

• Radioactive isotopes are found naturally, and can also be made in labs.

• Such reactions have a lot of applications, for example

Applications of Radioactivity (5:59 PM)

• Applications in agriculture

• (a) Plant Mutation Breeding

• Plants, buds, and seeds can be exposed to gamma radiation, leading to mutations, and
perhaps a few of those mutations will be desirable. For example, resistance to drought,
salinity, etc.
• (b) Fertilizer efficiency

• Radioisotope of nitrogen or phosphorous in the very small traces can be added to the normal
fertilizer, and how much absorption by plants has occurred can be measured.

• (c) Food Processing

• Exposing food items to gamma rays, x-ray, electron beams, etc, can kill microbial organisms.

• It will enhance the shelf life of food and can also control food-borne diseases.

• Such methods are called food irradiation.

• Application in Medicine

• (a) External beam therapy

• cancerous growth is exposed to gamma radiation so that the tumour can be destroyed.
Cobalt-60 is used here.

• (b) Brachytherapy

• It is an advanced cancer treatment method, where a radioisotope is placed near the tumour
so that only the tumour is destroyed, with minimal effect on the healthy cell. (Iridium 192 is
used in Brachytherapy)

• (c) Proton Beam Therapy

• Rather than using Gamma, a proton beam is used. It is effective in destroying cancer with
very less side effects.

• (d) Nuclear Medicine

• Nuclear medicines work as radiotracers. They are radioactive.

• Once injected into the body, the interaction of Gamma with healthy and cancerous cells can
be recorded.

• (e) Radiation sterilization

• With the help of Gamma-ray, syringes, gloves, dressings, medical equipment, etc. can be
sterilized to kill microbial organisms.

• Application in Space

• (a) Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator

• For deep space missions, solar energy is not a reliable source of energy for such missions, a
radioisotope, such as Plutonium-238 is used, which emits an alpha particle and energy.

• This energy can be used as thermal energy which can also be converted into electrical
energy.

• NASA has used this many times. ISRO is exploring this technology.

• (b) Nuclear Propulsion (6:47 PM)

• It remains in the experimental stages.

 • The goal is to propel a rocket with nuclear fission.

• Such propulsion will be helpful for future interplanetary manned missions.

• Applications in Industry (7:18 PM)

• (a) Use of gamma rays to find defects in solid materials.

• (b) Use of radiotracers to find any type of leakage.

• (c) Use of nuclear power for water desalination.

• (d) Use of carbon dating in geology, archaeology, and anthropology.

Nanotechnology (7:40 PM)

• 1 nanometer(nm) = 10^-9 meter

• Nanotechnology is science, technology, and engineering associated with nanomaterials with

1-100 nm dimensions.

• Nanomaterials exhibit amazing properties compared to their macro counterparts.

• They can exhibit higher strength, lighter weight, increased control of the light spectrum, and
great chemical reactivity.

• Uniqueness of Nanotechnology

• (a) At the nanoscale, quantum effects decide the property of the material.

• The property becomes a function of size, that is, by changing the size scientists can finetune
the property.

• For example, Quantum dots.

• (b) Nanomaterials generally have high chemical reactivity because of increased surface area,
compared to the same volume.

• This also makes them better catalysts.

• Increased surface area leads to more atomic and molecular interactions, which enhances
chemical reactivity.

The topics for the Next Class: Nanotechnology (continued)

Summary

Science and Technology Class 08

Multiple choice question discussion from the topics covered in the previous class (5:08 PM)

The uniqueness of Nanotechnology (continued)(5:37 PM)

• (c) Most of the biology occurs at the nanoscale. For example, Haemoglobin has a 5 nm
diameter, and DNA molecule 2 nm diameter.
 • Medical researchers are working on designing tools, treatments, and therapies that are more
precise, with the help of nanotechnology.

• (d) Nanomaterials exhibit phenomena of self-assembly.

• Self-assembly describes the process in which a group of components forms an ordered

structure driven by mutual interactions.

Nanomanufacturing (5:49 PM)

• There are mainly two approaches to making nanomaterials

• (a) Top-down approach

• A large piece of material is reduced all the way down to the nanoscale.

• This leads to wastage.

• Surface characteristics cannot be controlled.

• But it is simpler and cheaper.

• (b) Bottom-up approach

• It creates products building them atom-by-atom, molecule-by-molecule.

• It can be time-consuming, and expensive but surface characteristics can be regulated.

Dimensionality of Nanomaterials (6: 00 PM)

• Nanomaterials can have zero dimensions. It means that all dimensions are at the nanoscale.
For example, Quantum dots

• One-dimension

• In two dimensions it is at the nanoscale. In the third direction, it is at the macroscale. For
example, Nanotubes

• Two-dimension

• It is at the nanoscale, only in one direction. In the other two directions, it is at the
macroscale. For example, Thin Films

• 3-D bulk nanomaterial

• All dimensions are at the macro scale. For example, polycrystals

Applications of Nano Technology (6:11 PM)

• Daily life applications

• (a) Nanoscale additives can make fabric acquire properties such as anti-wrinkling, anti-
staining, or even inhibit bacterial growth.

• (b) Nanoscale films on eyeglasses and displays, make them anti-reflective, scratch-resistant,
water-repellent, etc.

• (c) Lightweighting of automobiles

 • Lightweighting of automobiles with the help of nanomaterials can make them more energy
efficient.

• (d) Cosmetics- sunscreen lotions, lipsticks, etc.

• Applications in Healthcare

• (a) Cancer Treatment

• Certain nanomaterials such as gold have proven to be effective in destroying a tumour.

• (b) Targeted drug delivery

• A nanoparticle can encapsulate or otherwise help to deliver medication directly to diseased

tissues.

• This reduces the side effects of the medicines.

• (c) Gene Editing

• Gene editing requires precision, and many gene editing techniques use nanomaterials to
attain such precision.

• (d) Vaccines

• Researchers are looking at ways that how nanotechnology can improve vaccines, including
their delivery.

• (e) Anti-microbial resistance

• When microbial organisms such as bacteria, viruses, protozoans, etc develop resistance
against the very medicine that we take to kill them, it is called anti-microbial resistance.

• For example, antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

• Researchers have found out that certain nanomaterials such as quantum dots are very
effective at killing such bacteria.

Application in electronics (6:59 PM)

• (a) Flexible, foldable, and bendable displays are possible because of nanotechnology.

• (b) Ultra-high-definition display in televisions with the help of quantum dots.

• Quantum dots or QLED displays are more energy efficient compared to other displays.

• (c) Transistors, basic switches that enable all modern computing have become smaller and
smaller with the help of nanotechnology.

• Applications in the environment

• (a) For water filtration, nano-membrane has proven to be more effective than conventional
filters.

• (b) To control air pollution, certain changes have been introduced in the engines of
automobiles, or in thermal power plants, which is facilitated by nanotechnology.

• (c) Similarly to tackle oil spills, researchers are using water-repellent nanoparticles.
Carbon nanotubes (7:11 PM)

• Carbon nanotubes are cylindrical molecules that consist of a single layer of carbon atoms
called graphene.

• Graphene in itself is an amazing nanomaterial, known for high thermal and electrical
conductivity, and high tensile strength, despite being lighter than steel.

• Carbon nanotube acquires some of these properties but depending on how we are folding,
the size, and the number of layers, they can acquire different properties.

• For example, a carbon nanotube can be a conductor or semiconductor.

• The hollow part of the carbon nanotube can be filled with nanomaterials.

• These nanomaterials will be separated and shielded from their surroundings.

• Because of these properties, carbon nanotubes have applications in many areas such as
electronic devices, lithium-ion batteries, hydrogen storage cells, and biosensors among
others.

Quantum Dots (7:36 PM)

• Quantum dots are nanoscale semiconductors.

• They can emit light of various colours, just by changing their size.

• Their potential application includes solar cells, medical imaging, and quantum computing.

• They already have applications in display technology.

Nanotechnology in India (7:38 PM)

• (1)National Mission on nanoscience and technology

• Nano Mission was launched in 2007 under the Department of Science and Technology.

• The first phase was in 2007-12, and the second phase was in 2014-20.

• Objectives

• (a) basic research promotion in Nanotechnology

• (b) Infrastructure development in the research institutes.

• (c) International Collaboration

• (d) Private sector participation

• (e) Human Resource Development

• (f) Using nanotechnology to solve the issues being faced by India.

• (2) The Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology has a Nanotechnology initiative
division, which is working on developing indigenous products in the electronics sector.

• It is being implemented with the help of IIsc Bengaluru and IIT Bombay.

• (3) Nano urea

 • IIFCO (Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative Limited) has developed a new fertilizer called
nano urea, which is a nanoparticle of nitrogen in a stable form.

• Typically, one bag of urea contains 45 kg of fertilizer, which has about 20 kg of nitrogen.

• This one bag can be replaced with 500ml of nano urea, which has about 20 grams of
nitrogen.

• Because of increased surface area, nano urea is more reactive and can be absorbed directly
by the stomata of plants.

