For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.

in
VI Contents

▶ Contents

2 Basics of mechatronics 165 Overview of the physical effects for sensors

2 Mechatronic systems and components 167 Overview and selection of sensor
4 Development methods technologies
6 Outlook
168 Sensor measuring principles
8 Architecture 168 Position sensors
8 Overview 195 Speed and rpm sensors
11 Vehicle system architecture 207 Acceleration sensors
212 Pressure sensors
18 Electronic control unit 215 Force and torque sensors
18 Operating conditions 224 Flowmeters
18 Design 230 Gas sensors and concentration sensors
18 Data processing 234 Temperature sensors
22 Digital modules in the control unit 244 Imaging sensors (video)
26 Control unit software
30 Software Development 246 Sensor types
246 Engine-speed sensors
44 Basic principles of networking 248 Hall phase sensors
44 Network topology 249 Speed sensors for transmission control
48 Network organization 252 Wheel-speed sensors
50 OSI reference model 256 Micromechanical yaw-rate sensors
52 Control mechanisms 259 Piezoelectric “tuning-fork” yaw-rate sensor
260 Micromechanical pressure sensors
56 Automotive networking 262 High-pressure sensors
56 Cross-system functions 263 Temperature sensors
57 Requirements for bus systems 264 Accelerator-pedal sensors
59 Classification of bus systems 266 Steering-angle sensors
59 Applications in the vehicle 268 Position sensors for transmission control
61 Coupling of networks 271 Axle sensors
61 Examples of networked vehicles 272 Hot-film air-mass meters
275 Piezoelectric knock sensors
70 Bus systems 276 SMM acceleration sensors
70 CAN bus 278 Micromechanical bulk silicon acceleration
84 LIN bus sensors
90 Bluetooth 279 Piezoelectric acceleration sensors
100 MOST bus 280 iBolt™ force sensor
111 TTP/C 282 Torque sensor
124 FlexRay 283 Rain/light sensor
136 Diagnosis interfaces 284 Two-step Lambda oxygen sensors
288 LSU4 planar wide-band lambda oxygen
144 Automotive sensors sensor
144 Basics and overview
147 Automotive applications 290 Electric Actuators
150 Details of the sensor market 290 Electromechanical actuators
151 Features of vehicle sensors 295 Fluid-mechanical actuators
152 Sensor classification 296 Electrical machines
154 Error types and tolerance requirements
155 Reliability 302 Electrohydraulic Actuators
158 Main requirements, trends 302 Application and Function

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in
Contents VII

302 Requirements 404 Hydraulic modulator

303 Design and Operating Concept 404 Development history
304 Actuator Types 405 Design
313 Simulations in Development 408 Pressure modulation

316 Electronic Transmission Control 412 Sensotronic brake control (SBC)

316 Drivetrain Management 412 Purpose and function
317 Market Trends 414 Design
318 Control of Automated Shift Transmission 414 Method of operation
AST
322 Control of Automatic Transmissions 416 Overview of common-rail systems
338 Control of Continuously Variable 416 Areas of application
Transmission 417 Design
340 ECUs for Electronic Transmission Control 418 Operating concept
347 Thermo-Management 422 Common-rail system for passenger cars
349 Processes and Tools Used in 427 Common-rail system for commercial
ECU Development vehicles

350 Modules for Transmission Control 430 High-pressure components of common-rail

350 Application system
351 Module Types 430 Overview
432 Injector
354 Antilock Braking System (ABS) 444 High-pressure pumps
354 System overview 450 Fuel rail (high-pressure accumulator)
356 Requirements placed on ABS 451 High-pressure sensors
357 Dynamics of a braked wheel 452 Pressure-control valve
358 ABS control loop 453 Pressure-relief valve
362 Typical control cycles
454 Electronic Diesel Control (EDC)
370 Traction Control System (TCS) 454 System overview
370 Tasks 456 Common-rail system for passenger cars
370 Function description 457 Common-rail system for commercial
372 Structure of traction control system (TCS) vehicles
373 Typical control situations 458 Data processing
374 Traction control system (TCS) for four 460 Fuel-injection control
wheel drive vehicles 468 Lambda closed-loop control for
passenger-car diesel engines
378 Electronic Stability Program (ESP) 473 Torque-controlled EDC systems
378 Requirements 476 Data exchange with other systems
379 Tasks and method of operation 477 Serial data transmission (CAN)
380 Maneuvers
388 Closed-loop control system and controlled 478 Active steering
variables 478 Purpose
478 Design
394 Automatic brake functions 480 Method of operation
394 Overview 481 Safety concept
396 Standard function 481 Benefits of active steering for the driver
398 Additional functions

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in
VIII Contents

482 Drive and adjustment systems 496 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) and
482 Power windows interference suppression
483 Power sunroofs 496 EMC ranges
484 Seat and steering column adjustment 497 EMC between different systems in the
vehicle
485 Heating, ventilation and air conditioning 504 EMC between the vehicle and its
485 Electronic heater control surroundings
485 Electronically controlled air conditioning 508 Guarantee of immunity and interference
system suppression

