Engineering Physics

Gunanidhi Lamsal
Lecturer in Physics
 Contents

S.N. Chapter Page no.

1 Oscillation 3

2 Acoustics 19

3 Heat and Thermodynamics 24

4(a) Interference 34

4(b) Diffraction 42

4(c) Polarization 52

4(d) Lens System 60

4(e) Laser & Optical Fiber 66

5(a) Electric Force and Field 69

5(b) Capacitor 81

6 Electromagnetism 88

7 Electromagnetic Waves 102

8 Photon and Matter Wave 106

2
 Mechanics
Chapter 1: Oscillation
Acceleration, a=-𝜔02 𝑥

Restoring Force, F= -k𝑥

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑘
Differential equation of SHM, +𝜔02 𝑥 =0 where 𝜔0 =√ is angular frequency
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚

Displacement, 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝜔0 𝑡 ± 𝜙)

Velocity 𝑣 = ± 𝜔0 √𝐴2 − 𝑥 2

𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ± 𝜔0 A at 𝑥 = 0 i.e. at mean position

𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0 at 𝑥 = ±𝐴 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

Acceleration 𝑎 = − 𝜔0 2 𝑥

𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ± 𝜔0 2 𝐴 at 𝑥 = ±𝐴 i.e. at extreme positions

𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0 at 𝑥 = 0 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2𝜋 1
Time period 𝑇 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
= 𝜔0
=𝑓

1 1
K.E. = mv2 = m 𝜔0 2 (𝐴2 − 𝑥 2 ) ( ∵ v=± 𝜔0 √𝐴2 − 𝑥 2 )
2 2

1 1 𝑘
P.E.= 2 k𝑥 2 = 2 m 𝜔0 2 𝑥 2 (∵ 𝜔0 =√𝑚)

1 1 1
Total mechanical energy E= K.E. +P.E. = m 𝜔0 2 (𝐴2 − 𝑥 2 ) + m 𝜔0 2 𝑥 2 = m 𝜔0 2 𝐴2
2 2 2

𝑙 2+𝐾 2 𝑙+𝑘 2/𝑙 𝐿

Time period of bar pendulum 𝑇 = 2𝜋 √ 𝑔𝑙
= 2𝜋 √ 𝑔
= 2𝜋 √𝑔

𝐿 = 𝑙 + 𝑘 2 /𝑙 is equivalent length of simple pendulum.

Radius of gyration, 𝑘 = √𝑙1 𝑙2

For minimum time period, 𝑙 = 𝑘 𝑜𝑟, 𝑙1 = 𝑙2

2𝑘
𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝜋 √
𝑔

3
 1 𝐼
Time period of Torsion Pendulum 𝑇 = 𝑓
= 2𝜋 √𝐶

𝜋𝜂𝑟 4
Torsional Constant, 𝐶 =
2𝑙

1 𝑚
Time period of mass spring System, 𝑇 = 𝑓
= 2𝜋 √ 𝑘

Damping force, 𝐹𝑑 = −𝑏𝑣

𝑑2𝑥 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 𝑘
Differential equation of Damped Oscillation, + + 𝜔02 𝑥 =0 where 𝜔0 =√
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚

−𝑏𝑡
Displacement equation, 𝑥 = 𝑅𝑒 2𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜙)

𝑏2
Angular frequency of damped oscillation 𝜔 = √𝜔02 −
4𝑚 2

−𝑏𝑡
Amplitude of damped oscillation 𝐴(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒 2𝑚
−𝑏𝑡
1
Energy of damped oscillation, 𝐸(𝑡) = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑚 where, 𝐸0 = 2 𝑚𝜔02 𝑅2 is the initial energy.

𝑚
Quality Factor, 𝑄 = 𝜔 𝑏

𝐹𝑚
Amplitude of Forced Oscillation 𝐴 = 2
√𝑚 2 (𝛼 2−𝜔02) +𝑏 2𝛼 2

𝑚(𝛼 2 −𝜔02)
Phase Difference, 𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 { 𝑏𝛼
}

𝐹𝑚 𝐹𝑚 𝑚
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = √
𝑏𝜔0 𝑏 𝑘

Moment of inertia of some regular bodies about C.G.

2
a) Solid sphere, 𝐼𝐶.𝐺. = 5 𝑚𝑅2
2
b) Hollow Sphere, 𝐼𝐶.𝐺. = 3 𝑚𝑅2
1
c) Circular disc, 𝐼𝐶.𝐺. = 2 𝑚𝑅2
d) Circular ring, 𝐼𝐶.𝐺. = 𝑚𝑅2
2
𝑚𝑙 ′
e) Thin rod or bar of length 𝑙 ′ , 𝐼𝐶.𝐺. = 12

4
 2
𝑚(𝑙 ′ +𝑏 2)
Also, 𝐼𝐶.𝐺. = if breadth is given.
12

1. An oscillatory motion of a body is represented by y=aeiwt, where y is displacement in time t and w

is angular velocity. Show that the motion is simple harmonic.
→ Here the displacement equation is 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑦
Now, 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑖𝜔𝑎𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝑑2 𝑦
∴ = (𝑖𝜔)2 𝑎𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 = −𝜔2 𝑦
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2 𝑦
𝑜𝑟, 2 + 𝜔2 𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑡
This is the differential equation of SHM. So the motion is simple Harmonic.
2. Show that the velocity of simple harmonic oscillator at any instant leads the displacement by a
phase angle of 𝝅/𝟐. Hence find the general expression for the velocity of a simple harmonic
oscillator

→ Refer theory
3. At t=0, the displacement x(0) of the block in linear oscillator is -8.50cm. The block’s velocity v(0)
then is -0.920m/s and its acceleration a(0) is 47m/s2. Find (a) angular frequency (b) Phase
constant.
→ Here, 𝑥 (0) = −8.50𝑐𝑚 = −0.085𝑚, 𝑣 (0) = −0.920𝑚𝑠 −1 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎(0) = 47𝑚𝑠 −2
𝑎) 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑎(0) = −𝜔0 2 𝑥(0)
𝑎(0)
∴ 𝜔0 = √− 𝑥(0) =?
𝑏) 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜙) ∴ 𝑥(0) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 … … … . . (𝑖)
𝑣 = −𝐴𝜔0 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜙) ∴ 𝑣(0) = −𝐴𝜔0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 … … … … . . (𝑖𝑖)
Now, dividing equation (ii) by (i) we get
𝑣(0)
𝜙 = tan−1 ( − 𝜔 )=?
0 𝑥(0)

4. A 0.12kg body undergoes simple harmonic motion of amplitude 8.5cm and period 0.20sec. a) What
is the magnitude of the maximum force acting on it? b) If the oscillations are produced by a spring,
what is the spring constant?
→ Here, 𝑚 = 0.12𝑘𝑔, 𝐴 = 8.5𝑐𝑚 = 0.085𝑚, 𝑇 = 0.20𝑠
2𝜋
𝑎) 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹 = 𝑚𝜔0 2 𝐴 = 𝑚 × ( )2 × 𝐴 =?
𝑇
𝑏) 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝐹 = 𝑘𝐴
𝐹
∴ 𝑘 = =?
𝐴
5. A block on a horizontal surface that is moving back and forth horizontally with SHM of frequency
2Hz. The coefficient of static friction between block and surface is 0.5. How great can the amplitude
of SHM be if the block is not to slip along the surface?
→ Here, for the block not to slip along the surface,

5
 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 < 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑜𝑟, 𝑚𝜔0 2 𝑥 < 𝑚𝑔
𝑔 𝑔
𝑜𝑟, 𝑥 < 2 < 2 2 =?
𝜔0 4𝜋 𝑓
6. An oscillator consists of a block attached to a spring of spring constant 400N/m. At some
time t, the position (measured from the system’s equilibrium location), velocity and
acceleration of the block are x=0.1m, v=-13.6m/s and a=-123m/s2. Calculate (a) the
frequency of oscillation, (b) the mass of the block and (c) the amplitude of motion.
→(a) We have, a= - 𝜔0 2 𝑥
−𝑎
∴ 𝜔0 = √ =?
𝑥
𝜔0
𝑜𝑟, 𝑓0 = =?
2𝜋
𝑘
(𝑏) Again, 𝜔0 = √𝑚
𝑘
∴𝑚= =?
𝜔0 2
1 1 1
(c) We have, 2 𝑘𝐴2 = 2 mv2 + 2 k𝑥 2
∴ 𝐴 =?
7. The motion of the particle in simple harmonic motion is given by x=Asint. If it has a speed u
when the displacement is x1 and speed v when the displacement is x2. Show that the amplitude A
of the motion is

𝒗𝟐𝒙𝟐𝟏 −𝒖𝟐 𝒙𝟐𝟐

A=√ 𝒗𝟐−𝒖𝟐

→ Here,𝑢 = 𝜔0 √𝐴2 − 𝑥12 … … … . . (𝑖 )

And 𝑣 = 𝜔0 √𝐴2 − 𝑥22 … … … (𝑖𝑖)

∴ 𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 = 𝜔0 2 (𝑥12 − 𝑥22 )

𝑣 2 − 𝑢2
𝑜𝑟, 𝜔0 = √ 2
𝑥1 − 𝑥22

Now from equation (i)

𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 2
𝑢2 = 𝜔0 2 (𝐴2 − 𝑥12 ) = (𝐴 − 𝑥12 )
𝑥12 − 𝑥22

Now solve for A.

8. When the displacement is half the amplitude, what fraction of the total energy is K.E. and what
fraction is P.E. in SHM? At what displacement is the energy half K.E. and half P.E.
→ if 𝑥 be the displacement and A be the amplitude then by question, 𝑥 = 𝐴/2

6
 1 1 𝐴2 1 3 3
𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝐾. 𝐸. = 2 m𝜔0 2 (𝐴2 − 𝑥 2 ) = 2 m𝜔0 2 (𝐴2 − 4
) = m𝜔0 2
2 4
𝐴2 = 4 𝐸
𝐾. 𝐸. 3
∴ =
𝐸 4
𝑃. 𝐸. 3
𝑁𝑜𝑤, = 1 − = 1/4
𝐸 4
For second part,
𝐾. 𝐸. = 𝑃. 𝐸.
1 1
𝑜𝑟, m𝜔0 2 (𝐴2 − 𝑥 2 ) = m𝜔0 2 𝑥 2
2 2
𝑜𝑟, 𝐴2 − 𝑥 2 = 𝑥 2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑥 = 𝐴/√2
9. A meter stick swings about a pivot point at one of its end. What is the time period of oscillation?
What is the distance of the pivot point from the centre of oscillation of the stick?

→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑙 ′ = 1𝑚, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙 = 0.5𝑚

𝑙 2+𝐾 2 𝑙+𝑘 2/𝑙

We have, 𝑇 = 2𝜋 √ 𝑔𝑙
= 2𝜋 √ 𝑔

2
𝑚𝑙 ′
Since, 𝐼𝐶.𝐺. = 𝑚𝑘 2 =
12

𝑙′2
∴ 𝑘2 = =?
12

𝑙+𝑘 2 /𝑙
∴ 𝑇 = 2𝜋 √ 𝑔
=?

𝑘2
Again, the distance of pivot point from center of oscillation is L= 𝑙 + 𝑙
=?

10. A uniform circular disc of diameter 20cm vibrates about a horizontal axis perpendicular plane and
at a distance of 5cm from the centre. Calculate, the time period of oscillation and the equivalent
length of the simple pendulum.

7
 → 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑅 = 10𝑐𝑚 = 0.1𝑚

𝑙 2+𝑘 2 𝑙+𝑘 2 /𝑙
We have, 𝑇 = 2𝜋 √ = 2𝜋 √
𝑔𝑙 𝑔

𝑚𝑅 2
Since, 𝐼𝐶.𝐺. = 𝑚𝑘 2 = 2

𝑅2
∴ 𝑘2 = =?
2

𝑙+𝑘 2 /𝑙
∴ 𝑇 = 2𝜋 √ =?
𝑔

𝑘2
Again, the equivalent length of simple pendulum is L= 𝑙 + =?
𝑙

11. A thin, straight, uniform rod of length l=1m and mass 160gm hangs from a pivot at one end.
What is the period for small oscillations? What is the length of simple pendulum that will have
the same time period.
→ 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑠 𝑄. 𝑁. 8.
12. A stick of length 1.85m oscillates as a physical pendulum. a) What is the length of pendulum that
gives the least time period? b) What is the minimum time period?
→Here, 𝑙 ′ = 1.85𝑚
𝑎) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑, 𝑙 = 𝑘
𝑚𝑙′2
We have, 𝐼𝐶.𝐺. = 𝑚𝑘 2 = 12
𝑙′
∴𝑘= =?
√12
∴ 𝑙 = 𝑘 =?
𝑘2
𝑙+
𝑏) 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑇 = 2𝜋 √ 𝑙
𝑔

8
 2𝑘
∴ 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛. = 2𝜋 √ 𝑔 =?
13. A heavy circular ring of radius R oscillates in a vertical plane about a horizontal axis at a distance x
from the centre, Show that the time period is minimum when x=R.
→Here, length of pendulum 𝑙 = 𝑥
𝑘2 𝑘2
𝑙+ 𝑥+ 𝐿 𝑘2
𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑇 = 2𝜋 √ 𝑙
= 2𝜋 √ 𝑥
= 2𝜋 √ , where 𝐿 = 𝑥 +
𝑔 𝑔 𝑔 𝑥

For minimum time period, 𝐿 must be minimum.

𝑑𝐿
For minimum 𝐿, 𝑑𝑥 = 0

𝑑 𝑘2
or, 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 + 𝑥
)=0

𝑘2
or, 1 − =0
𝑥2

or, 𝑘 2 = 𝑥 2

or, 𝑥 = 𝑘

we have, for ring

𝐼𝐶.𝐺. = 𝑚𝑘 2 = 𝑚𝑅2

∴𝑘=𝑅

Hence T is minimum when 𝑥 = 𝑅

14. A uniform thin rod of length 120cm and width 6cm is swinging in a vertical plane on pendulum
about a point A at some distance from one end. If the time of swing is minimum, find the distance A
from the end of the rod.
→let x be the distance of A from the end of the rod.

9
 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑚, 𝑙 = (60 − 𝑥)

Since, time period is minimum so 𝑙 = 𝑘

𝑜𝑟, 60 − 𝑥 = 𝑘 … … … … (𝑖 )

We have,
2
2
𝑚(𝑙 ′ + 𝑏2 )
𝐼𝐶.𝐺. = 𝑚𝑘 =
12

𝑙′ 2 + 𝑏2
∴𝑘=√ =?
12

Now from equation (i), 𝑥 = 60 − 𝑘 =?

15. A simple pendulum of length l and mass m is suspended in a car that is travelling with a constant
speed v around a circle of radius R. If the pendulum undergoes small oscillations about its
𝟏 𝒈𝒙
equilibrium position x, prove that the frequency of oscillation is f=𝟐𝝅 √ 𝒍𝑹 .

→ Here, the necessary centripetal force for the pendulum to move in circular path is provided by the
restoring force.

i.e. centripetal force=restoring force

𝑜𝑟, 𝑚𝜔2 𝑅 = 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

10
 𝑥
𝑜𝑟, 𝜔2 𝑅 = 𝑔
𝑙
𝑔𝑥
𝑜𝑟, 𝜔 = √
𝑙𝑅

𝜔 1 𝑔𝑥
∴ 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝑓 = = √
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑙𝑅

16. A simple pendulum of length 20cm and mass 5gm is suspended in a car travelling with constant
speed 70m/s around a circle of radius 50m. If the pendulum undergoes small oscillations in a
radial direction about its equilibrium position, what is the frequency of oscillation?

→Here, effective value of acceleration due to gravity is

𝑣2
𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓. = √𝑔2 + ( )2 =?
𝑅

𝑙
∴ 𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓.

1 1 𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓.
𝑜𝑟, 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝑓 = = √ =?
𝑇 2𝜋 𝑙

17. A simple pendulum of 1m length is suspended in an elevator. If the elevator is ascending at an

acceleration of 3 m/s2, what is the period of oscillation of the pendulum?