• Thus, overall urea consumption reduces, which has environmental benefits.

• Also, the government can reduce the burden of fertilizer subsidies which has economic
benefits.

The topics for the next class: Concerns with Nanotechnology, Information, and computing
technology.

Summary

Science and Technology Class 09

A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (05:09 PM)

ISSUES AND CHALLENGES WITH NANOTECHNOLOGY (05:13 PM)

• Health and safety concern- Because of the toxicity of nanoparticles

• Misuse of nano-technology- For example- Military applications, use in gene editing for
designer babies.

• There are challenges in developing appropriate regulations for nano-materials, nano-devices,

and nano-systems.

• There are environmental concerns regarding the unsafe handling of nanomaterials. The long-
term effects of nano-materials on ecosystems and bio-diversities are still being investigated.

INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (05:29 PM)

• Framework

• 5G- Cloud computing, Edge computing,

• Computing- Supercomputers, Quantum computers, Quantum communication.

• Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies

• Internet- Satellite-based internet, Dark web, net neutrality

• AI, Robotics

• Data protection.

COMMUNICATION (05:32 PM)

• Electromagnetic waves
• Waves- It is some sort of disturbance that is traveling in a periodic motion.

•
• Waves always require a medium to propagate. Sound cannot propagate into space. Newton
thought that light is a particle.

• Huygen proposed that Light is a wave. Light is traveling through a medium called ether. [*
This was rejected after conducting an experiment]

• Maxwell proposed that Light is an electromagnetic wave and this wave does not require any
medium to propagate.

•
• Electric fields and magnetic fields are phenomena of Magnetism. Changing the magnetic
field produces an electrical field and changes in an electrical field lead to the production of
the magnetic field.

• Properties of waves

•
• Frequency= No. of vibrations per section

• Speed= V= λf

• In case of electromagnetic waves it becomes C= λf, C= 3* 10^ 8 m/s

 •
• The wavelength of Visible light is 370 Nm to 780 Nm

o E∝f

o E= h* f

o h= Planck's constant

LIFI (Light Fidelity) or Visible light communication (06:14 PM)

• In this technology, visible lights using LED bulbs (Ultraviolet and Infrared are also being
explored) are used for communication. It is a wireless communication technology to transmit
data. It works by modulating the intensity of light emitted by an LED bulb which can be
detected by a receiver.

• It can attain very high speed more than 50 times compared to Wifi, however, there are
certain challenges such as limited coverage (Confined to a room in which they are
generated), interference from the other light sources, and scalability amongst others.

• .

KEY TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (06:51 PM)

• Signal

• Information converted in electrical form and suitable for transmission is called a signal
 • Signal can be of two types- Analog signal and Digital signal

•
• Analog signals are continuous variations of voltage or current. Sound and picture signals on
TV or in a typical radio are examples of analog.

• Digital signals- These are those which can take only discreet step-wise values of 0 and 1. This
is called a Binary system. Currently, there are many coding mechanisms used to represent
letters, numbers, and pixels in binary systems. For example- the most accepted coding
mechanism is the ASCII system (American standard code for information interchange).

• Noise

• It refers to unwanted signals that tend to disturb the transmission and processing of the
message signals.

• The loss of strength of a signal while propagating through a medium is called attenuation.

• Amplification is the process of increasing the amplitude and consequently the strength of a
signal.

• Range

• It is the largest distance between a source and a destination up to which a signal is received
with enough strength.

• Bandwidth

• It refers to the frequency range over which equipment operates or the portion of spectrum
occupied by the signal i.e. different types of signal require different bandwidths.

• The transmission medium also provides different bandwidths. For example- Older cables
often made of copper provide less bandwidth, in comparison Air provides more bandwidth.

• The highest bandwidth is provided by optical fibre cables.

• Optical fibre cables provide high bandwidth because the Signal undergoes total internal
reflection and signal strength does not deteriorate despite transmission over 1000s of KM.

MODULATION (07:45 PM)

• The original low-frequency signal can not be transmitted to long distances therefore at the
transmitter, the information contained in the low-frequency signal is superimposed on a
high-frequency wave which acts as a carrier of the information. This process is known as
modulation.
 • At the receiver, information from the modulated signals has to be retrieved which is called
de-modulation.

•
• Modulation is of three types

• a) Frequency modulation- The frequency of the carrier signal is altered in proportion to the
message signal

• b) Amplitude modulation- The amplitude of the carrier signal is changed in proportion to the
message signal while the phase and frequency are kept constant.

• c) Phase modulation- The phase of the carrier signal is altered

• Youtube video to watch- Lesics

The topic for the next class:- 5G and other topics in ICT.

Summary

Science and Technology Class 10

5G (05:08 PM)

• It is an advanced level of mobile technology.

• 1G: Analog mobile phone

• 2G: Digital phones

• 3G: Smartphones

• 4G: It diluted the difference between phones and computers.

How 4G and 5G are different from each other? (5:13 PM):

Parameters 4G 5G

Speed 1 Gb/s 20 Gb/s

Latency 10 ms <1ms
 Connection density 100,000/km2 1,000,000/km2

Spectrum 3 GHz 30GHz

Who decides telecommunication standards? (05:17 PM)

• 5G is not one technology but an amalgamation of many technologies which make 5 G

standards possible.

• These standards are decided by:

• 1. International Telecommunication Union (a body of the UN), and

• 2. 3GPP (3rd generation Partnership Project).

• 3GPP includes 7 standard development organizations of the world.

• eg. Telecommunication standards development society of India is one of the members.

Technologies and innovations of 5G (05:26 PM):

• 1. Millimeter wave:

• 5G is using following types of the spectrum:

• Low band (< 1 GHz)

• Mid band (1.25-4.7 GHz)

• High band (24-40 GHz): It lies in a millimeter wave region.

• 2. Small cell stations:

• Small cells make use of low-power short-range wireless transmission that covers small
geographical areas.

• It means cell stations will take less physical space, thus more cell stations and more density
of connection can be supported.

• 4. Massive MIMO (Multiple Inputs and Multiple Outputs):

• It is a wireless communication technique to send and receive multiple data signals

simultaneously over the same radio channel.

• One small cell station can process many input and output signals simultaneously to many
devices without any interference.

• 5. Beamforming:

• It focuses wireless signals in a chosen direction towards a specific receiving device.

• This leads to improved signals and less interference between signals.

• 6. Network Slicing:

• It is an algorithm where 1 physical network can be divided into various distinct virtual
networks that provide different amounts of resources to different types of traffic.

• 7. Edge computing:
 • Cloud computing refers to the use of remote servers typically located in large data centers to
manage, store, and process data and applications.

• With cloud computing, users can access services on demand over the internet without the
need for hardware.

• Edge computing on the other hand involves processing and analyzing data closer to where it
is generated.

• This approach is designed to reduce latency and improve real-time decision-making.

• Edge computing is being integrated with a 5 G Network.

Challenges and Issues Associated with 5G (6:27 PM)

• 1. Complete 5 G supply chain has high import dependency because imports account for 90%
of India's telecom equipment market.

• 2. There may be difficulty in availing of some bands required for 5G because of their uses in
other areas.

• eg. Airline communication

• 3. 5 G is very much dependent upon virtual components which also enhances cyber security
vulnerabilities.

• 4. Only about 1/3rd of base stations are connected by optical fiber cables

• 5. In India there is already a digital divide between rural and urban.

• 5G will widen this digital divide.

• 6. There is a perceived threat from 5G radiations. However, there is not enough scientific
evidence regarding the damages of non-ionizing radiations.

SUPERCOMPUTERS (07:14 PM)

• A type of computer that is designed to perform highly complex calculations and data-
intensive tasks at extremely high speeds.

• They are different from normal day-to-day computers in several ways:

• 1. A supercomputer can perform multiple calculations simultaneously which is called parallel

processing.

• In contrast, an ordinary computer does one work at a time in distinct series of operations
through serial processing.

• 2. The capacity of a supercomputer is measured in Flops (Floating lines operation per

second).

• A typical Super computer will have the capacity in Petaflops.

• While the capacity of an ordinary computer is measured in MIPS (million instructions per
second).

• 3. Supercomputer has a large amount of memory to support faster working.

Application of Supercomputing (07:36 PM):

• 1. Scientific research:

• In many areas like astrophysics, cosmology, and material sciences among many others,
Supercomputers are used.

• 2. Weather prediction and climate modeling:

• Eg. Pratyush and Mihir Supercomputers are used for weather predictions.

• 3. Big Data Analytics:

• It is the process of extracting useful information by analyzing different big data sets.

• 4. Optimization:

• It is the process of finding the best possible solution for a given problem.

• Supercomputers can be used to accelerate the solution search process.

• 5. Simulations:

• It refers to the process of imitating the behavior of a system or process in order to

understand its characteristics and predict its performance.

• Simulation is helpful in predicting weather patterns, complex systems such as aircraft, space
crafts, etc

• 6. Computational Biology:

• It is an interdisciplinary field that includes both biology and computer science to analyze
large collections of biological data such as genetic sequences, protein samples, etc.