488 Vehicle security systems 510 Fault diagnostics

488 Acoustic signaling devices 510 Monitoring during vehicle operation
489 Central locking system (on-board diagnosis)
490 Locking systems 513 On-board diagnosis system for passenger
494 Biometric systems cars and light-duty trucks
520 On-board diagnosis system for heavy-duty
trucks

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in
Authors IX

 Authors

Basics of mechatronics Dipl.-Ing. Christian Gerhardt,

Dipl.-Ing. Hans-Martin Heinkel, Dipl.-Ing. Klaus Miekley,

Dr.-Ing. Klaus-­Georg Bürger. Dipl.-Ing. Roger Frehoff,

Dipl.-Ing. Martin Mast,

Architecture Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Bernhard Bauer,

Dr. phil. nat. Dieter Kraft, Dr. Michael Harder,

Dipl.-Ing. Stefan Mischo. Dr.-Ing. Klaus Kasten,

Dipl.-Ing. Peter Brenner, ZF Lenksysteme GmbH,

Electronic control units Schwäbisch Gmünd,

Dipl.-Ing. Martin Kaiser, Dipl.-Ing. Frank Wolf,

Dr. rer. nat. Ulrich ­Schaefer, Dr.-Ing. Johann ­Riegel.

Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Gerhard Haaf.

Electric Actuators
Basic principles of networking
Dr.-Ing. Rudolf Heinz,
Automotive networking
Dr.-Ing. Robert Schenk.
Bus systems
Dipl.-Ing. Stefan Mischo,
Electrohydraulic Actuators
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Stefan Powolny,
Electronic Transmission Control
Dipl.-Ing. Hanna Zündel,
Modules for Transmission Control
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Norbert Löchel,
Dipl.-Ing. D. Fornoff,
Dipl.-Inform. Jörn Stuphorn,
D. Grauman,
Universität Bielefeld,
E. Hendriks,
Dr. Rainer Constapel, Daimler AG Sindelfingen,
Dipl.-Ing. T. Laux,
Dipl.-Ing. Peter Häussermann,
Dipl.-Ing. T. Müller,
Daimler AG Sindelfingen,
Dipl.-Ing. A. Schreiber,
Dr. rer. nat. Alexander Leonhardi,
Dipl.-Ing. S. Schumacher,
Daimler AG Sindelfingen,
Dipl.-Ing. W. Stroh.
Dipl.-Inform. Heiko Holtkamp,
Universität Bielefeld.
Antilock Braking System (ABS)
Traction Control System (TCS)
Automotive sensors
Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Sensor measuring principles
Automatic brake functions
Sensor types
Hydraulic modulator
Dr.-Ing. Erich Zabler,
Dipl.-Ing. Friedrich Kost
Dr. rer. nat. Stefan Fink­beiner,
(Basic Principles of Vehicle Dynamics),
Dr. rer. nat. Wolfgang Welsch,
Dipl.-Ing. Heinz-Jürgen Koch-Dücker
Dr. rer. nat. Hartmut Kittel,
(Antilock Braking Systems, ABS),
Dr. rer. nat. Christian Bauer,
Dr.-Ing. Frank Niewels and
Dipl.-Ing. Günter Noetzel,
Dipl.-Ing. Jürgen Schuh
Dr.-Ing. Harald Emmerich,
(Traction Control Systems, TCS),
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Gerald Hopf,
Dipl.-Ing. Thomas Ehret
Dr.-Ing. Uwe Konzelmann,
(Electronic Stability Program, ESP),
Dr. rer. nat. Thomas Wahl,
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Jochen Wagner
Dr.-Ing. Reinhard Neul,
(Automatic Brake Functions),
Dr.-Ing. Wolfgang-Michael Müller,
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Ulrich Papert
Dr.-Ing. Claus Bischoff,
(Wheel-Speed Sensors),
Dr. Christian Pfahler,
Dr.-Ing. Frank Heinen and
Dipl.-Ing. Peter Weiberle,
Peter Eberspächer
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Ulrich Papert,