→Here, effective value of acceleration due to gravity is

𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓. = 𝑔 + 𝑎

𝑙 𝑙
∴ 𝑇 = 2𝜋√ = 2𝜋√ =?
𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓. 𝑔+𝑎

18. A metallic disc of mass 0.5kg and radius 0.1m is suspended by a wire of length 40 cm and radius
1mm. The torsion oscillations of the disc are found to have a period of 2.5sec. Find the modulus of
rigidity of the wire.
→We have, Time period of Torsion Pendulum is
𝑚𝑅2
𝐼 2 𝑚𝑅 2 2𝑙
𝑇=2𝜋 √ = 2𝜋 √ 𝜋𝜂𝑟4
= 2𝜋 √ ×
𝐶 2 𝜋𝜂𝑟4
2𝑙

∴ 𝜂 =?
19. A wire has a torsional constant of 2Nm/rad. A disc of radius 5cm and mass 100gm is suspended at its
centre. What is the frequency of torsional oscillations?
→ We have, Time period of Torsion Pendulum is

11
 𝐼 𝑚𝑅 2
𝑇=2𝜋 √𝐶 = 2𝜋 √ 2𝐶

1 1 2𝐶
∴𝑓= = √ =?
𝑇 2𝜋 𝑚𝑅2

20. A solid sphere of mass 2kg and diameter 0.30m is suspended on a wire. Find the period of angular
oscillation for small displacements if the torque constant of the wire is 6x10 -3Nm/rad.
→ We have, Time period of Torsion Pendulum is

𝐼 2𝑚𝑅 2
𝑇=2𝜋 √𝐶 = 2𝜋 √ 5𝐶
=?

21. Two identical springs are attached to a block of mass m horizontally. Show that the frequency of
𝟏 𝟐𝒌
oscillation on the frictionless surface is given by f= 𝟐𝝅 √ 𝒎
→If x be the extension in first spring, then restoring force 𝐹1 = −𝑘𝑥
The compression in second spring is also x so restoring force 𝐹2 = −𝑘𝑥

∴ net force, 𝐹 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 = −2𝑘𝑥

𝑜𝑟, 𝑚𝑎 = −2𝑘𝑥

𝑑2 𝑥
𝒐𝒓, 𝑚 2 = −2𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥 2𝑘
or, + 𝑥=0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚

𝑑2 𝑥 2𝑘
or, 𝑑𝑡 2
+ 𝜔0 2 𝑥 = 0…………………….. (i) where, 𝜔0 = √ 𝑚

12
Here, equation (i) shows that the motion of mass spring system is simple harmonic in nature whose
2𝑘
angular frequency is given by 𝜔0 = √
𝑚

𝜔0 1 2𝑘
∴ Frequency, 𝑓 = = √
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑚

22. A 2kg mass hangs from a spring. A 300gm body hung below the mass stretches the spring 2cm
further. If the 300gm body is removed and the mass is set in oscillation, find the period of motion.
→ Here, 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑘𝑥
𝑚𝑔 0.3×10
∴𝑘= 𝑥
= 0.02
=?
𝑀 2
Now time period, 𝑇=2𝜋 √ = 2𝜋 √ =?
𝑘 𝑘

23. A mass of 1 kg is suspended from a spring of spring constant 25N/m. If the undamped frequency is
2/√𝟑 times the damped frequency, what will be the damping factor?
2 ′
→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑓0 = 𝑓
√3
1 𝑘 2 1 𝑘 𝑏2
𝑜𝑟, √ = × ×√ −
2𝜋 𝑚 √3 2𝜋 𝑚 4𝑚 2

𝑘 4 𝑘 𝑏2
𝒐𝒓, = ×( − )
𝑚 3 𝑚 4𝑚 2
∴ 𝑏 =?
24. A 0.5kg block is attached to a spring of spring constant 12.5N/m. The damped frequency is
0.2% lower than the natural frequency.(a) Calculate the damping constant (b) How does
the amplitude vary in time? (c) What is critical damping constant?
𝑘
→(a)we have, undamped angular frequency is 𝜔0 = √𝑚 =?
Now damped angular frequency 𝜔 = 𝜔0 − 0.998𝜔0 =?
𝑏2
We have, 𝜔 = √𝜔02 −
4𝑚 2
∴ 𝑏 =?
−𝑏𝑡
(b) The amplitude variation with time is 𝐴(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒 2𝑚
(c)The critical damping constant is given by 𝑏 = 2𝑚𝜔0 =?
25. A mass of 0.2 kg is suspended from a spring of spring constant 80N/m. The body is
subjected to a resistive force. Calculate the value of undamped frequency and the value of
relaxation time if the damped frequency is √𝟑/2 times the undamped frequency.
𝑘
→(a)we have, undamped angular frequency is 𝜔0 = √ =?
𝑚
𝜔
∴ 𝒇𝟎 = 2𝜋0 =?

13
 √3
Again, damped frequency, 𝑓 = 2
× 𝒇𝟎

1 𝑘 𝑏2 √3 1 𝑘
𝑜𝑟, ×√ − 2
= × √
2𝜋 𝑚 4𝑚 2 2𝜋 𝑚

𝑜𝑟, 𝑏 =?
𝑚
∴ relaxation time 𝜏 = 𝑏
=?

26. A 750gm block oscillates one end of a spring whose force constant is 56N/m. The mass moves in a
fluid which offers a resistive force F=-bv, where b=0.162Ns/m. What the period of motion.
𝑏2 𝑘 𝑏2
→ we have, 𝜔 = √𝜔02 − =√ − =?
4𝑚 2 𝑚 4𝑚 2
2𝜋
∴𝑇= =?
𝜔
27. Consider the solution of differential equation in free vibration is represented by 𝑥 =
𝑎𝑒 −𝑚𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡. The equation for displacement of a point on a damped oscillator is given by
𝜋 𝑇
𝑥 = 5𝑒 −0.25𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 meter. Find the velocity of the oscillating point at = , where T is time
2 4
period of oscillator.
𝜋
→ Comparing given equation with 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑒 −𝑚𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 we get, 𝑎 = 5𝑚, 𝜔 = rad/s and 𝑚 =
2
0.25 /s
2𝜋
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑇 = = 4 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝜔
𝑑𝑥 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
Now velocity is 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡
= 5 [−0.25 × 𝑒−0.25𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑡 + 2 × 𝑒−0.25𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡]
𝑇
For 𝑡 = = 1𝑠𝑒𝑐, 𝑣 =?
4
28. The energy of guitar string of frequency 256 Hz reduces to half its initial value in 2 seconds. What is
the Q value of the string?
→Here, 𝑓 ′ = 256𝐻𝑧,
−𝑏𝑡 −𝑡
We have, 𝐸(𝑡) = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑚 = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝜏
1 −2
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸0 = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝜏
2
1 −2
𝑜𝑟, ln ( ) =
2 𝜏
−2
𝑜𝑟, 𝜏 = =?
1
ln ( )
2
∴ Quality factor, 𝑄 = 𝜔𝜏 = 2𝜋𝑓 ′ × 𝜏 =?
29. The quality factor of a piano wire of frequency 500 Hz is 5000. In what time will its energy reduce to
1/e of its value because of damping?
→Here, 𝑓 ′ = 500𝐻𝑧, 𝑄 = 5000

14
 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, Quality factor, 𝑄 = 𝜔𝜏 = 2𝜋𝑓 ′ × 𝜏
𝑄
∴ 𝜏 = 2𝜋𝑓′ =?
−𝑏𝑡 −𝑡
Again, we have, 𝐸(𝑡) = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑚 = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝜏
1 −𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸0 = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝜏
𝑒
−𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 𝑒 −1 = 𝑒 𝜏
−𝑡
𝑜𝑟, −1= 𝜏
∴ 𝑡 = 𝜏 =?
30. A simple pendulum has a period of 1 sec and amplitude 10º. After 10 complete oscillations its
amplitude is reduced to 5º. What is the relaxation time of the pendulum and the quality factor.
→ Here, 𝑇 = 1𝑠, 𝜃0 = 100 , 𝑡 = 10𝑠, 𝜃(𝑡) = 50
−𝑏𝑡 −𝑡
𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐴(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒 2𝑚 = 𝑅𝑒 2𝜏
−𝑡
∴ 𝜃(𝑡) = 𝜃0 𝑒 2𝜏
−10
𝑜𝑟, 50 =100 𝑒 2𝜏
1 −10
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑒 2𝜏
2
1 −10
𝑜𝑟, ln ( ) =
2 2𝜏
∴ 𝜏 =?
2𝜋
Again, quality factor, 𝑄 = 𝜔𝜏 = × 𝜏 =?
𝑇
𝟏𝟐.𝟓
31. Show that damping reduces the frequency of oscillator by 𝑸𝟐
%.
→ We have the angular frequency of damped oscillation is
𝑏2 𝑏2 1 1
𝜔 = √𝜔02 − 4𝑚2 = 𝜔0 √1 − 4𝜔2𝑚2 = 𝜔0 √1 − 4𝜔2𝜏2 = 𝜔0 √1 − 4𝑄2
0 0

(∵ 𝑄 = 𝜔𝜏 ≈ 𝜔0 𝜏 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔)

1
𝜔 1 2 1 1
𝑜𝑟, = (1 − 2 ) ≈ 1 − × 2
𝜔0 4𝑄 2 4𝑄
2𝜋𝑓′ 1
𝑜𝑟, =1− 2
2𝜋 𝑓0 8𝑄
′
𝑓 1
𝑜𝑟, =1− 2
𝑓0 8𝑄
𝑓′ 1
𝑜𝑟, 1 − =
𝑓0 8𝑄2
𝑓0 −𝑓′ 1
𝑜𝑟, = This gives the fractional reduced in frequency due to the presence of damping.
𝑓0 8𝑄2
𝑓0 − 𝑓′ 1 12.5
∴ × 100% = 2
× 100% = 2 %
𝑓0 8𝑄 𝑄

15
32. The quality factor of a tuning fork is 50000. Calculate the number of vibrations after which its energy
becomes 1/10th of the initial value.
2𝜋
→ We have, 𝑄 = 𝜔𝜏 = 𝑇 × 𝜏
2𝜋𝜏 2𝜋𝜏
∴𝑇= =
𝑄 50000
−𝑡
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝐸(𝑡) = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝜏
1 −𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸0 = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝜏
10
1 −𝑡
𝑜𝑟, ln ( ) =
10 𝜏
1
∴ 𝑡 = −𝜏 × ln ( )
10
1
𝑡 −𝜏 × ln (10)
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑛 = = × 50000 =?
𝑇 2𝜋𝜏
33. If the ratio of mass to damping coefficient of the damped harmonic oscillator is 50sec, find the
time period for which a)the amplitude falls to 1/e times the initial value b) energy falls to 1/e4
times the initial value c) the energy falls to 1/e times the initial value.
𝑚
→ Here, 𝑏
= 𝜏 = 50 𝑠

(a)We have
−𝑏𝑡 −𝑡
𝐴(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒 2𝑚 = 𝑅𝑒 2𝜏

1 −𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑒 2𝜏
𝑒
−𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 𝑒 −1 = 𝑒 2𝜏
−𝑡
𝑜𝑟, −1 =
2𝜏

∴ 𝑡 =?
−𝑏𝑡 −𝑡
b) We have, 𝐸 (𝑡) = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑚 = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝜏

1 −𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸0 = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝜏
𝑒4
−𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 𝑒 −4 = 𝑒 𝜏

−𝑡
𝑜𝑟, −4 =
𝜏

∴ 𝑡 =?

c) Same as (b)

16
34. For damped oscillator, m=250gm, k=85N/m, and b=70g/sec. a)what is the period of motion? b) how
long does it take for the amplitude of the damped oscillations to drop to half its initial value? C) How
long does it take for the mechanical energy to drop to one half its initial value?
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
→ a) 𝑇 = 𝜔 = 2
= 2
=?
√𝜔02− 𝑏 2 √𝑘− 𝑏 2
4𝑚 𝑚 4𝑚

−𝑏𝑡
b) 𝐴(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒 2𝑚
−𝑏𝑡
1
or , 2
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑒 2𝑚
∴ 𝑡 =?
−𝑏𝑡
c) 𝐸(𝑡) = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑚
−𝑏𝑡
1
or, , 𝐸 = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑚
2 0
∴ 𝑡 =?
35. The amplitude of a lightly damped oscillator decreases by 3% during each cycle. What percent of
the mechanical energy of the oscillator is lost in each cycle?
1
→ If R be the initial amplitude, the initial energy is 𝐸0 = 2 𝑚𝜔02 𝑅2
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 0.97𝑅. 𝑆𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠
1
𝐸 = 𝑚𝜔02 (0.97𝑅)2 = (0.97)2 × 𝐸0
2
𝐸
𝑜𝑟, = (0.97)2
𝐸0
𝐸0 − 𝐸 𝐸
𝑁𝑜𝑤, % 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = × 100% = (1 − ) × 100%
𝐸0 𝐸0
[1 ( ) 2]
= − 0.97 × 100% ≈ 6%
36. If Q of an oscillator be 40, calculate the ratio of the amplitude of forced vibration and the amplitude
at resonance when the frequency of the applied force is 99% of the natural frequency in the
absence of damping.

→ Here, Q=40, 𝛼 = 0.99𝜔0

𝐹𝑚
We have, amplitude of forced oscillation is 𝐴 =
2
√𝑚 2 (𝛼 2−𝜔02) +𝑏 2𝛼 2

𝐹𝑚
∴ 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥. =
𝑏𝜔0

𝐴 𝑏𝜔0 1 1
𝑁𝑜𝑤, = = =
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥. √𝑚 2 (𝛼 2 − 𝜔02 )2 + 𝑏2 𝛼 2 2
𝑚2 𝛼2 𝑚 2 𝜔4 𝛼 2 𝛼2
√ 2 2 (𝛼 2 − 𝜔02 )2 + 2 √ 2 20 ( 2 − 1) + 2
𝑏 𝜔0 𝜔0 𝑏 𝜔0 𝜔0 𝜔0

𝐴 1
𝑜𝑟, = =?
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥. 2
𝛼2 𝛼2
√𝑄2 ( − 1) +
𝜔02 𝜔02

17
37. An object of mass 0.1kg hung from a spring whose spring constant is 100N/m. A resistive
force –bv acts on the object and b=1Ns/m. The object is subjected to a harmonic driving
force of the form 𝑭𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕 where 𝑭𝟎 = 𝟐𝑵 and 𝝎 = 𝟓𝟎𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔. In the steady state,
what is the amplitude of oscillation and phase relative to applied force.
→ Here, m=0.1kg, k=100N/m, b=1Ns/m, 𝐹𝑚 = 𝐹0 = 2𝑁 and 𝛼 = 𝜔 = 50𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠.

𝑘
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝜔0 = √𝑚 =?

𝐹𝑚
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒, 𝐴 = =?
√𝑚2 (𝛼2−𝜔20)2 +𝑏2𝛼2

𝑚(𝛼2 − 𝜔20 )
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 { } =?
𝑏𝛼
38. A mass 1 kg is attached to a spring of spring constant 300N/m, the damping constant
1.5kg/s. It is driven by a sinusoidal force of maximum value 8N and angular frequency 9
rad/sec. Find the resonant frequency and amplitude of vibration at resonance.
𝜔0 1 𝑘
→ We have, resonant frequency 𝑓0 = = 2𝜋 √𝑚 =?
2𝜋
𝐹𝑚
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥. = =?
𝑏𝜔0

18
Chapter 2: Acoustics
𝐼
Intensity level, 𝐿 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝐼 ) , where 𝐼0 is threshold intensity.
0

𝛼1 𝑆1+𝛼2𝑆2 +⋯….+𝛼𝑛𝑆𝑛
Absorption Coefficient 𝛼 = 𝑆1 +𝑆2+⋯….+𝑆𝑛

4𝑉
Mean free path of sound wave, 𝜎 = 𝑆

𝑆𝑣
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑, 𝑛 =
4𝑉
0.16𝑉
𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒, 𝑇 = 𝛼𝑆

𝐵
Velocity of longitudinal wave in a fluid 𝑣 = √ 𝜌, Where B is Bulk modulus and 𝜌 is density.