Supercomputing in India (7:54 PM)

• Supercomputing in India started in the late 1980s after the US denied the import of
supercomputers.

• India’s first Supercomputer was built by CDAC: Param 8000 in 1991.

• Pratyush and Mihir are two of the fastest supercomputers in India.

• The government launched National Supercomputing Mission which has the following salient
features:

• 1. It envisages empowering our National academic research and development institutions by

installing a vast supercomputing grid of more than 70 high-performing supercomputing
facilities.

• 2. These supercomputers will be networked over the National Knowledge Network.

• 3. It is implemented by Dopt of Science and Tech and the Dept of Electronics and Information
Tech through two organizations CDAC and IISc, Bangalore.

• 1st Supercomputer under this mission: PARAM Shivay

• Fastest under this mission: PARAM Siddhi

THE TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS: QUANTUM TECHNOLOGY

Summary

Science and Technology Class 11

A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (05:07 PM)

BASICS OF QUANTUM TECHNOLOGY (05:09 PM)

• Photoelectric effect-

• When the light fell on the metal then an electron came out, which means enough energy
was provided by the light to escape the electron. And the light in its waveform can not give
enough energy to the electron.

• So, Einstein proposed that Light behaves like a particle but sometimes it behaves like a wave.
It is called Wave-particle duality.

•
• A French scientist also proposed that Everything behaves like waves and particles, and it is
not limited to light. In general, there is Dual nature in the universe.

• Larger objects have very small wavelengths and can be neglected. For larger objects classical
mechanics is enough and there is no need to apply Quantum mechanics.

• For smaller atoms, like electrons, behaves in dual nature. In general, there is dual nature in
the universe.

• Heisenberg uncertainty-

• There are certain parameters/ quantities about an object that can not be measured
simultaneously.

•
• Schrodingers Atomic model
 • In classical physics, everything is deterministic. In quantum mechanics everything is
probabilistic.

• When the Schrodinger equation is solved, the deterministic solution can not be found. It tells
about the two possibilities of finding electrons.

• When one is not measuring then the electron can be at both the place

• Quantum means- a set of postulates which aims to explain nature at a very elementary scale

•
• Young's double-slit experiment

• [* Constructive interference- When two waves are meeting with each of their maxima and
minima then the amplitude will increase. And the opposite is destructive interference]

•
• When there was a sensor kept to measure nature then light behaved as a particle.

•
QUANTUM TECHNOLOGIES (05:57 PM)
 • Quantum technologies are based on postulates of quantum mechanics which aim to explain
the behaviour of nature at very smaller scales such as atoms, molecules, and elementary
particles among others.

• Following are the major domains of Quantum technologies.

• Quantum computing.

• Quantum communication.

• Quantum simulation.

• Quantum metrology.

• Quantum materials and devices.

QUANTUM COMPUTING (06:04 PM)

• Context- Recently the government announced the National Quantum mission with a budget
of 6000 cr rupees to be implemented by the Department of Science and Technology.

• In Quantum computers rather than using binary units or Bits (0 and 1), Quantum bits or
Qubits are used. Qubits is a superposition of 0 and 1 i.e. it can be any combination of 0 and 1
with different probability.

• Qubits can also be entangled in a way that changing one Qubit automatically changes other
Qubits. This allows Quantum computers to perform operations on many qubits at once
which leads to faster computation.

• By using the principles of superposition and entanglement we can design a quantum

computer which allows exponential use in the computational capacity as the number of
Qubits increases.

• Superposition is the ability of qubits to be in different states simultaneously, allowing them

to work on a million computations at the same time.

• Entanglement is the ability of two or more quantum systems to become entangled

irrespective of how far apart they are. The correlation between the entangled qubits gives
information about the other qubit.

APPLICATIONS (07:07 PM)

• Cryptography- Quantum computing has the potential to break many of the encryption
schemes currently used in communication and data storage.

• Quantum simulation- WIth the help of quantum computers we can simulate complex
chemical reactions or behaviour of microscopic particles which can be used for drug
discovery, finding new types of fertilizers, Pesticides, and high-temperature superconductors
among others.

• It has applications in finance. For example- Risk management, Financial Strategies.

• The term Quantum supremacy signifies that the quantum computer can solve a problem
much faster than the fastest supercomputer on the planet. In 2017, google achieved
Quantum supremacy with its quantum computer sycamore for one problem.
CHALLENGES (07:24 PM)

• Quantum Decoherence- It is the tendency of Qubits to lose their quantum information. This
can lead to errors in computation.

• Qubits are very sensitive and often Quantum computers have to be kept at very low
temperatures in isolated conditions.

• Developing software and algorithms for quantum computing is still in its early stages
similarly, there are hardware challenges. For example- We still do not know the best way to
make a qubit.

• Scalability- To solve real-life problems we need quantum computers with 1000s of Qubits,
however, as of now, IBM has the largest Quantum computers in terms of Qubits with 433
qubits.

• Quantum computers are very expensive to build and operate.

QUANTUM COMMUNICATION (07:38 PM)

• Traditional data security realizes certain mathematical problems which can not be solved in
real-time even by a very powerful supercomputer. For example- in Public key distribution
data is encrypted with the help of a simple mathematical problem such as multiplying two
large prime numbers. However, If an eavesdropper tries to decrypt data they will have to
solve difficult problems such as finding prime factors of a sufficiently large no.

• This problem can be solved by a powerful quantum computer thus we have to find ways to
encrypt data that even quantum computers can not break. One such example is quantum key
distribution

•
• In QKD, the sender and receiver share a key with the help of entangled photons, if an
eavesdropper attempts to listen to the conversation, will have to measure the quantum state
of the photon, however, this changes the quantum state which alerts both sender and
receiver to the presence of an eavesdropper.

• DRDO and ISRO, have achieved QKD across a few KM channels.

QUANTUM METROLOGY (07:51 PM)

• Metrology is the science of accurate measurement. Quantum sensors are being used for
measurement at a very smaller scale and they provide the most accurate measurement
compared to other methods.

• This has lots of applications in scientific experiments.

The Topic for the next class:- Blockchain, cryptocurrency and the internet.

1
Summary

Science and Technology Class 12

A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS AND Q&A SESSION (05:10 PM)

BLOCKCHAIN AND CRYPTOCURRENCIES (05:35 PM)

• Blockchains are decentralized digital ledgers that facilitate the transaction between parties
without the need for any third-party authentication. It maintains a time series of data in a
chain of blocks in chronological order. Every block has a unique identifier that connects them
to previous and subsequent blocks.

• Each ledger is shared, copied, and stored on every node in the system thus the entire series
is managed and stored across several computer systems.

• [* Cryptographic hashing- The algorithm provides the unique address to the blocks created.
It is used to write new transactions, timestamp them, and ultimately to add a reference to
them in the previous block.

• The new block generated has a hash that also has the record of previous transactions. When
the new block is generated and if it is fake, the hash will not match, and all the other nodes
will reject them. ]

•
• It is distributed database which is durable, robust, transparent, and tamper-proof, thus it can
have applications in many areas.

• 3 Levels of Security in blockchain technology

• 1) Cryptographic hashing

• 2) Proof of work (PoW) is a form of Cryptographic Proof in which one party proves to others
that a certain amount of a specific computational effort has been expended. The time
increases exponentially to solve the next 10 hash.

• 3) Decentralized ledger- Consensus mechanism

• Applications of blockchain technology (06:11 PM)

• Banking and Finance

• Protection of intellectual property

• Government schemes- Examples such as national identity management systems, land title
registration, and health care.
 • Cyber security

• Challenges

• The processing speed is very less in blockchains compared to traditional transactional

networks.

• Blockchains are not interoperable

• Limited availability of skilled workforce, high power consumption (Although this has been
resolved through proof of stake blockchain).

CRYPTOCURRENCIES (06:23 PM)

• It is a type of digital currency that uses cryptography for security and anti-counterfeiting
measures. Cryptocurrencies work through distributed ledger technology called the
blockchain. Example- Bitcoin, Ether (Ethereum blockchain).

• Benefits of cryptocurrencies (07:16 PM)

• Difficulty to counterfeit

• Privacy protection

• Benefits of blockchain technology

• Issues with Cryptocurrencies

• Because of their anonymous nature, cryptocurrencies are used for many illegal activities such
as the smuggling of drugs, and terror financing among others.

• Cryptocurrencies have shown very high volatility in the exchange market, such volatility can
introduce instability in the market and economy.

• There are no consumer protection or dispute settlement mechanisms.

• There are money laundering risks.

• Note- The government of India and RBI even though haven't banned crypto-based
transactions, they have cautioned regarding their uses.

• [* Government is taxing 30% on profits made out of the crypto trade]

PROOF OF STAKE (07:37 PM)

• It is an alternative approach to designing a blockchain.

• In proof of stake, there are no miners but there are validators who validate transactions on
the blockchain for a brief duration.