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in
X Authors

Sensotronic brake control (SBC) Active steering

Dipl.-Ing. Bernhard Kant. Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Wolfgang Rieger,
ZF Lenksysteme, Schwäbisch Gmünd.
Overview of common-rail systems
High-pressure components of common-rail Drive and adjustment systems
system Dipl.-Ing. Rainer Kurzmann,
Electronic Diesel Control (EDC) Dr.-Ing. Günter Hartz.
Dipl.-Ing. Felix Landhäußer,
Dr.-Ing. Ulrich Projahn, Heating, ventilation and air conditioning
Dipl.-Inform. Michael Heinzelmann, Dipl.-Ing. Gebhard Schweizer,
Dr.-Ing. Ralf Wirth Behr GmbH & Co., Stuttgart.
(Common-rail system),
Ing. grad. Peter Schelhas, Vehicle security systems
Dipl.-Ing. Klaus Ortner Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Jürgen Bowe,
(Fuel-supply pumps), Andreas Walther,
Dipl.-Betriebsw. Meike Keller Dr.-Ing. B. Kordowski,
(Fuel filters), Dr.-Ing. Jan Lichtermann.
Dipl.-Ing. Sandro Soccol,
Dipl.-Ing. Werner Brühmann Electromagnetic compatibility
(High-pressure pumps), Dr.-Ing. Wolfgang Pfaff.
Ing. Herbert Strahberger,
Ing. Helmut Sattmann Fault diagnostics
(Fuel rail and add-on components), Dr.-Ing. Matthias Knirsch,
Dipl.-Ing. Thilo Klam, Dipl.-Ing. Bernd Kesch,
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Andreas Rettich, Dr.-Ing. Matthias Tappe,
Dr. techn. David Holzer, Dr,-Ing. Günter Driedger,
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Andreas Koch Dr. rer. nat. Walter Lehle.
(Solenoid-valve injectors),
Dr.-Ing. Patrick Mattes and the editorial team in cooperation with the
(Piezo-inline injectors), responsible in-house specialist departments of
Dipl.-Ing. Thomas Kügler Robert Bosch GmbH.
(Injection nozzles),
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Mikel Lorente Susaeta, Unless otherwise stated, the authors are all
Dipl.-Ing. Martin Grosser, employees of Robert Bosch GmbH.
Dr.-Ing. Andreas Michalske
(Electronic diesel control),
Dr.-Ing. Günter Driedger,
Dr. rer. nat. Walter Lehle,
Dipl.-Ing. Wolfgang Schauer,
Rainer Heinzmann
(Diagnostics).

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in

Basics

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in
2 Basics of mechatronics Mechatronic systems and components

#BTJDT
PG
NFDIBUSPOJDT

The term “mechatronics” came about as Mechatronic systems

a made-up word from mechanics and and components
electronics, where electronics means
“hardware” and “software”, and mechan- Applications
ics is the generic term for the disciplines Mechatronic systems and components are
of “mechanical engineering” and “hy- now present throughout almost the entire
draulics”. It is not a question of replacing vehicle: starting with engine-management
mechanical engineering by “electronifi- systems and injection systems for gasoline
cation”, but of a synergistic approach and diesel engines to transmission control
and design methodology. The aim is to systems, electrical and thermal energy
achieve a synergistic optimization of me- management systems, through to a wide
chanical engineering, electronic hard- variety of brake and driving dynamics sys-
ware and software in order to project tems. It even includes communication and
more functions at lower cost, less weight information systems, with many different
and installation space, and better quality. requirements when it comes to operability.
The successful use of mechatronics in a Besides systems and components, mecha-
problem solution is dependent upon an tronics are also playing an increasingly
overall examination of disciplines that vital role in the field of micromechanics.
were previously kept separate.
Examples at system level
A general trend is emerging in the further
development of systems for fully automatic
vehicle handling and steering: more and
more mechanical systems will be replaced
by “X-by-wire” systems in future.

1 Mechatronic system

Environment

Forces, travel, etc. Forces, travel, etc.

Basic system
(mostly mechanical)

Auxiliary
power

Actuator Sensor
engineering technology

Correcting Measured
variables variables
Reference
Feedback Processor variables
UAE1035E

K. Reif (Ed.), Automotive Mechatronics, Bosch Professional Automotive Information,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03975-2_1, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2015
For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in
For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in
Basics of mechatronics Mechatronic systems and components 3

A system that was implemented long ago is Examples at component level

the “Drive-by-wire” system, i.e. electronic Fuel injectors are crucial components in
throttle control. determining the future potential of Diesel-
engine technology. Common-rail injectors
“Brake-by-wire” replaces the hydrome- are an excellent example of the fact that an
chanical connection between the brake extremely high degree of functionality
pedal and the wheel brake. Sensors record and, ultimately, customer utility can only
the driver’s braking request and transmit be achieved by controlling all the physical
this information to an electronic control domains (electrodynamics, mechanical en-
unit. The unit then generates the required gineering, fluid dynamics) to which these
braking effect at the wheels by means of components are subjected.
actuators.
One implementation option for In-vehicle CD drives are exposed to partic-
“Brake-by-wire” is the electrohydraulic ularly tough conditions. Apart from wide
brake (SBC, Sensotronic Brake Control). temperature ranges, they must in particu-
When the brake is operated or in the event lar withstand vibrations that have a critical
of brake stabilization intervention by the impact on such precision-engineered sys-
electronic stability program (ESP), the SBC tems.
electronic control unit calculates the re- In order to keep vehicle vibration away
quired brake pressure setpoints at the in- from the actual player during mobile de-
dividual wheels. Since the unit calculates ployment, the drives normally have a
the required braking pressures separately spring damping system. Considerations
for each wheel and collects the actual val- about reducing the weight and installation
ues separately, it can also regulate the space of CD drives immediately raise ques-
brake pressure to each wheel via the tions concerning these spring-damper sys-
wheel-pressure modulators. The four tems. In CD drives without a damper sys-
pressure modulators each consist of an tem, the emphasis is on designing a me-
inlet and an outlet valve controlled by chanical system with zero clearances and
electronic output stages which together producing additional reinforcement for
produce a finely metered pressure reg- the focus and tracking controllers at high
ulation. frequencies.
Only by combining both measures
Pressure generation and injection are mechatronically is it possible to achieve
decoupled in the Common Rail System. good vibration resistance in driving
A high-pressure rail, i.e. the common rail, mode. As well as reducing the weight by
serves as a high-pressure accumulator, approx. 15 %, the overall height is also
constantly providing the fuel pressure re- reduced by approx. 20 %.
quired for each of the engine’s operating
states. A solenoid-controlled injector with The new mechatronic system for electri-
a built-in injection nozzle injects fuel di- cally operated refrigerant motors is based
rectly into the combustion chamber for on brushless, electronically commutated
each cylinder. The engine electronics re- DC motors (BLDC’s). Initially, they are
quest data on accelerator pedal position, more expensive (motor with electronics)
rotational speed, operating temperature, than previous DC motors equipped with
fresh-air intake flow, and rail pressure in brushes. However, the overall optimization
order to optimize the control of fuel me- approach brings benefits: BLDC motors
tering as a function of the operating condi- can be used as “wet rotors” with a much
tions. simpler design. The number of separate
parts is therefore reduced by approx. 60 %.