Pressure amplitude 𝑃𝑚 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝜌𝑣

1. A hall of floor is 15x30m2 along with height of 6m, in which 500 people occupy upholstered seat and
remainder seat on wooden chairs. Optimum reverberation time for orchestral music is 1.36 sec and
absorption coefficient per person is 0.44. (a) calculate the coefficient of absorption to be provided
by the walls, floor and ceiling when the hall is fully occupied. (b) Calculate the reverberation time if
only the half upholstered seats are occupied. (The absorption coefficient for each wooden chair is
0.02)
0.16𝑉
→ (a) We have, from Sabine’s relation, 𝑇 =
𝛼𝑆
0.16𝑉
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠, 𝛼𝑆 = = 313.68 𝑆𝐼 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑇
Now, absorption coefficients due to audience= 500*0.44=220 SI units
∴ coefficient of absorption to be provided by walls, floor and ceiling is = 313.68-220=93.68Si units
(𝑏) When the hall is only half filled, the absorption will also be provided by vaccent wooden seats in
addition to absorption due to audience.
∴ total absorption coefficient is = 93.68+250*0.44+250*0.02=208.68 SI units
0.16𝑉
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑇 = =?
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡

2. A reverberation time of 2.3 seconds is observed in a hall of volume 5500 m 3. The sound absorbing
surface of the hall has an area of 750m2. Calculate the average absorption coefficient.
0.16𝑉
→ We have, 𝑇 = 𝛼𝑆
0.16𝑉
∴𝛼= =?
𝑇𝑆
3. Calculate the reverberation time for a hall of volume 1400m 3, which has seating capacity of 110
persons with full capacity of audience and when audience are occupying only cushioned seats.
Relevant data can be taken from the following table

19
 Surface area(m 2 ) coefficient of absorption
Plastered wall 98 0.03
Plastered ceiling 144 0.04
Wooden door 15 0.06
Cushioned chairs 88 1.00
Audience 150 (Person) 0.47(Per person)

→ Here, total absorption coefficient is

𝛼𝑆 = 𝛼1 𝑆1 + 𝛼2 𝑆2 + 𝛼3 𝑆3 + 𝛼4 𝑆4 + 𝛼5 𝑆5

= 0.03 × 98 + 0.04 × 144 + 0.06 × 15 + 1 × 88 + 0.47 × 110 =?

0.16𝑉 0.16×1400
Now, reverberation time, 𝑇 = 𝛼𝑆
= 𝛼𝑆
=?
4. The volume of a room is 980m . The wall area of the room is 150m2, ceiling area 95m2 and floor
3

area is 90 m2. The average sound absorption coefficient a) for wall is 0.03, b) for ceiling is 0.80 and
c) for the floor is 0.06, calculate the average sound absorption coefficient and reverberation time.
𝛼 𝑆 +𝛼 𝑆2+𝛼3𝑆3
→ We have average absorption coefficient, 𝛼 = 1 1𝑆 +𝑆2 +𝑆 =?
1 2 3

0.16𝑉
And reverberation time, 𝑇 = 𝛼𝑆
=? Here, 𝑆 = 𝑆1 + 𝑆2 + 𝑆3

5. How much acoustic power enters the window of area 1.58 m2, via the sound wave (standard
intensity level = 10-16W/cm2). The window opens on a street where the street noise results in an
intensity level at the window of 60dB.

→ Here, Power, P=? , area, A=1.58m2, standard intensity level, 𝐼0 =10-16W/cm2=10-12W/m2

Intensity level, 𝐿 = 60𝑑𝐵

𝐼
We have, 𝐿 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝐼 )
0

𝐼
𝑜𝑟, 60 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝐼0

𝐼
𝑜𝑟, 6 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝐼0

𝐼
𝑜𝑟, = 106
𝐼0

𝑜𝑟, 𝐼 = 106 𝐼0 = 106 ×10-12=10−6 W/m2

Now power, 𝑃 = 𝐼 × 𝐴 =?

6. A room has dimensions of 6x4x5 m. Find a) the mean free path of the sound wave in the room. b)
no. of reflections made per second wave with the walls of the room. Given velocity of sound in
air=350ms-1

20
 4𝑉 𝑙×𝑏×ℎ
→ Here, (a) mean free path, 𝜎 = = =?
𝑆 2(𝑙𝑏+𝑏ℎ+𝑙ℎ)

𝑆𝑣
(b) no. of reflections per sec., 𝑛 = =?
4𝑉

7. The time of reverberation of an empty hall without and with 500 audiences is 1.5sec and 1.4sec
respectively. Find the reverberation time with 800 audiences in the hall.
→ Here, reverberation time of empty hall, 𝑇0 = 1.5𝑠

𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 500 𝑎𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑇500 = 1.4 𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 800 𝑎𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑇800 =?

Here, decrease in reverberation time due to 500 audiences=1.5-1.4=0.1s

0.1
∴ decrease in reverberation time due to 800 audiences = × 800 = 0.16s
500

ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 800 𝑎𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑇800 = 1.5 − 0.16 = 1.34𝑠𝑒𝑐

8. The time of reverberation of an empty hall is 1.5sec. With 500 audience present in the hall, the
reverberation time falls down to 1.4 sec. Find the no of persons present in the hall if the
reverberation time falls down to 1.312sec.

→ Here, reverberation time of empty hall, 𝑇0 = 1.5𝑠

𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 500 𝑎𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑇500 = 1.4 𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑛 𝑎𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑇𝑛 = 1.312𝑠

Here, decrease in reverberation time due to 500 audiences=1.5-1.4=0.1s

0.1
∴ decrease in reverberation time due to n audiences = 500 × n

0.1
ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑛 𝑎𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠, 𝑇𝑛 = 1.5 − 500 × n

0.1
or, 1.312=1.5 − 500 × n

0.1
𝑜𝑟, × n = 1.5 − 1.312 = 0.188
500
0.188×500
𝑜𝑟, 𝑛 = 0.1
=940

21
9. A lecture hall of volume 12x104m3 has a total absorption of 13200m2 of open window unit. Entry of
students in the hall rises the coefficient by another 13200m 2 of open window unit. Find the change
in reverberation time.
0.16𝑉 0.16×12×104
→ here, reverberation time for empty hall, 𝑇0 = 𝛼𝑆
= 13200
=?

0.16×12×104
Reverberation time with students, 𝑇𝑠 = 13200+13200 =?

∴ 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑠 =?

10. Entry of people in an auditorium hall of volume 1.6x105ft3 and total absorption of 1000 ft2 of open
window raises the absorption by 600 ft2. Find the change in reverberation time.
0.05𝑉 0.05×1.6×105
→here, reverberation time for empty hall, 𝑇0 = = =?
𝛼𝑆 1000

0.05×1.6×105
Reverberation tie with People, 𝑇𝑃 = 1000+600
=?

∴ 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑃 =?

11. A baby’s mouth is 30 cm from his father’s ear and 1.5m from his mother’s ear. What is the
difference between sound intensity levels heard by the father and mother when the baby is crying?
→ let 𝑟1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟2 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 distance of baby’s mouth from his father and mother respectively.

ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑟1 = 30𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟2 = 1.5𝑚 = 150𝑐𝑚

𝐼 𝑟2
we have ratio of intensity, 𝐼1 = 𝑟22 =?
2 1

𝐼
Now difference in intensity level, ∆𝐿 = 𝐿1 − 𝐿2 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝐼1 ) =?
2

12. An engineer set a record for the loudest speech program in a hall, the sound level 46m in front of
the speaker system was 120dB. What is the ratio of the intensity at that spot to the intensity of
traffic sound level of 92 dB?

→ Here, 𝐿1 = 120𝑑𝐵, 𝐿2 = 92𝑑𝐵

𝐼1
𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐿1 − 𝐿2 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝐼2

𝐼1
𝑜𝑟, 120 − 92 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝐼2

𝐼1
𝑜𝑟, 2.8 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝐼2

22
 𝐼1
𝑜𝑟, = 102.8 =?
𝐼2

13. A loudspeaker produces sound level of 8dB above reference level at a point 40m from it. Find the
intensity level at a point 30m from the source.

→ Here, 𝐿1 = 8𝑑𝐵 𝑟1 = 40𝑚 𝐿2 =? 𝑟2 = 30𝑚

𝐼1 𝑟22
∴ = 2 =?
𝐼2 𝑟1

𝐼
We have, 𝐿1 − 𝐿2 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝐼1 )
2

∴ 𝐿2 =?

14. A source of sound emits energy in all direction at a rate of 0.638J/s. Find the intensity level at a
distance11.5m from the source. ( take I0=1.2x10-12 W/m2)
→here,P=0.638J/s, r=11.5m, I0=1.2x10-12W/m2 L=?

𝑃 𝑃
𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐼 = = =?
𝐴 4𝜋𝑟 2

𝐼
𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙, 𝐿 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( ) =?
𝐼0

23
 Chapter 3: Heat and Thermodynamics

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 (𝑚+𝑤)(𝜃2−𝜃1)

Calorific value = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
= 𝑀

𝜃𝐸
𝜃𝐸 2 𝑒𝑇 ℏω
Specific heat capacity as Einstein’s model, 𝐶𝑉 = 3𝑁𝐾𝐵 ( 𝑇 ) 𝜃𝐸 2 Where, 𝜃𝐸 = 𝐾
𝐵
(𝑒 𝑇 −1)

At high temperature, 𝐶𝑉 = 3𝑁𝐾𝐵 = 3𝑅

𝜃 2 𝜃𝐸
At low temperature, 𝐶𝑉 = 3𝑅 ( 𝐸 ) 𝑒 − 𝑇
𝑇

1
Total energy per mole, 𝑈 = 2 𝑓𝑅𝑇

𝑓
Molar specific heat of gas at constant volume, 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅 ( )
2

𝑓
Molar specific heat of gas at constant pressure, 𝐶𝑃 = 𝑅(1 + )
2

𝐶𝑃 2
𝛾= = +1
𝐶𝑉 𝑓
8𝑎
Critical temperature, 𝑇𝑐 = 27𝑏𝑅

𝑎
Critical pressure, 𝑃𝑐 =
27𝑏 2

Critical volume, 𝑉𝑐 = 3𝑏
𝑑𝑄
Change in entropy for state change, 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑇

𝑇 𝑑𝑄
Change in entropy for temperature change, 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = ∫𝑇 2 𝑇
1

𝑑𝑃 𝐿
=
𝑑𝑇 𝑇(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )

dQ 𝐾𝐴(T2 − T1 )
=
dt 𝑙
∆𝑇 𝑙
Thermal resistance, 𝑅 = 𝑞
=𝐾

𝐾
Thermal diffusivity 𝐷 = 𝜌𝑆 ,where 𝐾 is thermal conductivity, 𝜌 is density of material and S is specific
heat.

24
Rate of energy radiated by a black body, 𝑃 = 𝜎𝑒𝐴(𝑇 4 − 𝑇04 ), where 𝑒 is emissivity of the black body.

1. An engine consumes 25 litres of petrol per hour. The calorific value of petrol is 6 × 106 calories per
litre. The output of the engine is 35kilowatts. Calculate the efficiency of the engine.
→ Here, Output= 35 𝑘𝑊 = 35000𝑊
Total heat produced by petrol in one hour= 25 × 6 × 106 cals
25×6×106 25×6×106 ×4.2
Heat produced per second= cal/s= W which is input power.
3600 3600
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
Now, efficiency= × 100% = 20%
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
2. If the Einstein’s temperature of a solid is 100℃, calculate Einstein’s frequency.
→ Here, Einsteins temperature, 𝜃𝐸 = 100℃ = 373𝐾
Einstein’s frequency, 𝑓 =?
ℏω hf
We have, Einstein’s temperature, 𝜃𝐸 = =
𝐾𝐵 𝐾𝐵
𝜃𝐸 𝐾𝐵 373 × 1.38 × 10−23
∴𝑓= = = 7.77 × 1012 𝐻𝑧
ℎ 6.62 × 10−34
3. For copper, Einstein’s frequency is 2.49 × 1012 𝐻𝑧. Calculate the characteristic temperature 𝜃𝐸 .
ℏω hf 6.62×10−34× 2.49×1012
→ We have, Einstein’s temperature, 𝜃𝐸 = 𝐾 = 𝐾 = 1.38×10−23
= 119.1𝐾
𝐵 𝐵
4. A solid has Einstein’s temperature 473K, calculate its specific heat at 373K.

→ Here, Einstein’s temperature, 𝜃𝐸 = 473𝐾

Temperature, 𝑇 = 373𝐾

We have,
𝜃𝐸 473
𝜃𝐸 2 𝑒𝑇 473 2 𝑒 373
𝐶𝑉 = 3𝑅 ( 𝑇 ) 𝜃𝐸 2 = 3 × 8.31 × (373) 473 2 = 21.8J/mole K
(𝑒 𝑇 −1) (𝑒 373−1)

Which is nearly equal to high temperature value of heat capacity.

5. Calculate the kinetic energy of one mole of (i) oxygen and (ii) argon at 127℃.
→ Here, temperature, T= 127℃=400K

(i)As the oxygen is diatomic molecule, it has 5 degree of freedom. Its K.E. will be
𝑓 5
𝐸 = 𝑅𝑇 = × 8.31 × 400 = 8310𝐽
2 2
(ii) As the argon is monoatomic, it has 3 degree of freedom. Its K.E. will be
𝑓 3
𝐸 = 𝑅𝑇 = × 8.31 × 400 = 4980𝐽
2 2
6. Calculate kinetic energy of translation of an oxygen molecule at 27℃ (b) the total kinetic energy
of an oxygen molecule at 27℃ and (c) the total kinetic energy of a gram molecule of oxygen at
27℃.
→ Here, temperature, T= 27℃=300K

25
 3
(𝑎) Kinetic energy of translation of an oxygen molecule, 𝐸 = 2 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 = 6.2 × 10−21 𝐽
5
(𝑏) The total kinetic energy of an oxygen molecule, 𝐸 = 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 = 10.35 × 10−21 𝐽
2
(∴ 𝐴 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑠 5 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑜𝑚)

5 5
(c) The total kinetic energy of a gram molecule of oxygen 𝐸 = 2 𝑅𝑇 = 2 × 8.31 × 300 = 6232.5𝐽
7. Calculate the values of molar heat capacities 𝐶𝑃 & 𝐶𝑉 of a gas, if the ratio of heat capacities is
1.33. What is the atomicity of the gas? Given, R=8.31J/mol-K.
𝐶
→ We have, 𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃 = 𝛾
𝐶𝑉
∴ 𝛾𝐶𝑉 − 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅
𝑅 8.31
𝑜𝑟, 𝐶𝑉 = 𝛾−1 = 1.33−1 = 25.18 J/mol-K
𝐶𝑃 = 𝛾𝐶𝑉 = 1.33 × 25.18 = 33.49 J/mol-K
Now, we have
2
𝛾 = +1
𝑓

2
∴ 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑓 = =6
𝛾−1

The gas is polyatomic.

8. Calculate the Vander Waal’s constants for dry air, given that 𝑇𝑐 = 132𝐾, 𝑃𝑐 = 37.2 atmospheres.
→ Here, 𝑇𝑐 = 132𝐾, 𝑃𝑐 = 37.2 atmospheres= 37.2 × 1.01 × 105 N/m2

We have,
27𝑅2 𝑇𝑐 2 𝑁
𝑎= = 13.51 × 10−2 2 𝑚 6
64𝑃𝑐 𝑚

And
𝑅𝑇𝑐
𝑏= = 3.65 × 10−5 𝑚 3
8𝑃𝑐

9. Calculate critical temperature for CO2, given that a=0.00874 atmosphere cm6, and b=0.0023 cm3.
→ To evaluate the value of gram molecular gas constant R at a pressure of 1 atmosphere for a gram
molecular volume at 273K, we have from Vander Waal’s equation,
𝑎
(𝑃 + ) (𝑉 − 𝑏) = 𝑅𝑇
𝑉2

0.00874
𝑜𝑟, (1 + ) (1 − 0.0023) = 𝑅 × 273
1

𝑜𝑟, 𝑅 = 0.00368

26
Now, critical temperature is
8𝑎
𝑇𝑐 = = 305.7𝐾 = 32.7℃
27𝑏𝑅

10. The Vander Waal’s constants a and b for 1 gram molecule of hydrogen are a=0.245 atms-litre2-mol-2
and b=2.67×10-2litre-mole-1. Calculate the critical temperature.
→ Here, a=0.245 atms-litre2-mol-2=0.245× 76 × 13.6 × 980 × 106 dynes-cm4-mole-2
b=2.67×10-2litre-mole-1=2.67× 10−2 × 103 cm3mole-1
R=8.31 J/mole-K=8.31× 107 ergs/mole-K

Now, critical temperature is

8𝑎
𝑇𝑐 = = 33.14𝐾 = −239.86℃
27𝑏𝑅

11. Calculate the values of Vander Waal’s constants a and b when 𝑃𝑐 = 0.23 × 106 𝑁/𝑚 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑐 =
58 × 10−8 𝑚 3 /𝑚𝑜𝑙.
→ We have, critical volume,
𝑉𝑐 = 3𝑏

𝑉𝑐
∴𝑏= = 19.33 × 10−8 𝑚 3 /𝑚𝑜𝑙
3
𝑎
= 27𝑃𝑐
𝑏2

∴ 𝑎 = 27𝑃𝑐 𝑏2 = 2.32 × 10−7 𝐽𝑚 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −2

12. Calculate the critical constants of a gas if Vander Waal’s coefficients are a=13.31×
105 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑚 6 and b=36.42cm3 and R=82.07 cm3 atmosphere/K.
→ We have,
𝑉𝑐 = 3𝑏 = 109.23cm3
𝑎
𝑃𝑐 = = 37.2 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
27𝑏2
8𝑎
𝑇𝑐 = = 132𝐾
27𝑏𝑅

13. Calculate the change in entropy when 5kg of water at 100℃ is converted into steam at the same
temperature. Given, latent heat of steam = 540cal/gm.
𝑑𝑄 𝑚𝐿 5000×540
→ We have, Change in entropy 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑇
= 𝑇
= 373
= 7238.6 cal/K
14. 1 kg of water at 273K is brought in contact with a heat reservoir at 373K. Calculate the change in
entropy of water when its temperature reaches to 373K.