• Once the validator fulfils the job he/she is rewarded with new ether currency, however, to
become a validator one has to stake a minimum amount of ether currency, and if the job is
not done properly then this stake is lost

• Ethereum blockchain has shifted to proof of stake to reduce power consumption.

NON-FUNGIBLE TOKENS (07:56 PM)

 • Drawings, photos, videos, GIFs, music, in-game items, selfies, and even a tweet can be
turned into an NFT, which can then be traded online using cryptocurrency.

• If anyone converts a digital asset to an NFT, he/she will get proof of ownership, powered by
blockchain

•
• The value of the token varies from person to person.

The topic for the next class:- Artificial intelligence and the Internet.

Summary

Science and Technology Class 13

A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS AND Q&A SESSION (05:05 PM)

INTERNET (05:11 PM)

• The Internet can be divided into surface web and deep web.

• The surface web is easily accessible through search engines such as Google. It consists of
publicly available websites

• The deep web refers to the part of the internet that is not accessible through search engines.
Often it requires some authentication, payment, or both to access such content. For
example- Online banking, e-mail servers, and Subscription-based services.

• The dark web is part of the internet that is not indexed by search engines and requires
special software such as the TOR browser to access them.

• The content on the dark web is heavily encrypted and anonymous because of this it is often
used for illegal activities such as the Smuggling of drugs, cybercrime, and Terror Financing
among others.
•
• [* Example- Silk Road was a notorious cyber black market for illicit goods and the first dark
web market of the internet era. Launched in 2011 and shut down by the FBI in 2013. After
this Silk Road 2.0 was in operation]

• [** Dark Web can also be used for Positive uses such as BBC posted its dark web address
during the Russia-Ukraine conflict to counter the Russian propaganda of war]

• VPN- Virtual private network

• VPN means a Virtual private network and allows for establishing a protected network
connection when using public networks.

• It encrypts the internet traffic and disguises the online identity. This makes it more difficult
for third parties to track your activities online and steal data.

• VPN hides the IP address by letting the network redirect it through a specially configured
remote server run by a VPN host.

• VPN is an encrypted connection over the Internet from a device to a network. The encrypted
connection helps ensure that sensitive data is safely transmitted. It prevents unauthorized
people from eavesdropping on the traffic and allows the user to conduct work remotely.

• VPNs are not the dark web, VPNs are perfectly legal
 •
• TOR v/s VPN

• VPNs emphasize privacy, and Tor emphasizes anonymity.

• A VPN encrypts the connection and routes it through an intermediary server in another
location of the user’s choosing whereas, Tor encrypts the internet connection and routes it
through a random sequence of servers run by volunteers.

•
SATELLITE-BASED INTERNET (05:48 PM)

• Recently, Starlink and one web programs are in the news. Starlink aims to create a network
of 1000s of satellites in Low Earth orbit that can provide non-stop internet anywhere on the
planet.

• One web has a similar program, however in a little higher orbit than Starlink.

• Such programs provide high-speed internet anywhere on the planet including remote and
rural areas where traditional ways to deliver internet like fiber optic cables may not be
available because of high cost.
 •
• There are some challenges (06:12 PM)

• Increased risk of collisions leading to more space debris

• How these services will be affected because of bad weather requires more research.

• [* Spectrum of light coming from distant sources can range from Radio waves to visible light
to Ultra violet rays etc. So these telescopes are kept at high altitude which has a thin
atmosphere. Example- Ladakh and Uttrakhand (Devasthal)]

• It can lead to increased light pollution which can obstruct astronomical operations.

NET NEUTRALITY (06:22 PM)

• It is a principle that all internet traffic should be treated equally without discrimination or
preference. This means that ISPs should not be allowed to block or slow down access to
certain websites or services or charge higher fees to users. This concept is important
because

• a) Internet remains an open and level playing field for all users regardless of their financial
resources.

• b) It also promotes competition and innovation by preventing large ISPs from using their
market power to favour their own services or restrict access to competing services.

• c) It is also very important for freedom of speech and expression because ISPs can not block
websites, they do not agree with.

• Context- Recently some experts have pointed out that 5G network slicing is inconsistent with
net neutrality as it allocates differing bandwidth, however, the counter-argument is it is not
deliberate and targeted at certain websites. In fact, it is based on optimum uses of existing
bandwidth.

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (07:02 PM)

• It refers to the simulation of human-like intelligence in machines i.e. enabling them to

perform tasks that often require learning, problem-solving, and decision-making. Chat GPT is
an example of generative artificial intelligence.
 • There are two branches of AI-

• Narrow AI/ Weak AI- It is designed and trained to perform specific tasks such as image
classification.

• General AI/ Strong AI- It refers to AI systems that are capable of performing any intellectual
task that a human can do. There are no known examples of general AI in existence.

• Some of the most prominent AI technologies are

• a) Computer Vision- Technologies that allow machines to understand and interpret visual
information. This can be very helpful in facial recognition, image recognition, and self-driving
cars among others.

• b) Natural language processing- It enables machines to understand and interpret human

language. It can be very helpful as voice assistants, and chatbots.

• c) Machine learning- A type of AI that allows machines to learn from data and improve their
performance over time. It involves the use of algorithms that can automatically improve
themselves by learning from the data they are fed.

• Deep learning is a subset of machine learning. Deep learning is modelled after the structure
and function of the human brain. It involves neural networks where data is processed and
passed on to the next neural networks. This can occur for many layers before providing the
output.

• d) Expert system- These are computer programs that use a knowledge base and reasoning
algorithms to provide expert-level advice in a specific domain such as medicine, law, and
finance among others.

The topic for the next class:- Challenges of Artificial Intelligence, and Robotics.

Summary

Science and Technology Class 14

A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS AND Q&A SESSION (05:07 PM)

CHALLENGES WITH AI (05:24 PM)

• AI systems can be biased if they are trained on biased data or designed with biases. This can
lead to discriminatory outcomes. In fact, AI can learn biases from the data itself. Example- An
bot designed by Microsoft learned all the conspiracy theories in 6 hours and after that, it
started promoting those conspiracy theories.

• Transparency and accountability issues- If an AI commits a mistake, who should be held

accountable? For example- Tesla cars caused the accident.

• AI relies on a heavy amount of data. It is important to ensure that data privacy is

maintained.

• Emergence of AI tools threatens a lot of jobs such as data entry jobs, customer service, and
support jobs, accounting jobs, and even basic levels of coding jobs.
 • AI can have negative applications such as the use of deep fakes for fake images and videos.

• India-specific challenges- For developing countries such as India there are challenges
associated with Skills and infrastructure to develop AI tools. [* limited availability of skilled
workforce, lack of cloud computing infrastructure, data security, and privacy issues]

• ESSAY TOPIC- Artificial Intelligence: challenges and Opportunities (125 marks/ 1000-1200
words)

DATA PROTECTION REGIME (05:48 PM)

• Case study of Cambridge Analytica- Violation of personal data during elections. Personalized
Advertisements were sent to the persons on whom they are sensitive.

•
• Data protection regime

• It refers to practices, technologies, and regulations to safeguard sensitive information of

individuals from unauthorized access, disclosure, or use. It empowers citizens regarding their
private data and holds data collection entities accountable for their practices.

• European Union took the lead and came up with 7 principles known as General Data
Protection Regulation (GDPR). These principles include

• a) Lawfulness, fairness, and transparency- organizations need to ensure their data collection
practices don't break the law and that they are not hiding anything from the data subjects.

• b) Purpose limitation- Organizations should collect personal data for a specific purpose,
clearly state what that purpose is, and only collect data for as long as necessary to complete
that purpose

• c) Data minimization- Organisations must only process the personal data that they need to
achieve its processing purposes.

• d) Data Accuracy- Every reasonable step must be taken to erase or rectify data that is
inaccurate or incomplete

• [* Data accuracy and Data minimization together give the Right to be forgotten. Right to be
forgotten means it is the right of the person to ask the entity to delete the personal data ]

• e) Integrity and confidentiality- Data must be processed in a manner that ensures

appropriate security against accidental laws, destruction or damage, and unauthorized or
unlawful processing.

• f) Accountability- Organizations will be fined if they do not adhere to the above 6 principles
DATA LOCALISATION and DATA COLONIALISM (06:12 PM)

• The term data localization refers to the practice that data collected within a country must be
stored, processed, and used within that country's borders.

• Data colonialism- It refers to the exploitation of data resources of one group or country by
another group of countries often without their consent.

• Homework- Digital data protection Bill 2023- Read the features

• [* Follow this link- https://prsindia.org/billtrack/draft-the-digital-personal-data-protection-

bill-2022]

• [* Pegasus- It is a type of malicious software or malware classified as spyware. It is designed

to gain access to devices, without the knowledge of users, gathers personal information, and
relays it back to whoever it is that is using the software to spy]

DEFENSE TECHNOLOGY (06:46 PM)

• Framework

• Missiles

• Ships and Submarines

• Airpower

• Emerging trends in warfare

• Indigenization of technology

• Indigenisation denotes to substituting an imported item with one that is manufactured

within the country.