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in
4 Basics of mechatronics Mechatronic systems and components

In terms of comparable cost, this more Development methods

robust design doubles the service life,
reduces the weight by almost half and Simulation
reduces the overall length by approx. 40 %. The special challenges that designers face
when developing mechatronic systems are
Examples in the field of micromechanics the ever shorter development times and
Another application for mechatronics is the increasing complexity of the systems.
the area of micromechanical sensor sys- At the same time, it is vital to ensure that
tems, with noteworthy examples such as the developments will result in useful
hot-film air-mass meters and yaw-rate products.
sensors.
Because the subsystems are so closely Complex mechatronic systems consist of
coupled, microsystems design also re- a large number of components from differ-
quires an interdisciplinary procedure that ent physical domains: hydraulic compo-
takes the individual disciplines of mechan- nents, mechanical components and elec-
ical components, electrostatics and possi- tronic components. The interaction be-
bly fluid dynamics and electronics into tween these domains is a decisive factor
consideration. governing the function and performance
of the overall system. Simulation models
are required to review key design deci-
sions, especially in the early development
stages when there is no prototype avail-
able.

2 Model library for a micromechanical yaw-rate sensor

Microsystem

Mechanical Electro-
components mechanical
components

Rigid Elastic Comb-like Detection

bodies bodies structures electrodes

From From Bending Segment Undivided Divided From From

UAE0942-1E

segments segments beams of a circle stator comb stator comb segments segments
of a circle of a rectangle of a circle of a rectangle

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in
Basics of mechatronics Development methods 5

Basic issues can often be clarified by pro- However, an analysis of the typical compo-
ducing relatively simple models of the nents in mechatronic systems shows that
components. If more detail is required, they can be composed of a few simple ele-
more refined component models are ments specific to the domains. These stan-
needed. The detailed models focus mainly dard elements are, for example:
on a specific physical domain: • In the hydraulic system: throttle, valve
• This means that detailed hydraulic mod- or electric line
els of common rail injectors are avail- • In the electronic system: resistor, capac-
able, for example. These can be simu- itor or transistor
lated using special programs with nu- • In the mechanical system: ground with
meric calculation methods that are friction, transmission or clutch (or the
exactly tailored to hydraulic systems. equivalent for micromechanics)
Cavitation phenomena have to be taken
into consideration, among other things. The preferable solution is that these ele-
• Detailed models are also needed to de- ments should be stored in a central stan-
sign the power electronics that trigger dard model library that is also decentrally
the injector. Again, this involves the use accessible to product development. The
of simulation tools which must be devel- essence of the standard model library is
oped specifically to design electronic a documentation of all the standard ele-
circuits. ments. For each element, this comprises:
The development and simulation of the Description of physical behavior in
software that controls the high-pressure words
pump and the power electronics in the The physical equations, parameters
control unit with the aid of the sensor (e.g. conductivity or permeability),
signals also takes place using tools that state variables (e.g. current, voltage,
are specially designed for this area of magnetic flux, pressure) and
the overall system. The description of the associated inter-
faces
As the components in the overall system
interact with each other, it is not sufficient In addition, a major part of the environ-
to consider specific detailed models of the ment is a reference model written in a
components in isolation. The optimum so- modeling language that is independent
lution is also to take into account the mod- of the tool. Overall, the library includes
els of other system components. In most reference models from the mechanical,
cases, these components can be repre- hydraulic, electronic, electrodynamic
sented by simpler models. For example, and software areas.
the system simulation that is focussed on
the hydraulic components only requires
a simple model of the power electronics.

The application of various domain-specific

simulation tools during the development
of mechatronic systems is only efficient if
there is some sort of support for exchang-
ing models and parameters between the
simulation tools. The direct exchange of
models is highly problematic due to the
specific languages used for describing the
models of each of the tools.