→ We have, Change in entropy,

𝑇 𝑑𝑄 𝑇 𝑚𝑆𝑑𝑇 𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑇 373
𝑑𝑆 = ∫𝑇 2 = ∫𝑇 2 = 𝑚𝑆 ∫𝑇 2 = 𝑚𝑆𝑙𝑛 ( 2 ) = 1 × 4200 × ln ( ) = 1310.8J/K
1 𝑇 1 𝑇 1 𝑇 𝑇1 273

27
15. Calculate the change in entropy when 10gm of ice at 0℃ is converted into steam at 100℃.
→ (i) increase in entropy when 10 gm of ice at 0℃ is converted into water at 0℃ is

𝑑𝑄 𝑚𝐿 10×80
𝑑𝑆 = 𝑇
= 𝑇
= 273
= 2.93 cal/K
(ii) Increase in entropy when the temperature of 10gm of water is raised from 0℃ to 100℃ is
𝑇 𝑑𝑄 𝑇 𝑚𝑆𝑑𝑇 𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑇 373
𝑑𝑆 = ∫𝑇 2 𝑇
= ∫𝑇 2 𝑇
= 𝑚𝑆 ∫𝑇 2 𝑇
= 𝑚𝑆𝑙𝑛 (𝑇2 ) = 10 × 1 × ln (273) = 3.12cal/K
1 1 1 1
(iii) increase in entropy when 10 gm of water at 100℃ is converted into steam at 100℃ is

𝑑𝑄 𝑚𝐿 10×540
𝑑𝑆 = 𝑇
= 𝑇
= 373
= 14.47 cal/K
Now, total increase in entropy = 2.93+3.12+14.47 = 20.52 cal/K
16. Calculate the change in entropy when 10gm of water at 60℃ is mixed with 30 gm of water at 20℃.
→ Here, m1=10gm, m2=30gm, T1=333K and T2=293K
Let the final temperature be T K then

m1S(T1-T) = m2S(T-T2)

or, 10× 1 × (333 − 𝑇) = 30 × 1 × (𝑇 − 293)

or, T=303K

(i) Now, change in entropy when the temperature of 10gm of water changes from T1=333K to
T= 303K is
𝑇 𝑑𝑄 𝑇 𝑚𝑆𝑑𝑇 𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑇 303
dS1 = ∫𝑇 𝑇
= ∫𝑇 𝑇
= 𝑚𝑆 ∫𝑇 𝑇
= 𝑚𝑆𝑙𝑛 (𝑇 ) = 10 × 1 × ln (333) = −0.9443 cal/K
1 1 1 1
(Negative sign indicates decrease in entropy)
(ii) Change in entropy when the temperature of 30gm of water change from T2=293K to
T=303K is

𝑇 𝑑𝑄 𝑇 𝑚𝑆𝑑𝑇 𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑇 303
dS2 = ∫𝑇 𝑇
= ∫𝑇 𝑇
= 𝑚𝑆 ∫𝑇 𝑇
= 𝑚𝑆𝑙𝑛 (𝑇 ) = 30 × 1 × ln (293 ) = 1.002 cal/K
2 1 1 2
Hence total change in entropy of the system = 1.002-0.9443=0.0577cal/K

17. Calculate under what pressure ice freezes at 272K if the change in specific volume when 1 kg of
water freezes is 91× 10−6 𝑚 3 . Given, latent heat of ice is 3.36 × 105 J/kg.

→ Here, latent heat of ice 𝐿 = 3.36 × 105 J/kg

Freezing point of ice under normal pressure T = 273K

Change in freezing point is 𝑑𝑇 = 273𝐾 − 272𝐾 = 1𝐾

Change in specific volume, 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 =91× 10−6 𝑚 3 /𝑘𝑔

𝑑𝑃 𝐿
We have, =
𝑑𝑇 𝑇(𝑉2−𝑉1)

28
 𝑑𝑇×𝐿 1.352×107
∴ 𝑑𝑃 = 𝑇(𝑉 −𝑉 ) = 1.352 × 107 𝑁𝑚 −2 = 1×105
𝐴𝑡𝑚. = 135.2 𝐴𝑡𝑚.
2 1

∴ The pressure under which ice would freeze at 272K = P+dP=1+135.2=136.2 Atmosphere

18. Calculate the change in boiling point of water when the pressure is increased by 1 atmosphere.
Boiling point of water is 373K. Specific volume of steam is 1.671 m3 and latent heat of steam is 2.268 ×
106 J/kg.

→ Here, latent heat of steam 𝐿 = 2.268 × 106 J/kg.

Boiling point of water under normal pressure T = 373K

𝑚3
Specific volume of steam, 𝑉2 = 1.671 kg

Specific volume of water, 𝑉1 = 1 × 10−3 𝑚 3 /kg

Change in specific volume, 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 = (1.671 − 1 × 10−3 )𝑚 3 /𝑘𝑔 = 1.670𝑚 3 /𝑘𝑔

Increase in pressure 𝑑𝑃 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 105 𝑁/m2

𝑑𝑃 𝐿
We have, 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑇(𝑉 −𝑉 )
2 1

𝑑𝑃×𝑇×(𝑉2−𝑉1 )
∴ 𝑑𝑇 = 𝐿
= 27.47𝐾

Note: The boiling point of water when pressure increased by 1 atm. is 373+27.47=400.47K

19. Calculate the increase in boiling point of water at 100℃ when the pressure is increased by 1 atm.
Latent heat of vaporization is 540 cal/gm and 1 gm of steam occupies a volume of 1677cm 3.

→ Here, latent heat of steam 𝐿 = 540cal/gm = 540x4.2x1000J/kg.

Boiling point of water under normal pressure T = 373K

Specific volume of steam, 𝑉2 = 1677c𝑚 3 /gm = 1.677𝑚 3 /𝑘𝑔

Specific volume of water, 𝑉1 = 1c𝑚 3 /𝑔𝑚 = 1 × 10−3 𝑚 3 /kg

Change in specific volume, 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 = (1.677 − 1 × 10−3 )𝑚 3 /kg

Increase in pressure 𝑑𝑃 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 105 𝑁/m2

𝑑𝑃 𝐿
We have, 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑇(𝑉 −𝑉 )
2 1

𝑑𝑃×𝑇×(𝑉2−𝑉1 )
∴ 𝑑𝑇 = = 27.56𝐾
𝐿

29
20. Calculate the pressure required to lower the melting point of ice at 1℃ if L=3.36*105J/kg, specific
volume of water at 0℃ = 10−3 𝑚 3 𝑘𝑔−1 , specific volume of ice at 0℃ = 1.091 × 10−3 𝑚 3 𝑘𝑔−1 .

→ Here, latent heat of ice 𝐿 = 3.36x105J/kg.

Melting point of ice under normal pressure T = 273K

Change in specific volume, 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 = (1.091 × 10−3 − 1 × 10−3 )𝑚 3 /kg

Decrease in temperature 𝑑𝑇 = 1 ℃ = 1𝐾
𝑑𝑃 𝐿
We have, 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑇(𝑉 −𝑉 )
2 1

𝑑𝑇 × 𝐿
∴ 𝑑𝑃 = = 135.2 × 105 𝑁𝑚 −2
𝑇 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
(

21. Calculate the change in melting point of ice when it is subjected to a pressure of 100 atmosphere.
Density of ice = 0.917gm/cm3 latent heat of ice=336J/gm.

→ Here, latent heat of ice 𝐿 = 336J/gm=336x107ergs/gm.

Melting point of ice under normal pressure T = 273K

1
Change in specific volume, 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 = (1 − 0.917) = −0.091𝑐𝑚 3 /gm

Increase in pressure 𝑑𝑃 = (100 − 1) 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 99 × 76 × 13.6 × 9802 dynes/cm2

𝑑𝑃 𝐿
We have, =
𝑑𝑇 𝑇(𝑉2−𝑉1)

𝑑𝑃 × 𝑇 × (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
∴ 𝑑𝑇 = = −0.7326𝐾 = −0.7326℃
𝐿

22. Calculate the specific heat of saturated steam given that specific heat of water at 100℃ is 1.01 and
the latent of vaporization decreases with rise in temperature at the rate of 0.64 cal/Kgm. The latent heat
of vaporization of steam = 540cal/gm.
𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝐿
→ Here, 𝑇 = 373𝐾, 𝐿 = 540 𝑔𝑚 , 𝐶1 = 1.01, 𝐶2 =? , 𝑑𝑇 = −0.64 cal/Kgm

dL L
We have, C2 − C1 = −
dT T

dL L 540
𝑜𝑟, C2 = C1 + − = 1.01 − 0.64 − = −1.077 𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑔𝑚
dT T 373

23. A slab of compressed cork 5cm thick and 2 m2 area be as a heating coil at one face. A current of 1.18
A at 20 V passes through the coil in lees disc experiment of thermal conductivity. If two faces of the coil
attain steady state temperature of 0℃ and 12.5℃. Calculate the thermal conductivity of the cork.

30
→ According to Lee’s Disc experiment of thermal conductivity of insulated material we have,

𝐾𝐴(T2 − T1 )
𝑉𝐼 =
𝑙
𝑉𝐼𝑙 20×1.18×5×10−2
∴ 𝐾 = 𝐴(T = = 0.047 W/m-K
2 −T1 ) 2×(12.5−0)

24. If the thermal conductivity of Pyrex glass at 0℃ is 2.9 × 10−3 𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑠 −cm℃, rhen calculate the R
value for a ¼ inch sheet of such glass.

→ We have, thermal conductivity K=2.9 × 10−3 𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑠 −cm℃ = 2.9 × 10−3 × 4.2 × 100𝑊/m-K =
1.2W/m-K

1
𝑙 = 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ = 0.25 × 2.54 × 10−2 𝑚
4

Now, R value is the thermal resistance given by

𝑙 0.00635
𝑅=𝐾= 1.2
= 5.3 𝐾𝑚 2 /W

25. If two rods of equal lengths and diameters having thermal conductivities 2 and 3 units respectively
are joined in series, what will be the thermal conductivity of the combination?

→ At equilibrium condition, the rate of transfer of heat from each other is equal such that,

𝐾1 𝐴(T1 − T) 𝐾2 𝐴(T − T2 ) 𝐾𝐴(T1 − T2 )

= =
𝑙 𝑙 2𝑙
𝐾
𝑜𝑟, 𝐾1 (T1 − T) = 𝐾2 (T − T2 ) = (T − T2 ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝛼
2 1
𝛼 𝛼 2𝛼
∴ T1 − T = , T − T2 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 T1 − T2 =
𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾
1 1
Now T1 − T2 = (T1 − T) +( T − T2 )= 𝛼(𝐾 + 𝐾 )
1 2

2𝛼 1 1
∴ = 𝛼( + )
𝐾 𝐾1 𝐾2

2𝐾1 𝐾2 2 × 2 × 3 12
𝑜𝑟, 𝐾 = = = = 2.4 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝐾1 +𝐾2 2+3 5

31
26. If two rods of equal length and diameter having thermal conductivities 2 and 3 units respectively are
joined in parallel, what will be the thermal conductivity of the combination?

→ At equilibrium condition, we have

𝐾1 𝐴(T1 − T2 ) 𝐾2 𝐴(T1 − T2 ) 𝐾2𝐴(T1 − T2 )

+ =
𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
𝐾1 + 𝐾2 2 + 3
𝑜𝑟, 𝐾 = = = 2.5 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
2 2

27. If the surface area of a human body is 1.20 m2 and surface temperature is 27℃, (i) find the total rate
of radiation of energy from the body. If the temperature of surrounding is at 20℃ (ii) what is the net
rate of loss of heat from the body by radiation?

→ (i) We have, 𝑃 = 𝜎𝐴𝑇 4 = 5.67 × 10−8 × 1.2 × 3004 = 551.1𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡

(ii)Again 𝑃 = 𝜎𝐴(𝑇 4 − 𝑇04 ) = 5.67 × 10−8 × 1.2 × (3004 − 2934 ) = 49.67𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡

28. An iron furnace radiates 1.53× 105 cal/hr through an opening of cross-section 10−4 𝑚 2 . If the
relative emittance of the furnace is 0.8, calculate the temperature of furnace.

1.53×105 ×4.2
→ Here, P = 1.53× 105 cal/hr= 60×60
= 178.5𝑊

We have, 𝑃 = 𝜎𝑒𝐴𝑇 4
1/4
𝑃 1/4 178.5
∴𝑇={ } ={ } = 2500𝐾
𝜎𝑒𝐴 5.67 × 10−8 × 0.8 × 10−4

29. Calculate the temperature of sun assuming the sun as a perfect black body having radius 6.88 ×
105 𝑘𝑚, the distance between sun and earth is 1.50 × 108 𝑘𝑚 and the solar constant 𝜌 = 1.33𝑘𝑊𝑚 −2 .

→ The total amount of heat energy emitted by the sun per second = 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑞 where, r is the radius of sun
and q is heat flux.

If R be the distance between sun and the earth, total amount of energy of radiation = 4𝜋𝑅2 𝜌

At equilibrium, we have

32
4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑞 = 4𝜋𝑅2 𝜌

𝑅2
∴𝑞= 𝜌 = 𝜎𝑇 4
𝑟2
1/4
𝑅 2𝜌
𝑜𝑟, 𝑇 = {( ) } = 5760𝐾
𝑟 𝜎

33
Chapter 5: Optics
Interference
Interference due to thin film

Reflected System

Constructive Interference, 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = (2𝑛 − 1) 2

Destructive Interference, 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 𝑛

Transmitted System

Constructive Interference 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 𝑛


Destructive Interference 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = (2𝑛 − 1)
2

Interference due to Wedge Shaped thin film

𝑚
𝑥= 2𝜃

𝑥 
fringe width, 𝛽 = 𝑚 = 2𝜃 for air


For a liquid having refractive index 𝜇, 𝛽 = 2𝜇𝜃

Newton’s Ring

𝑟𝑛2
2𝑡 =
𝑅

In Reflected System

(2𝑛−1)𝑅
Radius of nth bright ring, 𝑟𝑛 = √ 2
,n=1,2,3………

Radius of nth dark ring, 𝑟𝑛 = √𝑛𝑅 ,n=0,1,2,3………

In transmitted System

Radius of nth bright ring, 𝑟𝑛 = √𝑛𝑅 , n = 0,1,2,3……….

(2𝑛−1)𝑅
Radius of nth dark ring, 𝑟𝑛 = √ ,n=1,2,3………
2

34
 𝐷 2−𝐷 2
Wavelength of monochromatic light,  = 4(𝑛−𝑚)𝑅
𝑛 𝑚

𝐷𝑛2−𝐷𝑚
2
Refractive index of liquid, 𝜇 =
𝐷′2𝑛−𝐷′2𝑚

𝐷𝑛2
Also 𝜇 = 2
𝐷′𝑛

Visible Range:4000𝐀𝟎 − 𝟕𝟎𝟎𝟎𝐀𝟎 = 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝐦 − 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝐦

= 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝐜𝐦 − 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝐜𝐦 = 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝐦𝐦 − 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝐦𝐦

1. Light of wavelength 624nm is incident perpendicularly on a soap film (µ=1.33) suspended in air.
What are the a)least and b) second least thickness of the film for which the reflections from the
film undergo fully constructive interference?
 Here, λ=624nm=624 × 10−9 𝑚, 𝑟 = 00 , µ = 1.33,

We have, 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = (2𝑛 − 1) 2
(2𝑛 − 1)
∴𝑡=
4𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟
a) For least thickness, n=1
(2 × 1 − 1)
∴𝑡= =?
4𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟
b) For second least thickness, n=2
(2 × 2 − 1)
∴𝑡= =?
4𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟
2. White light falls normally on a film of soapy water whose thickness is 5x10 -5 cm and µ=1.33. Which
wavelength in the visible region will be reflected most strongly?
 Here, 𝑟 = 00 , t = 5x10-5 cm , µ = 1.33,

We have, 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = (2𝑛 − 1) 2
4𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟
𝑜𝑟,  =
2𝑛 − 1
4 × 1.33 × 5 × 10−5 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠00
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1, 1 = = 26.6 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 (𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 )
2×1−1
4 × 1.33 × 5 × 10−5 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠00
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 2, 2 = = 8.86 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 (𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 )
2×2−1
4 × 1.33 × 5 × 10−5 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠00
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 3, 3 = = 5.32 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 (𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 )
2×3−1
4 × 1.33 × 5 × 10−5 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠00
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 4, 4 = = 3.8 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 (𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 )
2×4−1
Hence, light of wavelength 5.32 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 will be reflected most strongly.
3. A soap film 5x10-5cm is viewed at an angle of 35º to the normal. Find the wavelengths of light in
the visible spectrum which will be absent from the reflected light if µ of soap film is 1.33.
 Here, t = 5x10-5 cm , i = 350 µ = 1.33,
sini
We have, µ = sinr

35
 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖
∴ 𝑟 = sin−1 ( µ
) = 25.550
Again, we have 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 𝑛
2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟
𝑜𝑟,  =
𝑛
2 × 1.33 × 5 × 10−5 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠25.550
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1, 1 = = 12 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 (𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 )
1
2 × 1.33 × 5 × 10−5 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠25.550
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 2, 2 = = 6 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 (𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒)
2
2 × 1.33 × 5 × 10−5 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠25.550
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 3, 3 = = 4 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 (𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒)
3
2 × 1.33 × 5 × 10−5 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠25.550
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 4, 4 = = 3 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 (𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒)
4
Hence the required wavelengths are 6 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚
4. A thin film suspended in air is 0.41µm thick and is illuminated with white light incident
perpendicularly on its surface. The r,i. of the film is 1.5. At what wavelength will visible light that is
reflected from the two surfaces of the film undergo fully constructive interference?
 Same as question number 15.