• In the Pharma sector, India is the main exporter. But still, the main ingredient required to
give therapeutic effects to medicine i.e. API (Active pharmaceutical ingredients) are imported
from China.

• India is also the largest buyer of defense equipment [India and Saudi Arabia occupying the
top position]- Report of SIPRI (Stockholm International Peace Research Institute)

• Why indigenization of defense has not occurred?

• Defence expenditure is very less. Allocation in the budget is less. And even in the less
allocation, the R&D gets very less.

• Most of the expenditure goes to the salary and pension and very less goes to R&D.

• Skillforce required is lacking.

• Private sector participation is very less. The product developed by the private sector is
rejected by the public sector company. [* Case study- Israel, France, USA- Private sector has
more participation, and their democratic credentials are not threatened ]

• Too much regulation, lack of startups, Bureaucratic red-tapism.

• Lack of Availability of raw materials.

 • Many defense deals have resulted in opaqueness, and many corruption news/scandals were
evident.

• Nexus between the private contractors- the government resulted in corruption.

• Proper national security doctrine is still not there.

• Achievement so far

• Brahmos are demanded by the Philippines, and Armenia ordered Pinaka missiles.

• Defense corridor is coming up in two states- Tamilnadu and Uttar Pradesh.

• FDI is coming into the defense sector.

MISSILE TECHNOLOGY (07:03 PM)

• Missile is a rocket-propelled weapon that carries a warhead and delivers it with great
accuracy at high speed.

•
• There can be various types of missiles based on different criteria

• A. Based on the launch platform and target

• 1) Surface to Surface- Agnii series of missiles

• 2) Surface to Air- Akash missile

• 3) Air to Air/ Air to surface- Astra missile

• 4) Anti-tank missiles- Nag, and Helina.

• B. Based on speed

• Mach no.- Speed of object/Speed of sound. The speed of sound is 330-340 m/s at
NTP(normal temperature and pressure)]

• 1) Subsonic [Speed less than Mach 1],

• 2) Transsonic [Mach 1]

• 3) Supersonic [1-5 Mach],

• 4) Hypersonic [More than Mach 5]

• C. Based on the range-

• 1) Short-range missiles (less than 1000 Km),

• 2) Medium-range missiles (1000-3000 Km),

• 3) Intermediate-range missiles(3000-5000 Km),

• 4) Long-range missiles (More than 5000 Km.) Long-range missiles are also called Inter-
continental ballistic Missiles [ICBMs].

• D. Based on Trajectory-

• 1) Ballistic missiles, and

• 2) Cruise missiles.

•
• Ballistic missiles-

• These missiles follow a ballistic trajectory with the objective of delivering warheads to a pre-
determined target. They are guided for a brief duration in starting phase and the rest of the
path is like a free-falling projectile under Earth's gravitational force.

• Often these missiles cross the atmosphere and re-enter it. They can hit a target very far away
and consume less fuel because of this we can also increase the mass of warheads.

• They can have a longer range with less consumption of Fuel, For example- Agni and Prithvi.

• Challenge- However, they are suitable for stationary targets and can be intercepted by
Radars early into the flight

• [* Radars- They emit radio waves. And they intercept the reflected waves. These reflected
waves are monitored. They can intercept the Ballistic missile and they can be neutralized. ]

• Cruise missiles-

• It is a guided missile that remains in the atmosphere and does not change its altitude and
speed significantly.

• These missiles are often self-navigating and because they fly at low altitudes, they can avoid
interception by radars.

• Their path is not guided by gravity.

• They can hit both moving and stationary targets.

• However, they consume more fuel, and generally their range will be less than Ballistic
missiles.
 • Example- Nirbhay missile and Brahmos missiles.

MISSILE DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA (07:43 PM)

• Integrated Guided Missile development Plan (IGMDP)

• It was envisaged by Dr. A.P.J Abdul Kalam in 1983 to help India attain self-sufficiency in the
field of missile technology.

• It led to the development of 5 missile systems have been developed under this program, i.e.
Prithvi, Akash, Trishul, Nag, and Agni [PATNA mnemonic].

• Prithvi- Surface to surface

• Akash- Surface to air

• Trishul- Now decommissioned and replaced With Barak missile [* Barak missile is a Quick
reaction Surface-to-Air Missile ]

• Nag- these are also called fire and forget missile

• Agni- Canistered mechanism- Made of maraging steel, a canister must provide a hermetically
sealed atmosphere that preserves the missile for years

•
• Hot launch and cold launch

• A canister launch system can be either a hot launch, where the missile ignites in the cell, or a
cold launch, where the missile is expelled by gas produced by a gas generator that is not part
of the missile itself, and then the missile ignites.

• In the case of hot launches, the problem is the heat produced by the missile at the time of
launch.
 •
• Cold launch is safer than hot launch as the ejection system will eject the missile by itself
even if there is a missile failure.

•
BALLISTIC MISSILE DEFENCE PROGRAM (07:53 PM)

• DRDO is developing a two-tier ballistic missile defense system, that provides a multilayer
shield against ballistic missile attacks.

• This Two-tier system is intended to destroy an incoming missile at a higher altitude in the
exo-atmosphere and if that miscarries an endo-atmospheric will take place.

• First layer includes Prithvi Air Defence [PAD] which includes an upgraded version of Prithvi
Missile Pradyumn. It will try to intercept and neutralize incoming attacks outside the
atmosphere

• The second tier includes Advanced Air Defense [AAD] which will try to neutralize an incoming
attack inside the atmosphere with the help of Ashwin missiles.

• [* S-400 system which India is importing from Russia is an Air defense system that can
neutralize many types of targets such as missiles, and drones in the air itself. ]

The Topic for the next class- Ships and Submarines, Airpower and Emerging trend in warfare

Summary
Science and Technology Class 15

A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS AND Q&A SESSION (05:06 PM)

SHIPS AND SUBMARINES (05:24 PM)

• Any vessel that is capable of propelling itself beneath the water as well as on the water's
surface

• Based on power source there can be two types of submarines

• a) Diesel electric power submarine

• b) Nuclear-powered submarines

• [* SONAR- it can listen to the sound made by the object or it can itself releases high-
frequency sound and when it is reflected back, it can listen to the echo]

• Diesel electric power submarine

• Phase I- Initially we brought from Russia- INS Sindhughosh, INS Sindhurashtra, INS
Sindhuvijay, etc

• Phase II- As per Project 75 of the Indian Navy an MoU was signed between French company
DCNS and Indian company Mazgaon Dock Limited. This deal involved the delivery of six
Scorpene-class submarines with elements of indigenization

• Six submarines are- INS Kalvari, INS Karanj, INS Kandheri, INS Vela, INS Vagir, INS Vagsheer.

• These are fast attack submarines that can sustain very high pressure, and have very low
acoustics (Low noise), and thus can not be easily detected by SONARs.

• Note- A lot of work is happening to develop Air Independent Propulsion for Diesel Powered
submarines i.e. submarines do not have to come to the surface of the water to fulfill oxygen
requirements. One way it can be achieved is through electrolysis reaction where electric
current is passed through water to recover Hydrogen and Oxygen

• Nuclear-powered submarines

• These submarines are powered by Small Nuclear reactors.

• These submarines can stay inside the ocean for long periods without refueling and they can
be propelled at very high speed

• For example- INS Arihant indigenously developed is powered by a pressurized water reactor.
It also carries the nuclear-tipped ballistic missile K4. With this capability, India has achieved a
"Nuclear Triad" i.e. We can fire Nuclear missiles from Air, Water, and Surface.
 •
• Source- Times of India.

TORPEDOES (06:00 PM)

• These are underwater missiles and follow a straight path similar to a cruise missile. For
example Varunashtra

•
• India's Torpedo defense system is called Maareech. It is an advanced torpedo defense system
for Torpedo detection and countermeasures

•
SHIPS (06:05 PM)

• There are 4 types of ships

• Destroyers- These are large warships equipped with Missiles, Torpedoes, Radars, and Sonars.
For example- INS Kolkata, INS Vishakhapatnam, INS Mormugao
•
• Frigates are smaller but faster than destroyers. They have both offensive and defensive
capabilities. They are used as escort vessels to protect lines of communication. It can also be
an integral component of a strike group. It can also be used in Minor warfare. Example- INS
Shiwalik, INS Talwar, INS Brahmaputra.

•
• Corvettes- These are often the smallest ship in the naval fleet. They can have applications in
coastal patrolling, Minor wars etc. Example- INS Kamorta, INS Kavaratti etc.

• Aircraft carrier (06:26 PM)

• They are floating air bases in the sea, and fighter aircraft operate from their decks. They are
often accompanied by destroyers, Frigates, Submarines etc. For example- INS Vikrant and INS
Vikramaditya.

• INS Vikrant-

•
• It is named after the first aircraft carrier of India which played a vital role in the 1971 war. INS
Vikrant is 262 meters long uses the STOBAR mechanism has 3/4th of indigenous content and
can attain a speed of 28 knots.