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in
6 Basics of mechatronics Development methods

V model depending on the technologies applied, for

The dependencies of the different product each of the associated domains (mechani-
development phases are illustrated in the cal engineering, hydraulics, fluid dynam-
“V model”: from requirement analysis to ics, electrics, electronics, and software).
development, implementation, testing and
system deployment. A project passes Recursions at each of the design levels
through three “top-down” levels during shorten the development stages signifi-
the development stage: cantly. Simulations, rapid prototyping, and
• Customer-specific functions simultaneous engineering are tools that al-
• Systems and low rapid verification, and they create the
• Components conditions for shortening product cycles.

A requirements specification (what) must Outlook

first be produced at each level in the form
of specifications. This results in the design The major driving force behind mecha-
specification, which is drawn up on the ba- tronics is continuous progress in the field
sis of design decisions (the actual creative of microelectronics. Mechatronics benefits
engineering work). The performance spec- from computer technology in the form of
ifications describe how a requirement can ever more powerful integrated computers
be met. The performance specs form the in standard applications. Accordingly,
basis for a model description which allows there is a huge potential for further in-
a review (i.e. validation) of the correctness creases in safety and convenience in
of each design stage together with previ- motor vehicles, accompanied by further
ously defined test cases. This procedure reductions in exhaust emissions and fuel
passes through each of three stages, and, consumption. On the other hand, new

3 Recursion method at one level

Deve

Requirement
specification (what) Tool-supported
test-case creation
lopm

Specifications Validation,
feasibility
ent p

Design decisions
(”creative engineering
work”)
roces

Model,
Test cases
prototype
s

(Virtual)
sample

Performance
specifications
Design
UAE0943-1E

specification (how)

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in
Basics of mechatronics Outlook 7

challenges are emerging with regard to The design approaches of mechatronic

the technical mastery of these systems. systems should strive toward continuity
However, future “X-by-wire” systems in several aspects:
without the mechanical/hydraulic fall- • Vertical:

back level must also provide the pre- “Top-down” from system simulation,
scribed functionality in the event of a with the objective of overall optimiza-
problem. The condition for their imple- tion, through to finite element simula-
mentation is a high-reliability and high- tion to achieve a detailed understanding,
availability mechatronic architecture and “bottom-up” design engineering
which requires a “simple” proof of safety. from component testing through to
This affects both single components as system testing
well as energy and signal transmissions. • Horizontal:

“Simultaneous engineering” across

As well as “X-by-wire” systems, driver-as- several disciplines in order to deal with
sistance systems and the associated man/ all product-related aspects at the same
machine interfaces represent another area time
in which the consistent implementation of • Beyond company boundaries:

mechatronic systems could achieve signifi- Step by step, the idea a “virtual sample”
cant progress for both users and vehicle is nearing our grasp
manufacturers.
Another challenge is training in order to
further an interdisciplinary mindset and
develop suitable SE processes and forms
of organization and communication.

4 V-model general overview

Product
Develo

Customer
n
Functio

wishes
Validation Test
Requirement
analysis Acceptance test
pment

Model Test
cases

System
requirement
proces

specifications
Validation Test
System

System design System test

Model, Test
System target prototype cases
s

specifications

Component
requirement
specifications
Validation Test
nts

Component design, Component test

development Model, Test
ne

prototypes cases
Compo

Component
UAE0944-1E

target
specifications

Component manufacture

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in
8 Architecture Overview

"SDIJUFDUVSF

Over the last three decades, tremendous Overview

progress has been made in automotive
engineering. Modern injection and ex- History
haust-gas treatment systems drastically The on-board electrical network of a car
reduced pollutants in the exhaust gas, around the year 1950 comprised approx.
while occupant-protection and vehicle 40 lines. Essentially, cables were only re-
stabilization systems improved safety quired for the battery, starter, ignition and
on the road. Much of this success is due the lighting and signaling systems.
to the introduction of electronically-con- With the first electronic injection and
trolled systems. The proportion of these ignition systems, cabling complexity began
systems used in cars increased continu- to increase fast. Sensors fitted in the en-
ously. The requirements of safety and gine compartment (e.g. speed sensor,
environmental compatibility, but also engine-temperature sensor) had to deliver
the demand for comfort and convenience signals to the engine control unit, while
functions, will increase yet further and the fuel injectors required their triggering
this will in no small part be achieved signals from the electronic control unit.
through the use of electronics. Up to A further increase in cabling complexity
around 90 % of innovations in the motor resulted from the introduction and rapid
vehicle will be realized by electronics widespread adoption of the antilock brake
and microprocessor-controlled systems. system (ABS). Meanwhile, comfort and
The networking of these electronics cre- convenience systems, e.g. electrical power-
ates the prerequisite for having this wide window units, would also form part of the
variety of electronic systems integrated standard equipment. All these systems re-
within the complete vehicle system to quire additional connecting lines for the
form a whole. However, this results in connection of sensors, control elements
a complexity that can only be overcome and actuators to the control unit.
at considerable expense.