5. A 600nm thick film (µ=1.4)in air is illuminated with white light in a direction perpendicular to the
film. For how many different wavelengths in the 300 to 700nm range is there a)fully constructive
interference and b)fully destructive interference in the reflected light?
 Same as question number 15,16,17.
6. A beam of parallel rays is incident at an angle of 30º with the normal on a plane parallel film of
thickness 4x10-5cm and r.i. 1.50. Show that the reflected light whose wavelength is 7.539x10 -5cm,
will be strengthened by reinforcement.

Here, i = 300 , t = 4x10-5 cm , µ = 1.50, =7.539x10-5cm

𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐢
We have, µ = 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐫

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖
∴ 𝑟 = sin−1 ( µ
) =?
We have for constructive interference in reflected system,

2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = (2𝑛 − 1)
2

𝑜𝑟, 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 𝑛′
2

Here you need to show that n’ is odd.

7. White light is incident on a soap film at an angle sin-1(4/5) and the reflected light on
examination by a spectrometer shows a dark bands. The consecutive dark bands corresponds to
wavelength 6.1x10-5cm and 6x10-5cm overlap. If µ=1.333 for the film, calculate its thickness.
Here, i = sin−1(4/5) , 1 = 6.1 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚, 2 = 6 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 µ = 1.333, t=?

36
 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐢
We have, µ = 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐫

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖 4
∴ 𝑟 = sin−1 ( ) = sin−1 ( ) =?
µ 𝟓×𝟏.𝟑𝟑𝟑
Again, by question
2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 𝑛1 = (𝑛 + 1)2
∴ 𝑛 =?
𝑛
1
Now, 𝑡 = 2𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 =?

8. A wedge shaped film of air is produced by placing a fine wire of diameter D between the ends of
two flat glass plates of length L=20cm. When the film is illuminated with light of wavelength
550nm, there are 12 dark fringes per cm. Find D.
1
Here, L=20cm, =550nm=550× 10−7 𝑐𝑚, 𝛽 = 𝑐𝑚, 𝐷 =?
12

 𝐿
We have, 𝛽 = 2𝜃 = 2𝐷
∴ 𝐷 =?

9. Two glass plate enclosing a wedge shaped air film touching at one edge are separated by a wire of
0.03mm diameter at a distance of 15cm from the edge. Monochromatic light of λ=600nm from a
broad source falls normally on the film. Calculate the fringe width.
 Same as 21.
10. Interference fringes are produced with monochromatic light falling normally on a wedge
shaped film of cellophase with r. i. 1.4. The angle of the wedge is 40seconds of an arc and the
distance between the successive fringes is 0.125cm. Calculate the wavelength of light.
40 𝜋
Here, 𝜇 = 1.4, 𝜃 = 40" =
60×60
×
180
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛, 𝛽 = 0.125𝑐𝑚,  =?


We have, 𝛽 = 2𝜇𝜃

∴  =?

11. Light of wavelength 6000Aº falls normally on a thin wedge shaped film of refractive index 1.4
forming fringes that are 2mm apart. Find the angle of wedge.

37
 
We have, 𝛽 = 2𝜇𝜃
∴ 𝜃 =?
12. A glass wedge of angle 0.01 radian is illuminated by monochromatic light of 600nm falling
normally on it. At what distance from the edge of the wedge will the tenth fringe be observed by
reflected light?

We have, 𝛽 = 2𝜇𝜃 =?
∴ x10 = 10 × β =?

13. In Newton’s ring exp., the radius of curvature R of the lens is 5m and the lens diameter is
20mm. a) How many bright rings are produced? Assume that λ=589nm. B) How many bright
fringes would be produced if the arrangement were immersed in water(n=1.33)

Here, R=5m, 𝑟𝑛 = 10𝑚𝑚 = 10 × 10−3 𝑚, λ = 589nm = 589 × 10−9 𝑚, 𝜇 = 1.33

a) We have the radius of bright ring in reflected system is

(2𝑛 − 1)𝑅
𝑟𝑛 = √
2
∴ 𝑛 =?
b) When immersed in water,
(2𝑛′−1)𝑅
𝑟𝑛′ = √ (here, 𝑟𝑛′ = 𝑟𝑛 )
2𝜇

∴ 𝑛′ =?

14. A plano-convex lens of radius 300cm is placed on an optically flat glass plate and is illuminated
by monochromatic light. The diameter of 8th dark ring in the transmitted system is 0.72cm.
Calculate the wavelength of light used.

 We have diameter of nth dark ring in transmitted system is

(2𝑛 − 1)𝑅
𝐷𝑛 = 2𝑟𝑛 = 2√
2

(2 × 8 − 1)𝑅
∴ 𝐷8 = 2√
2
𝑜𝑟,  =?

15. Newton’ rings formed by sodium light viewed normally. What is the order of the dark ring which
will have double the diameter of 40th ring.

 Let the diameter of nth dark ring is double the diameter of 40th ring.

i.e. 𝐷𝑛 = 2𝐷40

38
𝑜𝑟, √4𝑛𝑅 = 2 × √4 × 40 × 𝑅

𝑜𝑟, 𝑛 =?

16. In Newton’s ring experiment the diameter of 5th dark ring is reduced to half of its value after
introducing a liquid below the convex surface. Calculate the refractive index of the liquid.
𝑥
 Here, 𝐷5 = 𝑥 𝐷′ 5 =
2

𝐷𝑛2 𝐷52
∴𝜇= = =?
𝐷′2𝑛 𝐷′25

17. When oil is introduced into the space between the lens and the plate in Newton’s arrangement,
the radius of the 8th dark ring decreases from 1.80cm to 1.64cm. What is the refractive index of
the oil?

 Here, 𝑟8 = 1.8𝑐𝑚 𝑟 ′ 8 = 1.64𝑐𝑚

𝐷𝑛2 𝑟𝑛2 𝑟82

∴𝜇= = = =?
𝐷′2𝑛 𝑟′2𝑛 𝑟′28

18. A Newton’s rings apparatus is to be used to determine the radius of curvature of a lens. The radii of
nth and (n+20)th bright rings are measured and found to be 0.162 and 0.368 cm respectively, in light of
λ=546nm. Calculate the radius of curvature of the lower surface of the lens.

 Here, 𝐷𝑛 = 2 × 0.162𝑐𝑚, 𝐷𝑛+20 = 2 × 0.368𝑐𝑚, λ=546nm=546× 10−7 𝑐𝑚, R=?

𝐷𝑛2−𝐷𝑚
2 2
𝐷𝑛+20 −𝐷𝑛2
We have,  = =
4(𝑛−𝑚)𝑅 4(𝑛+20−𝑛)𝑅

∴ R=?

19. Show that the diameters of the Newton's rings when two surfaces of radii R 1 and R2 are placed in
contact are related by the relation (1/R1)-(1/R2) = (4m𝛌/d2m), where n is the integer number of the
& fringes.
 We have 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 𝑚
But for air, 𝜇 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 1
∴ 2t = m … … … … . . (i)

39
 𝑟2 𝑟2 2
𝑟𝑚 1 1 2
𝑑𝑚 1 1
Here, the thickness of air film is 𝑡 = 𝑃𝑇 − 𝑄𝑇 = 2𝑅𝑚 − 2𝑅𝑚 = 2
(
𝑅1
−𝑅 ) = 8
(
𝑅1
−𝑅 )
1 2 2 2

Now from (i)

2
𝑑𝑚 1 1
2× ( − ) = m
8 𝑅1 𝑅2

1 1 4𝑚
𝑜𝑟, − = 2
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑑𝑚

20. In Newton’s ring arrangement a source emitting two wavelengths 𝝀𝟏 and 𝝀𝟐 is used. It is found
that nth dark ring due to one wavelength coincides with (n+1)th dark ring due to other. Find the
radius of the nth dark ring if radius of curvature of lens is R.
 We have the radius of nth dark ring due to wavelength 1is 𝑟𝑛 = √𝑛1 𝑅
And the radius of (n+1)th dark ring due to wavelength 2is 𝑟𝑛+1 = √(𝑛 + 1)2 𝑅
By question, 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑟𝑛+1
𝑜𝑟, √𝑛1 𝑅 = √(𝑛 + 1)2 𝑅
2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑛 =
1 − 2

Now the radius of nth dark ring is

  𝑅
𝑟𝑛 = √𝑛 1 𝑅 = √2−1
1 2

  𝑅
Also diameter of nth dark ring is 𝐷𝑛 = 2𝑟𝑛 = 2√2−1
1 2

21. In Newton’s ring arrangement a source emitting two wavelengths 6x10-7 m and 5.9x10-7 m is
used. It is found that nth dark ring due to one wavelength coincides with (n+1)th dark ring due to
other. Find the diameter of the nth dark ring if radius of curvature of lens is 0.9m
 Same as 33.

40
22. In a Newton’s ring experiment, the diameter of the 15 th ring was found to be 0.590cm and that
of the 5th ring was 0.336cm. if the radius of the plano-convex lens is 100cm, calculate the
wavelength of light used.
 Here, 𝐷15 = 0.590𝑐𝑚, 𝐷5 = 0.336𝑐𝑚, 𝑅 = 100𝑐𝑚,  =?
𝐷 2−𝐷 2 𝐷 2 −𝐷 2
We have,  = 4(𝑛−𝑚)𝑅
𝑛 𝑚 15 5
= 4(15−5)𝑅 =?

41
Diffraction
For 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎

𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛 , n=1,2,3,………

𝐹𝑜𝑟 secondary maxima


𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = (2𝑛 + 1) 2 , 𝑛 = 1,2,3, … … … . (≠ 0)

𝑛𝐷
Distance of nth minima from central maxima 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑑
, 𝑛 = 1,2,3 … …

(2𝑛+1)𝐷
Distance of nth maxima from central maxima 𝑥𝑛 = 2𝑑
, 𝑛 = 1,2,3 … …

2𝐷
Width of central maximum is 2𝑥1 =
𝑑

Angular width of central maximum = 2𝜃

𝛽 2
sin 2
𝐼 = 𝐼0 { }
𝛽⁄
2
2𝜋
𝛽= × 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

1
For nth order primary maxima, (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 = 𝑛 Where, 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑁

Bragg’s law 2𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆

𝑎
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 =
√ℎ2 +𝑘2 +𝑙2

𝑀 1/3
𝑑=( )
2𝑁𝐴 𝜌

1. Light of wavelength 600nm is incident normally on a slit of width 0.1mm a) what is the
angular position of the first minimum? b) What is the position of the second order minimum
on a screen 3m from the slit?

→ Here, wavelength λ=600nm=600 × 10−9 𝑚, width of slit d=0.1mm=0.1 × 10−3 𝑚,

distance between slit and screen D=3m

a) We have for minima, 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆

𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚, 𝑛 = 1
∴ 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝜆

42
 𝜆
𝑜𝑟, 𝜃 = sin−1 (𝑑 ) =?
𝑛 𝐷
b) We have the distance of nth minima from central maxima is 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑑
2 𝐷
∴ 𝑥2 = =?
𝑑
2. Light of wavelength 750nm passes through a slit of width 1× 10−3 𝑚𝑚. Find the angular and
linear width of central maximum on a screen at 20cm from the slit.
→ Here, wavelength λ=750nm=750 × 10−9 𝑚, width of slit d=1× 10−3 𝑚𝑚 =1 ×
10−6 𝑚, distance between slit and screen D=20cm=0.2m
We have, for minima, 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
For central maximum, n=1
∴ 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝜆
𝜆 750×10−9
𝑜𝑟, 𝜃 = sin−1 (𝑑 ) =sin−1 ( ) = 490
1×10−6
∴ Width of central maximum=2𝜃 = 980
𝐼𝑓 𝑥 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒
𝑥
tan 𝜃 =
𝐷
𝑜𝑟, 𝑥 = 𝐷𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =?
∴Linear width of central maxima= 2𝑥 =?

3. The distance between the first and fifth minima of a single slit diffraction pattern is 0.35mm
with the screen 40cm away from the slit, when light of wavelength 550nm is used. a) Find
the slit width. b) Calculate the angle of the first diffraction minimum.

→ Here, 𝑥5 − 𝑥1 = 0.35𝑚𝑚 = 0.35 × 10−3 𝑚, D=40cm=0.4cm, λ=550nm= 550 ×

10−9 𝑚
𝑛 𝐷
a) We have the distance of nth minima from central maxima is 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑑

5𝐷 𝐷
∴ 𝑥5 − 𝑥1 = −
𝑑 𝑑

4𝐷
𝑜𝑟, 0.35 × 10−3 = 𝑑

𝑜𝑟, 𝑑 =?

b) We have for minima, 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆

𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚, 𝑛 = 1
∴ 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝜆
𝜆
𝑜𝑟, 𝜃 = sin−1 (𝑑 ) =?

43
4. A plane wave of wavelength 590nm is incident on a slit with a width of 0.4mm. A thin
converging lens of focal length70cm is placed between the slit and a viewing screen focuses
the light on the screen. a) How far is the screen from the lens? b) What is the distance on
the screen from the center of the diffraction pattern to the first minimum?
→ Here, λ=590nm=590× 10−9 𝑚, d=0.4mm=0.4× 10−3 𝑚, 𝑓 = 70𝑐𝑚 = 0.7𝑚
a) 𝐷 = 𝑓 = 0.7𝑚
𝐷
b) 𝑥1 = =?
𝑑
5. Diffraction pattern of a single slit of width 0.5cm is formed by a lens of focal length 40cm.
Calculate the distance between the first dark and the next bright fringe from the axis.
Wavelength = 4890Aº

→ Here, d=0.5cm=0.005m, f=D=40cm=0.4m, λ=4890𝐴0 =4890× 10−10 𝑚

𝑛 𝐷
We have the distance of nth minima from central maxima is 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑑

𝐷
∴ 𝑥1 = 𝑑

(2𝑛+1)𝐷
And the distance of nth maxima from central maxima is 𝑥′𝑛 =
2𝑑

3 𝐷
∴ 𝑥′1 =
2𝑑

Now, 𝑥′1 − 𝑥1 =?

6. What must be ratio of the slit width to wavelength for a single slit to have 1 st minimum at
45º.
→ We have for first minimum, 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝜆
𝑑 1
∴ = =?
 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
7. Light of wavelength 600nm is incident normally on a slit of width 0.1mm. What is the
intensity at 𝜽=0.2º.
→ Here,  = 600𝑛𝑚 = 600 × 10−9 𝑚, 𝑑 = 0.1𝑚𝑚 = 0.1 × 10−3 𝑚, angle of
diffraction, 𝜃=0.2º, I=?
𝛽 2
sin
2
We have, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 { 𝛽 }
⁄2

2𝜋
Where, 𝛽 = × 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =?


∴ 𝐼 =?

44
8. Hydrogen gas in a discharge tube emits a red line at 656.2nm. The light passes through a
single slit of width 0.08mm.a) at what angle is the 1 st minimum? b) What is the intensity at
half the angle formed in a?

→ 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑠 7.