• For landing and takeoff, an Aircraft carrier can use STOBAR or CATOBAR system.
 • Short take-off but arrested recovery (STOBAR)- The frontal part of the deck is elevated
which supports aircraft carriers in taking off as a Ski-jump mechanism. Example- INS Vikrant
and Vikramaditya

•
• Catapult Assisted System but arrested recovery (CATOBAR)- Catapult mechanism is kept
under the deck which is attached to the wheels of the aircraft. The stored energy of the
catapult is released and converted into the kinetic energy of the aircraft. Catapult can be
powered by a steam engine or electromagnetic aircraft launch system (EMALS)

•
• In arrested recovery, high-strength arrester wires are placed on the deck. The aircraft has a
tail hook that gets arrested in one of the wires and decelerates rapidly.

STEALTH TECHNOLOGY (06:53 PM)

• Radars send out electromagnetic symbols as short pulses which may be reflected by objects
in their path in part reflecting back to the radar depending on the time taken, Doppler shift,
the speed & direction of an object can be calculated by a radar system.

• Sonar works on the same principle but uses sound waves.

• The purpose of stealth technology is to make an aircraft, ship, or submarine invisible to radar
or sonar.

• Following methods can be deployed

• a) Aircraft can be shaped in a way that radar signals are reflected away from the radar
equipment.

• b) Aircraft can be covered in materials that absorb Radar signals

• c) Use of Radio jammers- In Radio jamming for a particular frequency noise is maximized so
that the receiver will not be able to intercept meaningful signals.

AIRCRAFT (07:10 PM)

• Generation Aircrafts
 •
• Source- Times of India

• Parameters on which we divide the generation aircraft- Weapon, Speed, Maneuverability,

Stealth features, Air to Air refueling capability.

• Combat Aircrafts

• From Russia- MiG 21, MiG 29, Sukhoi Su 30.

• From France- Mirage and Rafael- Both are developed by Dassault.

• From the UK- Jaguar

• Indigenous- Light Combat Aircraft- Tejas (LCA Tejas)- It is one of the lightest, smallest
supersonic fighter aircraft belonging to the 4th generation. It carries Air to the surface, Air to
Air precision-guided weapons. It has air-to-air refueling capability. It can carry a maximum
payload of 4000 kg and a speed of Mach 2

• Airborne early warning and control system (AEW&C)

• It is an Airborne radar system to detect aircraft, ships, missiles, and other incoming
projectiles at long range. For example- the Indian airforce has 5 airborne warning aircraft, 3
of Israeli origins named Falcon and 2 indigenous ones named Netra.

•
EMERGING TRENDS IN MODERN WARFARE (07:30 PM)

• Directed energy weapons

• A weapon that damages its target with highly focused energy without a solid projectile that
can include a laser beam, electron beam, sound beam, or Microwave among others.

• For example- DRDO is working on a system called KALI (Kilo Ampere Linear Injector) for
targeting long-range missiles. It is supposed to emit powerful pulses of electrons that can
damage electronic systems on board.

• Weaponization of space

• It means destroying a satellite from the ground (Anti-satellite capability) and putting a
weapon system into space that can be used to destroy another space asset or a target on
Earth. Currently, USA and China are in a race toward weaponization of space.

• Outer space treaty 1967 is not equipped to deal with recent developments. There is a
demand in many countries including India that this treaty needs to be re-negotiated to
handle recent developments.

• Hypersonic vehicles

•
• Hypersonic weapons provide the capability that Radar systems will not be able to intercept
and thus such weapons can not be Neutralized easily.

• However, attaining hypersonic speeds in the atmosphere has many challenges

• a) More the speed, the more will be the atmospheric drag

• b) More atmospheric friction leads to very high temperatures in the range of 1000s of
degrees Celsius. Very few materials can maintain integrity at such high temperature

• c) They will require air-breathing engines to fulfill their oxygen requirements.

• Air Breathing engines

•
• There are three approaches to design air breathing engines
 • a) Jet engine- In the jet engine rotating parts are used to compress the incoming air so that
combustion can occur. It can start from zero and can attain speed up to Mach 3

• b) Ramjet- In Ramjet, the forward motion of the vehicle is used to compress air rather than
any rotating parts thus Ramjet does not start from zero, it has to use some other mechanism
to attain supersonic speed after which Ramjet can become operational.

• c) Scramjet- In a Ramjet engine there are obstructions to airflow because of that combustion
occurs at subsonic speed and thus Ramjet can attain hypersonic speed up to Mach 7. In
scramjet, the design is changed in a way that no obstruction occurs. Combustion can occur at
supersonic speeds and gradually scramjet can attain even higher hypersonic (More than
Mach 10).

The Topic for the next class:- Intellectual Property Rights.

Summary

Science and Technology Class 16

A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (05:10 PM)

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS (05:11 PM)

• Intellectual property rights

• These are rights given to a person over the creations of their mind. They usually give the
creator an exclusive right over the use of creation for a certain period of time.

PATENTS

• A patent is granted for an invention which is a new product or process that meets the
conditions of Novelty, Non-obviousness, and industrial use.

• Novelty means an inventive step that is advancement compared to existing knowledge.

• Non-obviousness means that invention is not obvious to a person with ordinary skill in the
art.

• Industrial use means an invention is capable of being made or used in industry.

• In India, they are governed by The Patent Act 1970 and they are given for 20 years.

• [* Why do patents need to be protected?- To protect innovation. ]

• [* Why for 20 years?- Giving these rights for perpetuity further disincentivizes innovation.
Also, patents have social utility so they can not be given for perpetuity. After the expiry of
the patent, generic medicines can be manufactured. ]

• As per Indian patent law, the following things cannot be patented

• 1) Inventions that are frivolous or contrary to well-established natural laws. For example-
One can not achieve 100% efficiency. [* In Thermodynamics they are called PMM 1, PMM 2,
and PMM 3 PMM1: A machine that produces works without energy input. PMM2: A machine
that has 100% efficiency. PMM3: A machine that has no friction. These are impossible to
create ]
 • 2) Inventions that can cause injury, a threat to public order, or immoral inventions. For
example- One can not get a patent for gambling machines, or biochemical warfare
techniques, and embryonic stem cells can not be patented.

• 3) Mere discovery of scientific principles. For example- Gravitational principles can not be
patented, however, the technology based on the gravitational principles can be patented.
Cloning can not be patented but Genetic editing can be patented. Phenomenon if
superconductivity can not be patented however the material which shows superconductivity
can be patented.

• 4) A mere admixture of substances which is just an aggregation of properties A substance

that has aggregated properties of its components without any new property can not be
patented.

• 5) Method of agriculture or Horticulture

• 6) Plants and animals other than microorganisms- Whatever already exists in nature can not
be patented.

• 7) Traditional knowledge already in the public domain. For example- Turmeric's healing
properties are not a novelty and thus can not be patented. Similarly, Neem has anti-fungal
properties and this was available as traditional knowledge so it can not be patented.

• 8) Inventions related to atomic energy.

• [* Patent Pool

• It is an agreement between two or more patent holders for sharing their intellectual
property rights. It is often made for complex technologies which necessitate complementary
patents. It is an efficient tool to bring together new technologies, it ensures innovation and
sharing of knowledge.

• However, there can be a downside as patent polling can become anti-competitive in nature
and can promote cartelization]

COPYRIGHTS (05:55 PM)

• It is a right given by law to the creators of literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic work and
producers of films and sound recordings.

• This right allows the rights of reproduction, communication to the public, and translation of
the work.

• It is governed by Copyright Act 1957 in India.

• Duration is life + 60 years for literary, musical, and artistic works and 60 years from the date
of publication for cinema, sound recording, and photography.

• Case study- Delhi high court case on photocopy, Torrent case- if the use is personal and not
for commercial distribution then it is not a violation.

TRADEMARK (06:07 PM)

 • A trademark means a mark capable of being represented graphically and distinguishing the
goods or services of one undertaking from another. It can be a brand, device, sign, letter,
number, picture, combination of colors, or any combination thereof.

• It is given for 10 years, however, can be extended indefinitely.

• They are given for 10 years and governed by the Trademarks Act 1999.

INDUSTRIAL DESIGN (06:11 PM)

• It means features of shapes, configuration, and composition of color applied to any article in
2D or 3D which in the finished article appeal to or are judged solely by the eye. [* Aesthetic
purpose]

• Design protection is available for 10 years extendable by 5 years. In India, it is governed by

Designs Act 2000.

GEOGRAPHICAL INDICATION (GI) (06:17 PM)

• It is a sign used on agricultural, natural, or manufactured goods originating in a particular

region of a country. It denotes the origin to which a specific quality characteristic is
attributable.

• In India, it is governed by The geographical Indication of Goods (Registration and

Protection) Act 1999 [GI Act]

• It is given for 10 years and can be renewed indefinitely.