1 Proportion of electrics/electronics in the motor vehicle

Automobile 2000 Automobile 2010

100%
Electronics Electronics Electronics Electronics Electronics Electronics
80%
Hydraulics Pneumatics
Hydraulics Electronics Hydraulics Elec- Elec-
60% Pneumatics Hydraulics tronics tronics

40%
Mechanics Mechanics Mechanics
Mechanics Mechanics Mechanics
20% Mecha- Mecha-
Mechanics
nics nics
0%
40% 30% 22% 8% 30% 30% 25% 7% 8%
Driving Safety Con- Info- Driving Safety Con- Info- Commun-
and braking venience tainment and braking venience tainment ication/
navigation
Fig. 1
SVA0032E

Source:
Proportion of electrics/electronics, Proportion of electronics,
approx. 22% approx. 35%
Mercer management
consulting

K. Reif (Ed.), Automotive Mechatronics, Bosch Professional Automotive Information,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03975-2_2, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2015
For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in
For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in
Architecture Overview 9

Technology of the present day shorten, the airbag and seat-belt preten-
In the 1990s the cabling work in a luxury sioners are set to emergency standby.
class vehicle amounted to around 3 km. The communication between the elec-
This figure clearly demonstrates how tronic control units cannot take more than
complex the vehicle system has become. fractions of a second. The more electronic
The growth of the proportion of electron- control units interact in the one complete
ics in the motor vehicle (Fig. 1) can mainly system, the more difficult it becomes for
be attributed to the growth in microelec- them to communicate undisturbed.
tronics and sensor technology. With the number of electronic control
At first, many of the new systems were units and the associated need for mutual
integrated into the vehicle by means of communication, the costs of developing
their own dedicated electronic control the systems rose as did the adaptation
unit. For the most part, the individual costs for making interfaces compatible.
electronic control units operated in mutual With the CAN bus (Controller Area Net-
independence. All the same, connecting work) developed by Bosch, a powerful and
lines became increasingly necessary be- widely used data bus system has become
tween electronic control units to enable commonplace in vehicles for the first time.
the exchange of data by means of PWM The data line of the CAN bus makes it pos-
signals, for example. Depending on the sible for the electronic control units to
vehicle class, there are between 20 and exchange specific and relevant items of
80 electronic control units fitted in today’s information with each other. At the start,
vehicles. They control such equipment as the network only comprised a few elec-
the engine, antilock brake system or the tronic control units, such as the engine-
airbags. The number of microcontrollers management system, the electronic stabil-
in the vehicle has therefore risen continu- ity program and the transmission control.
ously in recent years (Fig. 2). Gradually, further systems would expand
The components of the individual sys- this network, especially in the areas of
tems are optimally matched to each other. comfort and convenience and infotain-
The systems may originate from different ment. The CAN bus has gradually evolved
manufacturers that use previously agreed, into the standard for networking systems
albeit still their own, interfaces. The rain in the motor vehicle. Today it is the stan-
sensor, for example, “speaks” in a different dard for communication between elec-
way to the sensors for the engine manage-
ment. The following example demon- 2 Number of microcontrollers in the motor vehicle

strates just how networked the functions

150
in a modern vehicle are: the radar sensor 140
of the adaptive cruise control system 130
(ACC) measures the distance to the vehicle 120
Number of microcontrollers

110
traveling in front. If this distance is shorter
100
than a specified minimum distance, the 90
ACC electronic control unit sends this in- 80
formation to the engine management, the 70
60
ESP electronic control unit and the airbag
50
electronic control unit. The engine man- 40
agement reduces torque and thus driving 30
speed. If this is not sufficient, the elec- 20
SVA0033E

10
tronic stability program (ESP) must also
0
generate brake pressure to decelerate 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
the vehicle. If the distance continues to

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in
10 Architecture Overview

tronic control units within different areas objectives simultaneously, development

of the electronics (drivetrain, suspension, partners are more frequently tapping into
body electronics and infotainment) and resources that are already available in sub-
forms a powerful backbone for networking systems. These can be sensors or actuators
these areas with each other. Additional bus as well as realized functions that are avail-
systems (e.g. LIN bus, MOST bus) are used able to different systems over the commu-
as subbuses or for transmitting at high nications network. For new systems and
data rates with comparatively low realtime functions, manufacturers strive to get by
requirements in the motor vehicle. on a minimum of additional resources.
In the meantime, engineers are faced with
Development trends a new challenge in the form of "networked"
The proportion of electrics and electronics thinking and subsystem integration, espe-
in the motor vehicle will continue to in- cially when the assemblies for the subsys-
crease. In the drivetrain, the number of tems originate from different development
components in the exhaust line (e.g. ex- partners (suppliers).
haust-gas sensors) is increasing due to Complaints in the field (i.e. with series-
stricter exhaust-emissions legislation. production vehicles) due to electrical or
While the demands for reductions in fuel electronic failures could be the conse-
consumption can, for example, be fulfilled quence of not having taken the interac-
by means of new valve-gear concepts, even tions of the subsystems into consideration.
this requires additional electronic compo- The causes – unmanageable behavior of
nents. A further increase in the proportion functionality spread among networked
of electronics results mainly from the systems, and their integration – are avoid-
growth of electronic systems in the areas able through the logical application of cer-
of safety, comfort and convenience, and tified development processes as early as
infotainment. in the specification phase. Furthermore,
modeling and tools for authoring a formal
Objectives description of architectures are gaining
Drivers demand a high level of reliability ever more in importance.
from a car. The vehicle manufacturer and
the supplier of assemblies, meanwhile, Broadened requirements for a complete
are constrained by other requirements motor vehicle system in the future are
such as minimization of manufacturing leading to increased networking of vehicle
costs, space restrictions and the weight components and subsystems. In this re-
of components. An opportunity to fulfill gard, new functions are being developed
these requirements in the face of the in- that go beyond the frontiers of traditional
creasing complexity of the “vehicle” sys- applications – and this is without addi-
tem is seen in the shift of the traditional tional expenditure on hardware wherever
implementation technologies of mechan- possible.
ics, hydraulics and electrics towards New development methods and technol-
microprocessor-controlled, electronic ogies are required to make this achievable.
systems. For this reason, the development With a top-down approach, new functions
of software will continue to gain in impor- are viewed from the perspective of the
tance in future. complete vehicle. This means that, in ac-
The current situation in the electrical cordance with the method of systems engi-
and electronic architecture of motor vehi- neering, functional requirements and non-
cles is characterized by an increase in functional requirements (e.g. quality ob-
functionality and an increasingly strained jectives, safety, costs, etc.) are set for the
costs situation. To achieve both of these vehicle as a whole and derived as specifi-