9. Monochromatic light with wavelength 538nm is incident on a slit with width 0.025mm.the
distance from the slit to a screen is 3.5m. Consider a point on a screen 1.1cm from the central
maximum. Calculate a) 𝜃 for that point b) α c) the ratio of the intensity at that point to the
intensity at the central maximum.

→Here,  = 538𝑛𝑚 = 538 × 10−9 𝑚, 𝑑 = 0.025𝑚𝑚 = 0.025 × 10−3 𝑚, 𝐷 = 3.5𝑚,

𝑥 = 1.1𝑐𝑚 = 0.011𝑚
𝑥
a) We have tan 𝜃 = 𝐷
∴ 𝜃 =?
𝛽
b) 𝛼 = =?
2
𝛽 2
𝐼 sin
2 sin 𝛼 2
c) = {𝛽 } = { } =?
𝐼0 ⁄2 𝛼

10. Calculate the first and second order angles for light of wavelength 400nm and 700nm, if the
grating contains 10,000lines/cm.
→ Here, 𝜆1 = 400𝑛𝑚 = 400 × 10−7 𝑐𝑚, 𝜆2 = 700𝑛𝑚 = 700 × 10−7 𝑐𝑚
N=10000lines/cm
We have (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 = 𝑛
For wavelength 𝜆1 ,
𝜆1
𝜃1 = sin−1 { } = sin−1 (𝑁𝜆1 ) =?
𝑎+𝑏

2𝜆1
𝜃2 = sin−1 { } = sin−1 (2𝑁𝜆1 ) =?
𝑎+𝑏
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝜆2

𝜆2
𝜃′1 = sin−1 { } = sin−1 (𝑁𝜆2 ) =?
𝑎+𝑏
2𝜆
𝜃′2 = sin−1 {𝑎+𝑏2 } = sin−1 (2𝑁𝜆2 ) =? (Not Possible)

11. A diffraction grating 20mm wide has 6000rullings. Light of wavelength 589nm is incident
perpendicularly on a grating. What are the a) largest, b) second largest and c) third largest
values of 𝜃 at which maxima appear on a distance viewing screen?
6000
→ Here, 𝑁 = 2 = 3000 lines/cm, λ=589nm=589× 10−7 𝑐𝑚
We have (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 = 𝑛

45
 (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃
𝑜𝑟, 𝑛 = =
 𝑁
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑛, sin 𝜃 = 1
1
∴𝑛= = 5.66
𝑁
a) For largest value of 𝜃, 𝑛 = 5
∴ 𝜃5 = sin−1 (5𝑁𝜆) =?
b) For second largest value of 𝜃, 𝑛 = 4
∴ 𝜃4 = sin−1 (4𝑁𝜆) =?
c) For third largest value of 𝜃, 𝑛 = 3
∴ 𝜃3 = sin−1 (3𝑁𝜆) =?

12. A grating places a spectral line of wavelength 460nm at 11º in 1 st order. At what angle is a
line of λ=490nm observed in 2nd order.
→ Here, λ1 = 460𝑛𝑚, θ1 = 110 , 𝑛1 = 1, λ2 = 490𝑛𝑚, θ2 =? , 𝑛2 = 2
We have (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛1 1
And (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃2 = 𝑛2 2
sin 𝜃2 𝑛2 2
∴ =
sin 𝜃1 𝑛1 1
𝑜𝑟, 𝜃2 =?
13. A diffraction grating 3cm wide produces the second order at 330 with light of wavelength
600nm.What is the total no of lines in the grating.
→ Here, Width w=3cm, λ=600nm=600× 10−7 𝑐𝑚 𝜃 = 𝟑𝟑𝟎 , 𝒏 = 𝟐
We have (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 = 𝑛
𝑛
∴𝑎+𝑏= =?
sin 𝜃
1
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑁 = =?
𝑎+𝑏
Total no of lines = N× w = ?

14. A diffraction grating used at normal incidence gives a line 6000Aº in a certain order
superimposed on another line 4500Aº of the next higher order. If the angle of diffraction
is 30º, how many lines are there in a cm in the grating?
→ Here, λ1 = 6000𝐴0 = 6000 × 10−8 𝑐𝑚, λ2 = 4500𝐴0 = 4500 × 10−8 𝑐𝑚, 𝜃 =
𝟑𝟎𝟎 , 𝑁 =?
We have by question, (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 = 𝑛1 = (𝑛 + 1)2
∴ 𝑛 =?
Again, (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 = 𝑛1
𝑛1
𝒐𝒓, 𝑎 + 𝑏 =
sin 𝜃

46
 1 sin 𝜃
𝒐𝒓, 𝑁 = = =?
𝑎+𝑏 𝑛1

15. Assume that the limits of the visible spectrum are arbitrarily chosen as 430 and 680nm.
Calculate the number of rulings per mm of a grating that will spread the first order
spectrum trough an angle of 20º.

→ Here, λ1 = 430𝑛𝑚 = 430 × 10−6 𝑚𝑚, λ2 = 680𝑛𝑚 = 680 × 10−6 𝑚𝑚, 𝑑𝜃 =

0
20 , 𝑛 = 1, 𝑁 =?

We have (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆

For wavelength λ1

𝐷 sin 𝜃 = λ1 Where, 𝐷 =𝑎+𝑏

And for wavelength λ2

𝐷 sin(𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) = λ2

𝑜𝑟, 𝐷𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑑𝜃 + 𝐷𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑑𝜃 = λ2

𝑜𝑟, λ1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑑𝜃 + √𝐷2 − λ1 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑑𝜃 = λ2

λ2 −λ1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑑𝜃 2
𝐷 = √{ } + λ1 2 =?
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑑𝜃

47
 1
∴ 𝑁 = 𝐷 =?

16. How many complete orders are formed for the visible range by a grating that has 6000
lines /cm.

→ Here, N=6000 lines /cm, n=?

(𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆

𝑎+𝑏
∴𝜆= 𝑓𝑜𝑟 sin 𝜃 = 1
𝑛
1
𝑜𝑟, 𝜆 =
𝑛𝑁
1 1
𝐹𝑜𝑟 n=1, λ1 = = = 16.66 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 (𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒)
𝑁 6000

1 1
For n=2, λ2 = 2𝑁 = 2×6000 = 8.33 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 (𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒)

1 1
For n=3, λ3 = 3𝑁 = 3×6000 = 5.55 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 (𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒)

1 1
For n=4, λ4 = 4𝑁 = 4×6000 = 4.16 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 (𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒)

1 1
For n=5, λ5 = 5𝑁 = 5×6000 = 3.33 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 (𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒)

Hence the number of complete order is 2.

17. A diffraction grating has 8900 slits across 1.2cm. If light with a wavelength of 500nm is sent
through it, how many orders (maxima) lie on one side of central maxima?
8900
→ Here, N= lines /cm, λ=500nm=500× 10−7 𝑐𝑚 , n=?
1.2

We have, (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆

𝑎+𝑏
∴𝑛= 𝑓𝑜𝑟 sin 𝜃 = 1
𝜆
1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑛 = =?
𝑁𝜆

18. How many orders will be visible if the wavelength of incident light is 5x10-7m and no. of
lines /inch on the grating is 2620?
2620
→ Here, N=2620 lines /inch= 2.54 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠/cm, λ=5× 10−7 m=5× 10−5 𝑐𝑚 , n=?

48
 Same as 16.

19. Light is incident normally on a grating 0.5cm wide with 2500lines. Find the angles of
diffraction for the principal maxima of the two sodium lines in the first order spectrum.
(λ1=5890Aº and λ2=5896Aº). Also calculate the angular separation between the lines.
2500
→ Here, N= 0.5 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠/cm=5000lines/cm, n=1, 𝜆1 = 5890𝐴0 = 5890 × 10−8 𝑐𝑚 ,
𝜆2 = 5896𝐴0 = 5890 × 10−8 𝑐𝑚

We have, (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆

For wavelength 𝜆1

(𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃1 = 𝜆1
𝜆
∴ 𝜃1 = sin−1 {𝑎+𝑏
1
} = sin−1 {𝑁𝜆1 } =?

And for wavelength 𝜆2

(𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃2 = 𝜆2
𝜆
∴ 𝜃2 = sin−1 {𝑎+𝑏
2
} = sin−1 {𝑁𝜆2 } =?

Now, angular separation=𝜃2 − 𝜃1 =?

20. Light which is a mixture of two wavelengths 5000A and 5200A is incident normally on a
plane transmission grating having 10000lines/cm. A lens of focal length 150cm is used to
observe the spectrum on a screen. Calculate the separation in cm of the two lines in the
first order spectrum.

→ Here,𝜆1 = 5000𝐴0 = 5000 × 10−8 𝑐𝑚 , 𝜆2 = 5200𝐴0 = 5200 × 10−8 𝑐𝑚

N=10000𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠/cm, n=1

We have, (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆

For wavelength 𝜆1

(𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃1 = 𝜆1
𝜆
∴ 𝜃1 = sin−1 {𝑎+𝑏
1
} = sin−1 {𝑁𝜆1 } =?

And for wavelength 𝜆2

49
 (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃2 = 𝜆2
𝜆
∴ 𝜃2 = sin−1 {𝑎+𝑏
2
} = sin−1 {𝑁𝜆2 } =?

𝑥1 𝑥2
Now, tan 𝜃1 = and tan 𝜃2 =
𝐷 𝐷

∴ 𝑥1 = 𝐷 tan 𝜃1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 = 𝐷 tan 𝜃2

Hence, 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 =?

21. For a NaCl crystal, molar mass is 58.5g, density 2.17g/cm3, calculate the a) crystal spacing b)
angle of glancing for first order and c) Miller indices of the reflecting plane if lattice
parameter is 2.81 and incident wavelength of x-rays is 0.98Aº.

→ Here, M=58.5gm, 𝜌 =2.17g/cm3, a=2.81 Aº, 𝜆 = 0.98Aº

1 1
𝑀 3 58.5 3
(a) crystal spacing, d= { } ={ } = 2.81 × 10−8 𝑐𝑚 = 2.81𝐴0
2𝑁𝐴 𝜌 2×6.02×1023 ×2.17

(b) We have, 2𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆

𝑛𝜆 1×0.98
∴ 𝜃 = sin−1 {2𝑑 } = sin−1 {2×2.81} = 11.80

𝑎
(c) 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 = √ℎ2
+𝑘 2 +𝑙2

𝑎 2.81
𝑜𝑟, √ℎ2 + 𝑘 2 + 𝑙 2 = 𝑑 = 2.81 = 1
ℎ𝑘𝑙

∴ (ℎ𝑘𝑙) = (100)

50
22. In first order reflection occurs in a crystal at Bragg angle 3.4º, at what angle does 2 nd order
reflection occur from the same family of reflecting planes.

→ Here, 𝑛1 = 1, 𝜃1 = 3.40 , 𝑛2 = 2, 𝜃2 =?

We have, 2𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 𝑛
∴ = 𝑛2 (Since, for same family, d and 𝜆 are same)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 1

𝑜𝑟, 𝜃2 =?

23. What is the smallest Bragg angle for x rays of wavelength 30pm to reflecting planes spaced
0.3nm apart in a calcite crystal?

→ We have, 2𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆

For smallest Bragg angle, n=1

𝜆
∴ 𝜃 = sin−1 (2𝑑 ) =?

24. X-rays with wavelength 0.58Aº are used for calculating d200 in nickel. The angle of reflection
is 9.5º. What is the size of unit cell?
→ Here, 𝜆 = 0.58𝐴0 , (ℎ𝑘𝑙) = (200), 𝜃 = 9.50 , 𝑎 =?
We have, 2𝑑200 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
𝜆
∴ 𝑑200 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =? 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1
𝑎
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 =
√ℎ2 + 𝑘 2 + 𝑙 2
𝑎 𝑎
∴ 𝑑200 = =
√22 + 02 + 02 2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑎 = 2 × 𝑑200 =?

25. The spacing of atomic planes in a crystal is 3.1× 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 m. When the monochromatic beam
of X-ray is incident on them at incident angle 82030’ second order image is produced.
Calculate the glancing angle for the 4th order image.

→ Here, d=3.1× 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 m, angle of incidence i=82030’=82.50, glancing angle 𝜃2 =

90 − 𝑖 = 7.50, n=2
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 2𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 = 2𝜆 … … … … … … … … … (𝑖)
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 4, 2𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃4 = 4𝜆 … … … … … … … … . . (𝑖𝑖)
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖𝑖)/𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖) gives
𝜃4 =?

51
Polarization
Malus law , 𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

Brewster’s Law 𝜇 = tan 𝑖𝑝

𝑖𝑝 + 𝑟 = 900

𝐼𝑂
Intensity ratio of O-ray and E-ray, = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃
𝐼𝐸

Quarter-wave plate
𝜆
(𝜇𝑒 − 𝜇𝑜 )𝑡 = (For positive uniaxial crystal)
4

𝜆
𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝜇𝑜 − 𝜇𝑒 )𝑡 = 4 (For negative uniaxial crystal)

Half-wave plate
𝜆
(𝜇𝑒 − 𝜇𝑜 )𝑡 = (For positive uniaxial crystal)
2

𝜆
𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝜇𝑜 − 𝜇𝑒 )𝑡 = 2 (For negative uniaxial crystal)

10𝜃
Specific Rotation 𝑆 = 𝐶𝑙
Where, 𝑙 is in centimeter.

1. If the polarizing angle of a piece of glass for green light is 60º, Find the angle of minimum
deviation for a 60º prism made of same material of glass.
→ Here, polarizing angle 𝑖𝑝 = 600 , angle of prism A=600 , minimum deviation 𝛿𝑚 =?
We have, 𝜇 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑝 =?
𝐴+𝛿𝑚
sin( )
2
Again, 𝜇 = 𝐴
𝑠𝑖𝑛
2
𝐴
𝑜𝑟, 𝛿𝑚 = 2 sin−1 (𝜇𝑠𝑖𝑛 ) − 𝐴 =?
2

2. At a certain temperature, the critical angle of water for total internal reflection is 48º for
certain wavelength. What is the polarizing angle and angle of refraction for light incident on
water at polarizing angle.

→ Here, critical angle C=480 , 𝑖𝑝 =?, angle of refraction r=?

1
We have, 𝜇 = =?
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐶

52
 ∴ 𝑖𝑝 = tan−1 𝜇 =?

Also, 𝑖𝑝 + 𝑟 = 900

∴ 𝑟 =?

3. Unpolarized light passes through two Polaroid; the axis of one is vertical and that of the
other is at 60º to the vertical. What is the intensity of transmitted light?

→ Let 𝐼0 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐼1 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2
be the intensity after second Polaroid.

𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝐼1 =𝐼0 /2

𝐼0 1 𝐼0
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2 = 𝐼1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 600 = × =
2 4 8

4. A horizontal beam of vertically polarized light of intensity 43W/m2 is sent through two
polarizing sheets. The polarizing direction of first is at 70º to vertical and that of
second is horizontal. What is the intensity of light transmitted by the pair of sheets?

→ Let 𝐼0 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐼1 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2 be
the intensity after second sheet.

53
 Here, 𝐼0 = 43W/ m2

𝐼1 = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 700 =?

𝑎𝑛𝑑𝐼2 = 𝐼1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (900 − 700 ) =?

5. A beam of polarized light is sent into a system of two polarizing sheets. Relative to the
polarization direction of that incident light, the polarizing directions of the sheets are at
angles 𝜽 for the first sheet and 900 for the second sheet. If 0.1 of the incident intensity is
transmitted by the two sheets, what is 𝜽.

→ Let 𝐼0 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐼1 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2 be
the intensity after second sheet.

54
 We have, 𝐼1 = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
And 𝐼2 = 𝐼1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (900 − 𝜃) = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝐼0
𝑜𝑟, 𝐼2 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2𝜃
4
𝐼0
𝑜𝑟, 0.1𝐼0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2𝜃
4
𝑜𝑟, 𝜃 =?

6. Two polarizing sheets are placed together with their transmission axes crossed. A third
Sheet is inserted between them with its transmission axis at an angle of 45 0 with respect
to each of the other axes. Find the fraction of incident unpolarised light intensity
transmitted by the combination.

→ Let 𝐼0 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐼1 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑡, 𝐼2 be the
intensity after third sheet and 𝐼3 be the intensity after second sheet.

55
 𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝐼1 =𝐼0 /2

𝐼0 1 𝐼0
𝐼2 = 𝐼1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 450 = × =
2 2 4
And
𝐼0 1 𝐼0
𝐼3 = 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 450 = × =
4 2 8
𝐼3 1
∴ =
𝐼0 8

7. If the plane of vibration makes an angle 450 with the optic axis, compare the ratio of the
intensities of o and e rays.