• Question- Highlighting the benefits of GI tags discuss the issues in harnessing the potential
commercial benefits of GI in India. (10 marks/ 150 words).

• Approach:- Benefits- Generate employment, Tourism, and Culture connect, Beneficial for the
region, and the Local economy will benefit.

• Challenges in harnessing the potential- Authenticity, Quality control, Marketing &

advertisement, Branding of the product, Supply chain management issues, Middlemen need
to be removed, and Conflict between the regions.

TRADE SECRETS (06:32 PM)

• Trade secrets are confidential information that provides a company competitive advantage. It
can be an invention, idea, experimental results, recipe, financial strategy, etc.

• Because they do not require registration, theoretically the protection is available for an
unlimited duration. Trade secrets can be preferred in the following cases.

• a) When the invention is not patentable

• b) Patent protection is limited to 20 years. Secrets can be kept beyond that period

• c) When it is difficult to reverse engineered.

• In India there is no dedicated law for trade secrets nonetheless judiciary has used other laws
such as the Indian Contract Act of 1872 for trade secrets.

PLANT VARIETY PROTECTION (06:59 PM)

 • It refers to the protection granted for plant varieties to encourage the development of new
varieties of plants.

• It can be given to farmers, Breeders, and agricultural institutes. The period of protection is 15
years for annual crops and 18 years for trees.

• This protection is available for plant breeders and farmers. It is governed by the Protection
of plant varieties and farmers rights Act 2001 [PPV&FR]

• Pepsico Case- PepsiCo India filed legal cases against nine farmers for growing and selling the
FC5 potato variety over which it claimed it had exclusive rights under section 28 of the
Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers Right Act 2001 (PPVFR). In the Protection of Plant
Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act, seeds are not considered as patents. However, it is
considered a sui generis right for the farmers. In India, bio-materials are not allowed to be
patented

SEMICONDUCTOR INTEGRATED CIRCUIT LAYOUT (07:02 PM)

• Original and new designs of semiconductor integrated circuits are given protection for 10
years.

• The protection is granted for 10 years under the Semiconductors and integrated layout
design Act 2000.

TRIPS- TRADE-RELATED ASPECTS OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS (07:08 PM)

• It is an international agreement administered by WTO that sets down minimum standards for
IP regulation for WTO member nations. In case of conflicts, WTO can act as an arbitrator.

• This agreement also provides a degree of flexibility for developing nations to accommodate
their intellectual property system and developmental requirements. For example- TRIPS
provides for compulsory licensing which is part of section 84 of the Patent Act

• This empowers the government to allow the manufacture of a patented product without the
prior permission of the patent holder in the larger public interest

• For Example- The government allowed the Indian company Natcopharma in 2012 for a drug
Nexavar whose patent belonged to a company named Bayer

• Question- What is compulsory licensing? Do you think it goes against the spirit of
innovation? Critically examine.

WIPO (07:24 PM)

• It is a specialized agency of the United Nations created in 1967 with the objective of
promoting intellectual activity and facilitating the transfer of technology.

• Marrakech treaty- it creates an exception to domestic copyright laws where organizations

facilitating published work for the visually impaired do not require the permission of
copyright holders.

• India was the first country to ratify this treaty.

• Berne convention - It is an international agreement governing copyrights for literary and

artistic works.
 • Paris Convention- International agreement for the protection of industrial property

• Global innovation index- It ranks the innovation performance of about 130 countries based
on 82 indicators. It is published by WIPO in collaboration with Cornell University and INSEAD.
India is ranked 40th position out of 132 in the Global Innovation Index (GII) 2022.

IPR RELATED ISSUES (07:33 PM)

• Developed nations such as the USA are a critique of India's IPR regime. For example, US
Trade Representatives (USTR) releases a report called "Special 301 Report" where India is
kept under a priority watch list. The following are the reasons-

• a) Trademark violations are rampant.

• b) Copyright laws do not promote commercialization.

• c) There are delays in the administrative management of IPR.

• d) India does not have dedicated trade secrets laws.

• e) India is considered as one of the top 10 origins of fake goods.

• f) India continues to apply restrictive patentability criteria, especially for Pharma patents.

• Evergreening of patents-

• Evergreening of patents means making minor changes and claiming as Novelty for Re-patent.
This is adopted by many pharma companies.

• It means pharma companies filing for re-patent with minor improvements which can not be
considered a novelty.

• Section 3(d) of the Indian Patent Act does not allow the evergreening of patents

• For example- In 2013 SC rejected the patent of Novartis Drug Glivec.

• For example- Recently India rejected the patent of the medicine Bedaquiline, a life-saving TB
medicine on the account of evergreening.

• Patent waiver

• It signifies the transfer of technology by the patent holder to any third party who has the
capability to scale up production without any fear of legal repercussions in the future. For
example- India and South Africa demanded a patent waiver for Covid 19 vaccines.

• Patent waiver can also include manufacture by any third party with reverse engineering
capability without fear of legal repercussions.

The Topic for the next class:- Contribution of Indians in Science and Technology.

Summary

Science and Technology Class 17

A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS AND UPSC PAPER DISCUSSION (05:06 PM)
CONTRIBUTIONS OF INDIANS IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (05:10 PM)

• Dr. C V Raman

• He is known for an effect named after him i.e. Raman effect

• Raman effect is the inelastic scattering of photons after interaction with a molecular sample
thus the frequency of scattered light can increase or decrease compared to the original
frequency.

• Raman effect has applications in spectroscopy with the help of laser light which is called
"Laser Raman spectroscopy"

• Spectroscopy

• It involves analyzing detailed patterns of light that materials emit, absorbs, transmit, or
reflect.

• Different materials interact with different wavelengths in different ways which depends upon
material composition and temperature.

• Examples- Water inside the microwave oven boils very fast whereas the ceramic bowl does
not get affected.

• Glass is opaque for the infrared and transparent to visible light.

• Universe is expanding and this can be proved because of the Redshift phenomenon, which
means the original light's wavelength has increased as it is moving farther.

• Blue light is scattered most by the atmosphere which is why the sky appears blue.

• Raman spectroscopy

• Raman spectroscopy is a powerful technique because of various reasons

• a) It is non-destructive in nature

• b) It can provide information easily and quickly

• c) It is sensitive to small changes in material structure.

• d) It can work on a very small sample

• e) It is used to analyze living cells and tissues along with applications in various industries
such as chemicals, Pharma, and electronics among others.

•
• Dr Raman was awarded Nobel Prize for physics in 1930, and Bharat Ratna in 1954, and India
celebrates National science day on 28th February to commemorate the discovery of the
Raman effect.
 • Properties of Laser light

• Intensity is higher and Directional [Intensity= Energy per unit area per second] [* Normal
light expands when covers a distance but the Laser light remains directional].

• The laser can cut through Metal.

• Monochromaticity- Light of one frequency and one wavelength.

DR. SUBRAMANIUM CHANDRESEKHAR (05:43 PM)

• Dr Chandresekhar was an Indian American Astrophysicist who was awarded a 1983 Nobel
Prize for Physics for his theoretical studies regarding the structure and evolution of stars.

• He worked on theoretical models of the later evolutionary stages of massive stars

• Stellar cycle

•
• A Young star is formed in a region known as Nebulae which has all the required raw material
for stars to form. Stars remained brightened because of the Fusion of Hydrogen in Helium as
the Hydrogen gets exhausted it becomes a Red Giant where the outer layer expands and the
inner layer collapses. This can lead to more nuclear fusion of helium nuclei leading to a
White Dwarf star.

•
• Dr. Chandrasekhar hypothesized that in high-mass stars the core undergoes violent collapse
leading to a powerful explosion known as Supernova

• Depending on the mass of collapsing core it can result in a Neutron star or a Black hole. A
neutron star often spins very fast on its axis producing powerful beams of energy which are
called Pulsar

• Magnetars are very large neutron stars.

 • The black hole is a region where the escape velocity becomes more than the speed of light
hence even light can not escape.

• For a Supernova explosion to occur, Dr Chandresekhar gave a limit known as the

Chandrasekhar limit (More than 1.4 times the Mass of the Sun)

•
PROJECT EVENT HORIZON TELESCOPE (06:43 PM)

• The Event Horizon Telescope is an international collaboration capturing images of black holes
using a virtual Earth-sized telescope.

• A lot of particles swirling around the centre can be imaged

•
DR. SATYENDRA NATH BOSE (06:48 PM)

• Dr Bose was a theoretical physicist known for his work on a class of particles named after
him i.e. Bosons. He used quantum mechanical techniques to explain how a group of Identical
photons will behave. He sent this paper to Einstein who got it published in a research
journal. This led to the development of Bose-Einstein statistics. Any particle that follows this
rule is called Bosons.

• Einstein generalized the idea propounded by Bose and extended it to atoms. This led to the
prediction of a new state of matter (* 5th State) known as Bose-Einstein condensate). It
exists at very low temperatures i.e. close to absolute zero (-273.15 degrees celcius) where
most of the atoms occupy a single state.