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in
Architecture Overview 11

cations for the subordinate subsystems. Vehicle system architecture

These requirements are formulated as a
model and can thus be used as a specifica- Architecture
tion for the subsystems and the creation The architecture of a system represents
of test cases. This is what is known as an its “construction plan”. It describes the
“executable specification”, which makes structural and dynamic system character-
it possible to prove the completeness and istics as a whole. The architecture is usu-
the traceability of the requirements, for ally specified in a description language.
example, or to identify the requirements Special draft mechanisms are used for
for interaction and communication be- specific requirements. With architecture
tween subsystems. In this way, it is possi- being a construction plan for different
ble to form an optimized architecture for realization technologies and a means of
the complete vehicle and its subsystems proving that functional and nonfunctional
and components. The functional relation- requirements have been fulfilled in the
ships between the complete motor vehicle system draft, different views of the system
system and the subordinate subsystems architecture are required. Examples of this
can be surveyed in different levels of detail include:
and suitable interfaces can be defined for • Hardware architecture
the functions. This approach supports an • Software architecture
expanding networking of functions. Syner- • Network architecture in the area of real-
gies are exploited between vehicle areas ization technologies
(domains such as the drivetrain, interior, • Cost and resource consumption in the
infotainment) that were hitherto consid- area of economical analysis and
ered in isolation and resources are spared. • For the area of social requirements,
As an element of the development pro- aspects such as safety, availability and
cess that works in the opposite direction, legal conformity
the generation of new functions from avail-
able resources and existing systems (bot- The problems that arise in the integration
tom up) should also be taken into consid- of differently structured subsystems can
eration to minimize innovation risks. be reduced by means of an architecture.
This is how new functions are integrated
into existing systems, for example. Exam- Functional structure
ples of this approach are measures to avert The domain of vehicle motion has the task
the consequences of an accident by “pre- of ensuring the controlled movement of
paring” subsystems for an imminent crash the vehicle as well as its directional stabil-
(closing windows, closing the sliding sun- ity. This task can be subdivided into vari-
roof, activating the airbag, etc.) or the as- ous levels (Fig. 3).
sistance of the driver in emergency brak- The navigation level is home to the plan-
ing situations in ESP in future. In this way, ning tools for the driving route. These are
it is possible to reduce the number of elec- merely informational in nature and have
tronic control units and counteract rising no interventional influence on vehicle
system costs. motion.
The development process described At vehicle guidance level, the decisions
characterizes the CARTRONIC® concept of the driver are implemented by means of
that Bosch developed in the 1980s. the steering wheel and accelerator pedal
The results of this concept are being but also various assistance systems for ve-
incorporated into the Autosar Initiative hicle handling (e.g. ACC, course stability
(see Autosar Initiative)

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in
12 Architecture Vehicle system architecture

systems). At this level, the driver is able functional component represents the tasks
to overrule the assistance systems at any of the navigation level, which are to inform
time. the driver of the driving route determined
At the stability level, there are the sub- by means of a mapping system (Fig. 3).
systems that are able to correct the deci- Vehicle guidance represents the guidance
sions taken at handling level if these hap- level, and stability intervention the tasks
pen to be outside the range of safe refer- of the stabilization level. The vehicle mo-
ence variables (e.g. ABS, ESP). This may tion coordinator determines the correcting
be the case when cornering or on wet road variables for the actuators, e.g. of the
surfaces, for example. drive and electronic stability program
At stabilization level, correcting vari- (ESP), from the information input by
ables for implementation by the vehicle’s vehicle guidance and stability interven-
actuators are determined. Information tion.
about the environment (e.g. road condi- Figure 4 shows how the functional com-
tion, air temperature, rain sensor signal) ponents of guidance level, stabilization
is still required at the various levels for level and vehicle actuators are related in
the implementation of the relevant tasks. a hierarchical structure within vehicle
These tasks can be assigned to func- motion. Communication relationships
tional components, which are the architec- between the components and interactions
tural elements of the functional architec- with other domains, e.g. body and interior,
ture. In this way, the driver information are also featured in the model.