→ Here, 𝜃 =450

We have, the intensity of e-ray is 𝐼𝐸 = 𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

And the intensity of o-ray is 𝐼0 = 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

𝐼
Now, 𝐼0 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2450=?
𝐸

8. If the r.i. for o-ray and e-ray is 1.65 and 1.55 when incident on retardation plate. Calculate
the thickness such that I) the emergent ray is plane polarized II) emergent ray is elliptically
polarized. (λ=6oooAº)
→ Here, 𝜇𝑜 = 1.65, 𝜇𝑒 = 1.55, 𝜆 = 6000𝐴0

56
 i) Since the emergent ray is plane polarized, so the phase difference between o
𝜆
and e rays is 𝜋 i.e. path difference is .
2
𝜆
∴ (𝜇𝑜 − 𝜇𝑒 )𝑡 =
2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑡 =?
ii) Since the emergent ray is elliptically polarized, so the phase difference
𝜋 𝜆
between o and e rays is 2 i.e. path difference is 4.

𝜆
∴ (𝜇𝑜 − 𝜇𝑒 )𝑡 =
4
𝑜𝑟, 𝑡 =?
9. The refractive index of Calcite crystal of thickness 0.01mm is 1.648 for ordinary ray and
1.486 for extraordinary ray. For what wavelengths in the visible region will this plate
behaves as a) quarter wave plate b) a half wave plate?
𝜆
→ a) For quarter wave plate, (𝜇𝑜 − 𝜇𝑒 )𝑡 = 4
∴ 𝜆 =?
𝜆
b) For half wave plate, (𝜇𝑜 − 𝜇𝑒 )𝑡 = 2
∴ 𝜆 =?
10. A beam of plane polarized light is converted into circularly polarized light by passing it
through a crystal slice of thickness 3x10-5m. Calculate the difference in the r.i. of the two
rays inside the crystal assuming the above thickness to be the minimum value required to
produce the effect. (λ=600nm)
𝜆
→ For circularly polarized light, path difference between o and e rays is 4.

𝜆
∴ (𝜇𝑜 − 𝜇𝑒 )𝑡 =
4
𝑜𝑟, 𝜇𝑜 − 𝜇𝑒 =?

11. Plane polarized light is incident on a piece of quartz cut parallel to the axis. Find the least
thickness for which the o-ray and e-ray combine to form a plane polarized light. Given
µo=1.5442, µE=1.5533, λ=5x10-5cm
𝜆
→ For plane polarized light, path difference between o and e rays is 2.
𝜆
∴ (𝜇𝑒 − 𝜇𝑜 )𝑡 =
2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑡 =?

57
12. Calculate the thickness of i) a quarter wave plate and ii) a half wave plate given that
µo=1.544, µE=1.553, λ=5x10-5cm
→ Same as 8.

13. A quarter-wave plate is meant for λ0=5.893x10-5cm. What phase retardation will show
for λ=4.358x10-5cm? (neglect changes of µo and µE with λ)
2𝜋
→ We have Phase retardation 𝜑 = 𝜆 × 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
2𝜋 λ0
𝑜𝑟, 𝜑 = × =?
𝜆 4

14. A sheet of cellophane is a half plate for light of wavelength 4000A0. If the refractive index do
not change with wavelength, explain how the sheet would behave with respect to light of
wavelength 8000A0.
→ For wavelength 𝜆1 =4000A0, the sheet behaves as half wave plate.
𝜆1
∴ (𝜇𝑜 − 𝜇𝑒 )𝑡 =
2
For wavelength 𝜆2 =8000A0
𝜆2
(𝜇𝑜 − 𝜇𝑒 )𝑡 =
𝑛
𝜆1 𝜆2
∴ =
2 𝑛
𝜆2 8000
𝑜𝑟, 𝑛 = 2 × = 2 × =4
𝜆1 4000
∴ The sheet behaves as quarter-wave plate for 8000A0.

15. Find the specific rotation of a given sample of sugar solution if plane of polarization is
turned through 26.4º. The length of the tube containing 20% sugar solution is 20cm.
→ Here, Specific rotation S=? , angle of rotation 𝜃 = 26.40 , Concentration
C=20%=0.2gm/cc, length of tube 𝑙 = 20𝑐𝑚
10𝜃
𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑆 = =?
𝐶𝑙

16. A 200mm long tube and containing 48cm3 of sugar solution produces and optical
rotation of 11º when placed on a sacchari meter. If the specific rotation of the sugar
solution is 66º, calculate the quantity of sugar contained in the tube in the form of
solution.
10𝜃
→ 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑆 =
𝐶𝑙

58
 10𝜃
𝑜𝑟, 𝐶 = = ⋯ … … ….gm/cc
𝑆𝑙
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 = 𝐶 × 𝑉 = ⋯ … … … 𝑔𝑚
17. A 20cm long tube having a sugar solution rotates the plane of polarization by 10º. If the
specific rotation of sugar is 66º, calculate the strength of solution.

→ C=?

18. A sugar solution in a tube of length 20cm produces optical rotation of 13º. The solution
is then diluted to 1/3 of its previous concentration. Find the optical rotation produced
by 30cm long tube containing the diluted solution.

→ Here, 𝑙1 = 20𝑐𝑚, 𝜃1 = 130 , 𝐶1 = 𝐶, 𝑙2 = 30𝑐𝑚, 𝜃2 =?, 𝐶2 = 𝐶/3,

10𝜃1 10𝜃2
We have, 𝑆 = =
𝐶1 𝑙1 𝐶2 𝑙2

∴ 𝜃2 =?

19. A length of 25cm of solution containing 50gm of solute/liter causes a rotation of plane of
polarization by 5º. Find the plane of polarization by a length of 75cm of similar solution
containing 100gm solute/liter.
𝑔𝑚 50 𝑔𝑚
→ Here, 𝑙1 = 25𝑐𝑚, 𝜃1 = 50 , 𝐶1 = 50 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1000 𝑐𝑐 , 𝑙2 = 75𝑐𝑚, 𝜃2 =? , 𝐶2 =
𝑔𝑚 100 𝑔𝑚
100 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1000 𝑐𝑐
10𝜃1 10𝜃2
We have, 𝑆 = =
𝐶1 𝑙1 𝐶2 𝑙2
∴ 𝜃2 =?

20. A 200mm long glass tube is filled with a solution of sugar, containing 15gram of sugar in
100ml of water. The plane of polarized light, passing through this solution, is rotated
through 20030’. Find the specific rotation of sugar.

→ Here, Specific rotation S=? , angle of rotation 𝜃 = 200 30′ = 20.50 , Concentration
C=15/100=0.15gm/cc, length of tube 𝑙 = 200𝑚𝑚 = 20𝑐𝑚
(Note: 1ml=1cm3)
10𝜃
𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑆 = =?
𝐶𝑙

59
Lens System

Problem Solving Technique

Given: 𝒇𝟏 , 𝒇𝟐 , 𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒖 𝒐𝒓 𝒗

𝑓𝑓
1 2
1. Equivalent focal length 𝑓 = 𝑓 +𝑓 −𝑑
1 2
𝑓𝑑
2. Position of first principal point from 𝐿1 𝛼 = 𝑓2

𝑓𝑑
3. Position of second principal point from 𝐿2 𝛽 = − 𝑓
1
4. Position of first focal point F1from 𝐿1 = 𝑓 − 𝛼
5. Position of Second focal point F2 from 𝐿2 = 𝑓 + 𝛽
6. Object distance for equivalent lens 𝑈 = 𝑢 − 𝛼
7. Image distance for equivalent lens 𝑉 = 𝑣 − 𝛽
1 1 1
8. For equivalent lens, 𝑓 = − 𝑈 + 𝑉
9. If object is at ∞ then, 𝑢 = ∞ so U = 𝑢 − 𝛼 = ∞
1 1 1
∴ =− +
𝑓 𝑈 𝑉

∴𝑉=𝑓

10. If image is formed at ∞ then, 𝑣 = ∞ so V = 𝑣 − 𝛽 = ∞

1 1 1
∴ =− +
𝑓 𝑈 𝑉

∴ 𝑈 = −𝑓
1
11. Equivalent power, 𝑃 = 𝑓 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 − 𝑑𝑃1 𝑃2
12. 𝑓𝑟 − 𝑓𝑣 = 𝜔𝑓
𝜔1 𝜔2
13. For achromatism when two lenses are in contact, 𝑓1
+ 𝑓2
=0

60
 𝜔1 𝜔2 𝑥
14. For achromatism when two lenses are separated by finite distance, + − (𝜔1 + 𝜔2 ) = 0
𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓1𝑓2
𝑓1 +𝑓2
15. Condition of achromatism for two lenses of same nature, 𝑥 = 2
1. Two thin convex lenses having focal lengths 10cm and 4cm are coaxially separated by a
distance of 5cm. Find the equivalent focal length of the combination. Determine also the
position of the principle points.

→ Here, 𝑓1 = 10𝑐𝑚, 𝑓2 = 4𝑐𝑚, 𝑑 = 5𝑐𝑚

𝑓1 𝑓2
We have equivalent focal length 𝑓 = =?
𝑓1 +𝑓2 −𝑑

𝑓𝑑
Position of first principal point 𝛼 = =?
𝑓2

𝑓𝑑
And Position of second principal point 𝛽 = − 𝑓 =?
1

2. Two thin lenses of focal lengths 8cm each are identical and coaxially separated by 4cm.
Determine the equivalent focal length of this lens combination and illustrate the principle
points. If the image is formed at infinity at a particular position of the object, find the object
distance.

→ Here, 𝑓1 = 8𝑐𝑚, 𝑓2 = 8𝑐𝑚, 𝑑 = 4𝑐𝑚, v = ∞, 𝑢 =?

1 2 𝑓𝑓
We have equivalent focal length 𝑓 = 𝑓 +𝑓 −𝑑
=?
1 2

𝑓𝑑
Position of first principal point 𝛼 = 𝑓2
=?

𝑓𝑑
And Position of second principal point 𝛽 = − =?
𝑓1

Again image distance for equivalent lens 𝑉 = 𝑣 − 𝛽 = ∞

1 1 1 1
We have 𝑓
= −𝑈 +𝑉 = −𝑈

∴ 𝑈 = −𝑓 =?

Now 𝑢 = 𝑈 + 𝛼 =?

3. A coaxial lens system placed in air has two lenses of equal focal length f are separated by a
distance 2f/3. Find the positions of the cardinal points.
2𝑓
→ Here, 𝑓1 = 𝑓, 𝑓2 = 𝑓, 𝑑 = 3
1 2 𝑓𝑓
We have equivalent focal length 𝑓′ = 𝑓 +𝑓 −𝑑
=?
1 2

𝑓′𝑑
Position of first principal point 𝛼 = =?
𝑓2

61
 𝑓′𝑑
And Position of second principal point 𝛽 = − 𝑓1
=?

Position of first focal point = 𝑓′ − 𝛼 =?

Position of second focal point = 𝑓′ + 𝛽 =?

4. Two thin converging lenses of focal length 20cm each are set coaxially 5cm apart. An image of
an upright pole 200m distant and 10m high is formed by the combination. Find the position of
the principal point, focal planes and the image. Also find the size of image.
→ Here,𝑓1 = 20𝑐𝑚, 𝑓2 = 20𝑐𝑚, 𝑑 = 5𝑐𝑚,u = −200m = −20000cm, ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑂 =
10𝑚 = 1000𝑐𝑚,

1 2 𝑓𝑓
We have equivalent focal length 𝑓 = 𝑓 +𝑓 −𝑑
=?
1 2

𝑓𝑑
Position of first principal point 𝛼 = =?
𝑓2

𝑓𝑑
And Position of second principal point 𝛽 = − 𝑓 =?
1

Position of first focal point = 𝑓 − 𝛼 =?

Position of second focal point = 𝑓 + 𝛽 =?

Now, object distance for equivalent lens 𝑈 = 𝑢 − 𝛼 =?

1 1 1
We have 𝑓 = − 𝑈 + 𝑉

∴ 𝑉 =?

Now, 𝑣 = 𝑉 + 𝛽 =?
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒
Again, magnification 𝑚 = 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡

𝑣 𝐼
𝑜𝑟, 𝑚 = =
𝑢 𝑂

∴ 𝐼 =?

5. Two thin converging lenses of focal length 3cm and 4cm respectively are placed coaxially in air
and separated by a distance of 2cm. An object is placed 4cm in front of the first lens. Find the
position, nature of the image and its lateral magnification.

→ Here,𝑓1 = 3𝑐𝑚, 𝑓2 = 4𝑐𝑚, 𝑑 = 2𝑐𝑚,u = −4cm

1 2 𝑓𝑓
We have equivalent focal length 𝑓 = 𝑓 +𝑓 −𝑑
=?
1 2

𝑓𝑑
Position of first principal point 𝛼 = 𝑓2
=?

62
 𝑓𝑑
And Position of second principal point 𝛽 = − 𝑓 =?
1

Now, object distance for equivalent lens 𝑈 = 𝑢 − 𝛼 =?

1 1 1
We have 𝑓 = − 𝑈 + 𝑉

∴ 𝑉 =?

Now, 𝑣 = 𝑉 + 𝛽 =? (if 𝑣 is +ve, image is real and inverted, if 𝑣 is -ve, image is virtual and erect)
𝑣
Again lateral magnification m=𝑢 =?

6. A convex lens A of focal length 20cm and concave lens B of focal length 5cm are kept along the
same axis with distance d between them. If a parallel beam of light falling on A leaves B as
parallel beam, what will be the value of d?
→ Here,𝑓1 = 20𝑐𝑚, 𝑓2 = −5𝑐𝑚, 𝑢 = ∞, v = ∞
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑈 = 𝑢 − 𝛼 = ∞ and V = v − 𝛽 = ∞
1 1 1
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 = − +
𝑓 𝑈 𝑉
∴𝑓=∞
𝑓1 𝑓2
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝑓 =
𝑓1 + 𝑓2 − 𝑑
1 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 − 𝑑
𝑜𝑟, =
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2
𝑓1 + 𝑓2 − 𝑑
𝑜𝑟, 0 =
𝑓1 𝑓2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 − 𝑑 = 0

∴ 𝑑 = 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 =?
7. A thin convex and thin concave lens, each of focal length 50cm are coaxially situated and
separated by 1Ocm. Find the position and nature of the final image formed if an object placed
20cm from the convex lens.

→ Here,𝑓1 = 50𝑐𝑚, 𝑓2 = −50𝑐𝑚, 𝑑 = 10𝑐𝑚, 𝑢 = −20cm

1 2 𝑓𝑓
We have equivalent focal length 𝑓 = 𝑓 +𝑓 −𝑑
=?
1 2

𝑓𝑑
Position of first principal point 𝛼 = 𝑓2
=?

𝑓𝑑
And Position of second principal point 𝛽 = − 𝑓 =?
1

Now, object distance for equivalent lens 𝑈 = 𝑢 − 𝛼 =?

1 1 1
We have 𝑓 = − 𝑈 + 𝑉

63
 ∴ 𝑉 =?

Now, 𝑣 = 𝑉 + 𝛽 =? (if 𝑣 is +ve, image is real and inverted, if 𝑣 is -ve, image is virtual and erect)

8. What is the power of combination of lenses of focal lengths 50cm and 10cm which are
separated by a distance 10cm.
→ Here,𝑓1 = 50𝑐𝑚, 𝑓2 = 10𝑐𝑚, 𝑑 = 10𝑐𝑚,
1 2 𝑓𝑓
We have equivalent focal length 𝑓 = 𝑓 +𝑓 −𝑑
= ⋯ … . 𝑐𝑚 = ⋯ … … . . 𝑚
1 2
1
Now power 𝑃 = 𝑓 =?
9. Dispersive powers of two different glass types are 0.0163 and 0.0243 respectively. How can
you design an achromatic contact doublet of focal length 50cm.

→ Here, 𝜔1 = 0.0163, 𝜔2 = 0.0243, 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑓 = 50𝑐𝑚

𝜔1 𝜔2
We have, + =0
𝑓1 𝑓2

𝑓2 𝜔2 0.0243
𝒐𝒓, =− =− = −1.49
𝑓1 𝜔1 0.0163

𝑜𝑟, 𝑓2 = −1.49𝑓1

1 1 1
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, = +
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2

1 1 1
𝑜𝑟, = −
50 𝑓1 1.49𝑓1

∴ 𝑓1 =? And 𝑓2 = −1.49𝑓1 =?

10. An achromatic doublet of focal length 90cm is to be made of two lenses, the material of one
having 1.5 times the dispersive power of the other. Find the focal length of each lenses.
→ 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑠 9.
11. It is required to form a converging achromatic system of focal length 0.30m consisting of two
lenses made of the same material. If one of the lens be convex and of focal length 0.2m, find a)
the focal of the other, b) the distance between lenses.