• Bose-Einstein condensate (BECs) exhibit some amazing phenomena such as

Superconductivity, Superfluidity, and the speed of light reduces significantly in BECs.

• Superconductivity

• Superconductivity is a phenomenon where resistance becomes Zero thus we can store and
transport energy with zero loss.
 • Superconductors do not allow a magnetic field to exist inside them. This has many
applications, the most important being magnetic levitation or MagLev.

BASIC IDEAS ABOUT PARTICLE PHYSICS (07:20 PM)

• The most famous theory in particle physics is the standard model. It is a theory of
fundamental particles and how they interact.

•
• The basic building block of the universe comprises of

• 6 Leptons- Electrons, Muons, Tau, Electron Neutrino, Muon Neutrino, and Tau Neutrino

• And 6 quarks- Up, Down, Charm, Strange, Top, Bottom.

• These fundamental particles interact via three fundamental interactions

• a) Electromagnetic interaction

• b) Strong interaction

• c) Weak interaction

• Mediated by Bosons

• The standard model does not account for gravitational interaction

Fundamental Gravitational
Electromagnetic Strong Weak
Interactions interaction

Particles Quarks and

Mass Charged Quarks
affected Leptons

Mediating W and Z
Graviton Photons Gluons
particles bosons

Range Long range Long range Short range Short range

 Relative Most
Weakest (4) (2) (3)
strength powerful (1)

β-decay
Planets, stars, Nuclear
Role Atomic molecules reaction
Galaxies stability
inside stars

INDIAN NEUTRINO OBSERVATORY (07:53 PM)

• [* Positron- it is the anti-particle of the electron. Every fundamental particle has its anti-
particle]

•
• When these anti-particles combine together then they can form Anti-matter.

• Neutrinos

• These are elementary particles belonging to the Lepton family. There are three neutrinos
with zero charge and extremely low mass, and they only interact through weak interaction
and gravity.

• Neutrinos keep changing into each other as they travel. This is called Neutrino oscillation.
They are the second most abundant particle in the universe. For example- Billions of
Neutrinos cross us every second without any interactions.

• Indian neutrino observatory is an under-construction research facility in Bodi Hills, Theni

district, Tamilnadu. It will use an Iron calorimeter to detect both natural and artificial
neutrinos.

• [* Recently Muon was in the news, as Earth receives a lot of cosmic radiation from distant
stars and galaxies. These Muons penetrate through solid particles. This can be used to know
the interiors of the solid structure. Muon tomography was used to know the presence of
rooms inside the great pyramids.

• How many Muons are falling and how many are recorded, this pattern can be recorded by
the computer and the inside structure can be known]

The topic for the next class- Continuation of Particle Physics.

Summary

Science and Technology Class 18

A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS AND STRATEGY SESSION (05:06 PM)

PARTICLE PHYSICS- HIGGS BOSON or GOD PARTICLE (05:33 PM)

 • Peter Higgs explained why fundamental particles have different masses and some particles
are massless. He explained a mechanism named after him, if the Higgs mechanism is correct
then we should be able to find a particle known as Higgs Boson which was discovered in
2012 by a very famous experimental setup "Large Hadron Collider"

• LHC= It is a 27 km long circular tunnel where the same charged particles such as Proton
means are accelerated very close to the speed of light and collided. It is operated by CERN

•
CONTRIBUTION OF INDIAN SCIENTIST (05:45 PM)

• J C Bose

• He was a polymath, physicist, biologist, botanist, and archaeologist. He was the Father of
Open technology in India

• He started to write science fiction in India

• Dr. Vikram Sarabhai

• Dr. Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai was an Indian astrophysicist who is considered as the Father of
the Indian Space Program.

• He played a role in Satellite vision.

• He was instrumental in setting up of premier institutes and labs

• He also contributed to nuclear technology.

• Dr. Homi Jehangir Bhabha

• Bhabha is acknowledged as the father of Indian nuclear power.

• He envisaged the 3 staged nuclear programs to effectively utilize the thorium reserve of
India.

• Dr. A P J Kalam

• Satellite launch vehicle (SLV) was discovered under the leadership of Kalam.

• Thumba near Thiruvananthapuram- Dr. A P J Kalam was instrumental in setting up of this.

• Dr. Raja Ramanna

• Raja Ramanna was an Indian physicist who made significant contributions to nuclear science
and played a prominent role in India's nuclear program

• Dr. Hargobind Khurana

• He proved that genetic code consists of 64 different three-letter words, which told the cell
where to begin reading the code and where to stop.
 • He Discovered the structure of transfer-RNA, or tRNA (small RNA molecule that participates
in protein synthesis.

• He Contributed to the science of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests, used to detect
genetic material from a specific organism, like a virus.

•
• Contribution of women scientists

• Go through the handout provided in the class

GRAND UNIFIED THEORY AND THEORY OF EVERYTHING (06: 02 PM)

• A theory that can combine electromagnetic strong and weak interactions is called Grand
Unified theory.

• Nature at a larger scale can be explained by the General Theory of Relativity and at a very
smaller scale by Quantum Mechanics. A theory to combine both of them in one can be called
the theory of Everything. Such attempts have been futile. The most famous candidates are
String theory and Quantum loop gravity.

•
EINSTEIN'S THEORIES (06:15 PM)

• Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity, 1905

• It was developed by Einstein in 1905 which revolutionized our understanding of space, time,
and motion.

• According to Einstein, the speed of light in a vacuum is always the same regardless of the
frame of reference. This leads to interesting consequences

• a) Space and time are not separate entities. We live in a 4-dimensional structure called
Space-time where time is the 4th dimension.
 • b) Thus the notion of absolute length or Absolute time is not correct. Different observers
based on relative motion can measure the different lengths or different times for the same
object or same event.

• c) It also introduced the famous equation, E= MC2

• Einstein's general theory of Relativity, 1915

• The general theory of relativity was developed by Einstein in 1915. It is a theory of gravity
which provides a deeper understanding of how massive objects like planets and stars
influence the fabric of space-time.

•
• According to this theory, massive objects such as stars and Galaxies lead to curvature in
space-time (Warping), and what we think as an attractive force, Gravity is actually caused
because of the curvature of space-time. This has many consequences

• a) Bending of light around massive objects- Gravitational lensing

• It is a phenomenon in which light from a distant object is bent by the gravitational fields of
massive objects such as clusters of galaxies. This leads to an effect similar to a converging
lens, hence the name Gravitational lensing. It has applications in Astronomy.

•
• b) Time is affected by Gravity

• c) Black holes can exist

• d) Universe is expanding, which means if we extrapolate this expansion backward in time

then the universe originated from an incredibly hot and dense state known as the Big Bang.

• e) It also predicts the existence of Gravitational waves.

GRAVITATIONAL WAVES (07:15 PM)

 • Gravitational waves are ripples in the fabric of space-time caused by the acceleration of
movement of massive objects. For example- The merger of black holes, the Supernova
explosion, the Merger of neutron stars, and the black hole can create gravitational waves
which travel with the speed of light.

• Gravitational waves squeeze and stretch anything in their path as they pass by.

•
• LIGO (Laser interferometer Gravitational-wave observatory) is a scientific experiment
designed to detect gravitational waves. It consists of 2 L-shaped arms, 4 Km Long.

• With the help of laser beams, we can accurately measure this length, if a gravitational wave
passes through, it causes tiny changes in the length which can be detected in LIGO setup in
the USA.

• There are other observatories- VIRGO in Italy, Kagra in Japan, Geo 600 in Germany

• LIGO India is a proposed project in Hingoli district Maharashtra to be completed by 2030 and
Funded by DST (Department of Science and Technology) and DAE (Department of atomic
energy).

•
• There is another proposed set up by European Space Agency, e-LISA. This consists of three
spacecraft flying in a triangular configuration.

ROBOTICS (07:41 PM)

• Robotics is an interdisciplinary branch involving Mechanical Engineering, Electrical

Engineering, Computer science, and Material science among others.

• Robots are programmable machines that can be used for various objectives.
 • Robotics has many applications

• In Agriculture

• Farming in harsh terrain, difficult weather

• Use of drones in crop monitoring

• Using agricultural inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides

• Use as scarecrows

• In Manufacturing

• Jobs of assembly lines

• In Logistics

• Robots for warehouse management

• Drones for delivery

• In Space

• Exploring alien terrain

• In Defense and security

• Internal security, monitoring Naxal-affected areas

• External security

• In hazardous areas

• Manual scavenging, Mining, Nuclear waste management, Chemical waste management

• Fire squad, Bomb disposal squad

• Rescue from dangerous areas.

• Note- Blind opposition to Automation is not the way forward

• Note- Luddite movement- The Luddites were members of a 19th-century movement of

English textile workers who opposed the use of certain types of cost-saving machinery, often
by destroying the machines in clandestine raids.

• Way forward

• Job loss will be compensated with job creation but in the skilled sector so we need to work
on Skiiling, Reskilling, etc

• Social security measures.

Science and Technology Class is completed.