3 Levels in the vehicle motion domain

Environment Driving and assistance

systems
Navigation level
Road network
Driver information

Calculated distance

Road layout Guidance level

Traffic regulations
Vehicle guidance

Vehicle guidance data Vehicle

Road conditions
Stability level Actuators
Vehicle condition
Vehicle motion $
ive
coordinator
$
e
$
ing
View Stability
Weather conditions intervention $

SVA0034E

Vehicle motion

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in
13
Architecture Vehicle system architecture

In the same way as Vehicle motion is Systematic creation of EE system

refined, these functional components architectures
require further detailing until the refined The increasing amount of networking in
components represent manageable, traditional vehicle domains for the realiza-
clearly delimited tasks that make flexible, tion of new functions can be illustrated
modular implementation possible through using the ACC (Adaptive Cruise Control)
different realization technologies. Defined driver-assistance system as an example.
interfaces between the components enable Adaptive, same-lane driving is made possi-
communication and the exchange of data. ble by the networking of a combined
For example, the transmission control cruise and distance control system with
issues a request through the engine-man- the engine-management system, brake sys-
agement system for a specific reduction tem, transmission and cockpit. Here, sub-
in torque during a gearshift. This value is systems from the drivetrain, chassis and
exchanged as a physical variable via the infotainment (interaction with the driver)
interface. domains are used to realize the new func-
With its integration into a suitable pro- tion with minimal cost.
cedural model, the functional structure is The decision as to whether a function
the starting point for subsequent stages in (e.g. ACC) is realized in a dedicated logic
the development process. close to the sensor or in one of the exist-
ing, subscriber electronic control units
has no bearing on the function itself.

4 Example of a functional structure for the vehicle motion domain

Vehicle motion
Vehicle guidance

Acceleration
requirement

Steering angle

Vehicle motion coordinator

Brake torque
Drive torque Steering angle
Steering angle

Drive Brake Steering Chassis Stability intervention

Stop lamp
SVA0035E

Body, interior

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in
14 Architecture Vehicle system architecture

Rather, the decision is affected by non- ization stages. This required a decoupled
functional requirements such as safety, development process and the exploitation
availability, costs or resource availability. of synergies between subsystems. The de-
In addition to the functional requirements, velopment frameworks took into consider-
these requirements mainly determine how ation the dependencies and interface con-
the function is realized. The “how” is de- tents within the individual domains and
scribed by the architecture of the system. with the rest of the vehicle, as is the case
Different requirements result in different with a networked system such as ACC,
system architectures. for example.

CARTRONIC® concept Bosch introduced this concept to the Auto-

With the CARTRONIC® architecture con- sar Initiative (Workpackage 10.x).
cept, all closed and open-loop control
tasks in the vehicle have been structured Software architecture
in accordance with logical, functional The independence of the functional struc-
viewpoints and modeled in the form of ture, or architecture, from the later real-
a functional architecture. Delimited func- ization stage results in a decoupling of
tions (and their dependencies) that imple- functionality and technology and thus
ment specific functional requirements forms the first stage of a model-based
have been represented by defined archi- development process. The functional
tectural elements. The functional struc- structure can be used on several occasions
ture, i.e. the structural description, repre- and expanded as the foundation for draft-
sented a hierarchical decomposition of ing system architectures. This architecture
the subsystems down to manageable size. is characterized by architecture drivers
Interactions between elements of the func- (specific criteria of the architecture) that
tional structure have been described by are essentially the product of nonfunc-
communication relationships. Since the tional requirements (e.g. costs, quality,
use of the architecture concept could have reusability, relocatability).
led to different functional structures, Further precision of the development
it was essential to reach agreement on frameworks devised from the functional
the tasks and interfaces. It was necessary structure, and of their interfaces in partic-
to choose interfaces that were based on ular, is required if it is to be possible to
physical variables and thus supported evaluate an electronic control unit for the
aspects such as reusability and inter- relocatability of functions and the integra-
changeability. tion of software, which is a contribution
of various participants in the project.
The motor vehicle system with all its open While retaining the realization-indepen-
and closed-loop tasks was dismantled into dent information from the functional
subsystems that implement clearly defined structure – such as an agreed torque inter-
tasks. These subsystems include the en- face – the frameworks are supplemented
gine management, brake system, transmis- by realization-specific information such
sion control, ACC, lighting management, as data type, quantization, runtime prop-
etc. Different levels of functional structure erties or resource requirements.
detail can be assigned to the system and
subsystem levels (Fig. 5). It was therefore In the same way as hardware and disci-
possible to create development frame- plines such as mechanics or hydraulics,
works for selected functional components software can also be classified as a realiza-
and component groups on which to base tion technology. Product-line or platform
implementation in the form of partial real- approaches have long been a familiar

For More Visit:www.LearnEngineering.in