→ Here, equivalent focal length = 0.30𝑚 , 𝑓1 = 0.2𝑚, 𝑓2 =? 𝑑 =?

𝑓1 +𝑓2 0.2+𝑓2
We have, 𝑑 = 2
= 2
… … … (𝑖 )

𝑓1 𝑓2
Also, 𝑓 =
𝑓1 +𝑓2−𝑑

0.2×𝑓2
𝑜𝑟, 0.30 = 0.2+𝑓2
0.2+𝑓2−( )
2

𝑜𝑟, 𝑓2 =?

64
 0.2+𝑓2
Now from (i), 𝑑 = =?
2

12. Two lenses of focal lengths +4.5cm and +1.5cm are separated by a finite distance. Find the
position of principle points if the combination makes an achromatic combination.

→ Here, 𝑓1 = 4.5𝑐𝑚, 𝑓2 = 1.5𝑐𝑚

𝑓1 + 𝑓2
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑠𝑜 𝑑 = =?
2
𝑓1𝑓2
𝑁𝑜𝑤, equivalent focal length 𝑓 = =?
𝑓1 +𝑓2 −𝑑

𝑓𝑑
Position of first principal point 𝛼 = 𝑓2
=?

𝑓𝑑
And Position of second principal point 𝛽 = − 𝑓 =?
1

13. Two thin lenses of focal length f 1 and f2 separated by a distance d have an equivalent focal
length 50cm. The combination satisfies the conditions for no chromatic aberration and
minimum spherical aberration. Find the values of f 1, f2 and d. Assume that both the lenses are
of the same material.
→ Here, Equivalent focal length 𝑓 = 50𝑐𝑚
𝑓1 +𝑓2
For no chromatic aberration, 𝑑 = … … … … (𝑖 )
2
For minimum spherical aberration, 𝑑 = 𝑓1 − 𝑓2 … … … … (𝑖𝑖)
Solving (i) and (ii) we get

3𝑑 𝑑
𝑓1 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓2 =
2 2
𝑓1 𝑓2
Again we have 𝑓 = 𝑓 +𝑓 −𝑑
1 2
3𝑑 𝑑
×
𝑜𝑟, 50 = 2 2
3𝑑 𝑑
2 +2−𝑑
𝑜𝑟, 𝑑 =?
3𝑑 𝑑
∴ 𝑓1 = =? 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓2 = =?
2 2
14. A crown glass convex lens has radii of curvature 20cm and 30 cm. If 𝝁𝒓 =1.513 and 𝝁𝒃 =1.523,
find the longitudinal chromatic aberration produced by the lens.

→ Here, 𝑅1 = −20𝑐𝑚, 𝑅2 = 30𝑐𝑚, 𝜇𝑟 = 1.513, 𝜇𝑏 = 1.523

𝜇𝑏 −𝜇𝑟 𝜇2 +𝜇1
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝜔 = 𝜇−1
=? (here, 𝜇 = 2
)

1 1 1
Again we have, = (𝜇 − 1) (− + ) =?
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2

𝑁𝑜𝑤, longitudinal chromatic aberration = 𝜔𝑓 =?

65
Optical Fiber
𝜇2
Critical angle 𝐶 = sin−1
𝜇1

√𝜇12 −𝜇22
−1 { }
Acceptance angle, 𝑖 = sin 𝜇0

Numerical Aperture, 𝑁. 𝐴. = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √𝜇12 − 𝜇22 = 𝜇1 √2∆

𝜇12 −𝜇22
Fractional change in refractive index, ∆= 2𝜇12

2𝜋𝑎 2𝜋𝑎
𝑉 − 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = × 𝑁𝐴 = × 𝜇1 √2∆
𝜆 𝜆

1. A silica glass optical fiber has core of refractive index 1.50 and the cladding of refractive index 1.45.
Calculate the critical angle for core cladding interface, the acceptance angle in air, corresponding
angle of obliqueness, the numerical aperture of fiber and percentage of light collected by fiber w.r.t.
the incident light.

→ Here, refractive index of core 𝜇1 = 1.50, refractive index of cladding𝜇2 = 1.45

𝜇2
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐶 =
𝜇1
𝜇2
∴ 𝐶 = sin−1 ( ) =?
𝜇1

√𝜇12 −𝜇22
Acceptance angle 𝑖 = sin−1 { } = sin−1 {√𝜇12 − 𝜇22 } =? (𝜇0 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟)
𝜇0

Angle of obliqueness= 900 − 𝐶 =?

𝑁. 𝐴. = √𝜇12 − 𝜇22 =?

% of light collected by optical fiber= (𝑁. 𝐴. )2 × 100% =?

2. Calculate the refractive indices of the core and cladding materials of a fiber from following data.
NA=0.22 and fractional refractive index change=0.012.
→ Here,𝑁. 𝐴. = 0.22, Fractional refractive index change ∆= 0.012
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑁𝐴 = 𝜇1 √2∆
𝑁𝐴
∴ 𝜇1 = =?
√2∆
Again, 𝑁𝐴 = √𝜇12 − 𝜇22
∴ 𝜇2 =?

66
3. Calculate the numerical aperture and acceptance angle of fiber, given µcore=1.62 and µcladding=1.52.

→ Here, refractive index of core 𝜇1 = 1.62, refractive index of cladding 𝜇2 = 1.52

𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑁𝐴 = √𝜇12 − 𝜇22 =?

√𝜇12−𝜇22
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖 = sin−1 { } = sin−1 {√𝜇12 − 𝜇22 } =?(𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝜇0 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟)
𝜇0

4. The light ray enters from air to a fiber. The refractive index of air is 1.0 The fiber has refractive
index of core equal to 1.5 and that of cladding equal to 1.48. Calculate the critical angle, the
refractive index change, the acceptance angle and the numerical aperture.
→ Here, 𝜇0 = 1 , 𝜇1 = 1.5, 𝜇2 = 1.48
𝜇2
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐶 = sin−1 ( ) =?
𝜇1
𝜇1 − 𝜇22
2
𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 ∆= =?
2𝜇12
√𝜇12 − 𝜇22
𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖 = sin−1 { } =?
𝜇0

𝑁𝐴 = √𝜇12 − 𝜇22 =?
5. An optical fiber has a numerical aperture of 0.2. The cladding has the r.i.1.48. Calculate the
acceptance angle in water with r.i.4/3. Also calculate the critical angle at core cladding
interface.

→ Here, 𝑁𝐴 = 0.2, 𝜇2 = 1.48, 𝜇0 = 4/3

√𝜇12 − 𝜇22 𝑁𝐴
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖 = sin−1 { } = sin−1 { } =?
𝜇0 𝜇0

𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝑁𝐴 = √𝜇12 − 𝜇22

∴ 𝜇1 =?
𝜇
Now, 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐶 = sin−1 (𝜇2 ) =?
1

6. A glass clad fiber is made with a core glass of r.i.1.5 and the cladding is doped to give a
fractional index change 5x10-4. Determine a) cladding index b) critical internal reflection angle
c) external critical acceptance angle and d) NA

→ Here, 𝜇1 = 1.5, ∆= 5 × 10−4

𝜇12 −𝜇22
𝑎)We have ∆= 2𝜇12

67
 ∴ 𝜇2 =?
𝜇
b) Critical internal angle 𝐶 = sin−1 (𝜇2 ) =?
1

√𝜇12 −𝜇22
c) External critical acceptance angle𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖 = sin−1 { 𝜇0
} =? (𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝜇0 = 1)

d) 𝑁𝐴 = √𝜇12 − 𝜇22 =?

7. Find the core diameter necessary for single mode operation at 450µm in step index fiber with n1=1.48
and n2=1.47. What is NA and maximum acceptance angle of this fiber? Given V-number=2.405.
→ Here, Wavelength 𝝀=450𝜇𝑚 = 450 × 10−6 𝑚, 𝜇1 = 1.48, 𝜇2 = 1.47, 𝑉 − 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 2.405
We have, 𝑁𝐴 = √𝜇12 − 𝜇22 =?

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖 = sin−1 {√𝜇12 − 𝜇22 } =?

2𝜋𝑎
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑉 − 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = × 𝑁𝐴
𝜆
𝑜𝑟, 𝑎 =? ∴ 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑑 = 2𝑎 =?

68
Chapter 5: Electrostatics
Electric Force and Field
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹 = 4𝜋𝜀
0 𝑟2

𝐹 1 q
𝐸 = 𝑞 = 4𝜋𝜀
𝑜 0 𝑟2

Dipole moment, P = q ×2d

Torque due to dipole, 𝜏 = 𝑃𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

When 𝜃 = 00 , 𝜏 = 0

When 𝜃 = 900 , 𝜏 = 𝑃𝐸

When 𝜃 = 1800 , 𝜏 = 0

Work done by external field in turning the dipole from initial angle 𝜃1 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝜃2 is

𝑊 = 𝑃𝐸(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 )

Potential energy at any arbitrary angle 𝜃 is 𝑈 = −𝑃𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

When 𝜃 = 00 , 𝑈𝑚𝑖𝑛 = −𝑃𝐸 (Stable equilibrium)

When 𝜃 = 900 , 𝑈 = 0

When 𝜃 = 1800 , 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑃𝐸 (Unstable equilibrium)

𝑞x
Electric Field due to a charged ring 𝐸 = 3
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑥 2+𝑅2 ) 2

𝜎 𝑥
Electric field intensity due to a charged disc 𝐸 = 2𝜀 [1 − √𝑥 2 ]
𝑜 +𝑅2

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
If 𝑉 = 𝑉 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐸𝑥 = − 𝜕𝑥 , 𝐸𝑦 = − 𝜕𝑦 , 𝐸𝑧 = − 𝜕𝑧

Magnitude of electric field, 𝐸 = √𝐸𝑥2 + 𝐸𝑦2 + 𝐸𝑧2

Numerical
1. If a copper coin has mass 3.11g, what is the number of atoms and total charge on the nucleus
of the atoms in the coin? (Z=29,M=63.5gm/mol for copper and NA=6.02x1023 atom/mol)

69
 → Here, mass of copper coin, m=3.11gm, atomic number, z=29, molar mass, M=63.5gm,

Avogadro’s number, 𝑁𝐴 = 6.02 × 1023

We know, 63.5gm of copper contains 6.02 × 1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠.

6.02×1023
∴ 3.11gm of copper contains × 3.11 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
63.5

6.02×1023
Hence the no of atoms, 𝑁 = × 3.11 =?
63.5

Since each atom contains 29 protons so total charge 𝑞 = 𝑍𝑁𝑒 =?

2. Two charges 2.1x10-8C and -8.4x10-8C are placed at a separation of 50cm. Find the point along the
straight line passing through the two charges at which electric field is zero.

→ Here, 𝑞1 = 2.1 × 10−8 𝐶, 𝑞2 = −8.4 × 10−8 𝐶

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝑚 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 2.1 × 10−8 𝐶.

1 𝑞1
Electric field at P due to charge 𝑞1 placed at A is 𝐸𝐴 = 4𝜋𝜀 2 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑋′
0𝑥
1 𝑞2
And Electric field at P due to charge 𝑞2 placed at B is 𝐹𝐵 = 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝐴
4𝜋𝜀0 (0.5+𝑥)2
By question, 𝐸𝐴 = 𝐸𝐵
1 𝑞1 1 𝑞2
𝑜𝑟, 2
=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑥 4𝜋𝜀0 (0.5 + 𝑥)2
(0.5 + 𝑥)2 𝑞2 8.4
𝑜𝑟, = =
𝑥2 𝑞1 2.1
0.5 + 𝑥 8.4
𝑜𝑟, =√
𝑥 2.1
∴ 𝑥 =?
3. Two point charges 6 𝝁C and -24 𝝁C are 18cm apart. Locate the position of zero potential on the
line joining between them.
→ Here, 𝑞1 = 6𝜇𝐶 = 6 × 10−6 𝐶, 𝑞2 = −24𝜇𝐶 = −24 × 10−6 𝐶

70
 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝑚 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 6𝜇𝐶.

1 𝑞1 1 6×10−6
Electric potential at P due to charge placed at A, 𝑉𝐴 = 4𝜋𝜀 = 4𝜋𝜀
0 𝑥 0 𝑥
1 𝑞2 1 24×10−6
And Electric potential at P due to charge placed at B, 𝑉𝐵 = 4𝜋𝜀0 (18×10−2 −𝑥)
= − 4𝜋𝜀 (18×10 −2 −𝑥)
0
By question, net potential, 𝑉 = 𝑉𝐴 + 𝑉𝐵 = 0

1 6 × 10−6 1 24 × 10−6
𝑜𝑟, − =0
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑥 4𝜋𝜀0 (18 × 10−2 − 𝑥)
1 6 × 10−6 1 24 × 10−6
𝑜𝑟, =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑥 4𝜋𝜀0 (18 × 10−2 − 𝑥)
∴ 𝑥 =?
4. Two similar balls of mass m are hung from silk threads of length 𝒍 m and carry similar charges
𝟑 𝒒𝟐 𝒍
q. Prove that the separation of the balls is x= √ .
𝟐𝝅𝝐𝟎𝒎𝒈
→ Here,

1 𝑞2
Electrostatic force between two charges is 𝐹𝑒 = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑥2
0

71
 We have, from figure, 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝐹𝑒 … … … . . (𝑖)
And 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔 … … … … … … (𝑖𝑖)
Dividing equation (i) by (ii) we get
𝐹𝑒
tan 𝜃 =
𝑚𝑔
𝑥
For small angle, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 2𝑙
𝑥 𝐹𝑒
∴ =
2𝑙 𝑚𝑔
𝑥 1 1 𝑞2
𝑜𝑟, =
2𝑙 𝑚𝑔 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑥 2
3 𝑞2 𝑙
𝑜𝑟, 𝑥 = √
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑚𝑔
5. An electric dipole consists of charges +2e and -2e separated by 0.78nm. It is in electric field of
strength 3.4x106 N/C . Calculate the magnitude of the torque on the dipole when the dipole
moment is (a) parallel, (b) at right angle and (c) opposite to the electric field.
→ Here, charge, q=2e, separation between two charges, 2d=0.78nm=0.78x10-9m,
Electric field intensity, E=3.4x106 N/C
We have, torque due to a dipole is 𝜏 = 𝑃𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Where dipole moment
𝑃 = 𝑞 × 2𝑑 = 2𝑒 × 2𝑑 = 2 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 0.78 × 10−9 = ⋯ … . . 𝐶 − 𝑚
a) When the dipole moment is parallel to electric field, 𝜃 = 00 𝑠𝑜 𝜏 = 𝑃𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛00 = 0
b) When the dipole moment is at right angle to electric field, 𝜃 = 900 𝑠𝑜 𝜏 =
𝑃𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛900 =?
c) When the dipole moment is opposite to electric field, 𝜃 = 1800 𝑠𝑜 𝜏 =
𝑃𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛1800 = 0

6. How much work is required to turn an electric dipole 1800 in a uniform electric field of
magnitude 46N/C if dipole moment is 3.02x10-25Cm and the initial angle is 640?

→ Here, Electric field intensity, E=46N/C, dipole moment P= 3.02x10-25C-m

𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒, 𝑊 = 𝑃𝐸(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 ) = 𝑃𝐸[𝑐𝑜𝑠(1800 + 640 ) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠640 ] =?

7. For the system of two positive charges separated by a distance d, find an expression for an
𝟏 𝟐𝒒
electric field along its axial line at a distance r and prove that E= 𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓𝟐 for r>>d.
→ Here,

72
 1 𝑞
Here electric field intensity at point P due to the charge +q at A, 𝐸𝐴 = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑑 (Along PX)
0 (𝑟+ )2
2

1 𝑞
And electric field intensity at point P due to the charge +q at B, 𝐸𝐵 = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑑 (Along PX)
0 (𝑟− )2
2

𝑑2
𝑞 1 1 𝑞 2(𝑟 2+ )
4
∴ Net electric field intensity at P is 𝐸 = 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐸𝐵 = [ 𝑑 + 𝑑 ]= [ 𝑑 2 ]
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟+ )2 (𝑟− )2 4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2− )2
2 2 4

1 2𝑞
For 𝑟 ≫ 𝑑 , 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀
0 𝑟2

8. Calculate the electric field due to a uniformly charged rod of length 𝒍 at a point along its long
axis at a distance a from its nearest end.
→ Here,

The electric field intensity at P due to a small charge element 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜆𝑑𝑥 is

1 𝑑𝑞 1 𝜆𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 2 = 4𝜋𝜀 2
0 (𝑥+𝑎) 0 (𝑥+𝑎)

∴ Net electric field at P is

𝑙1 𝜆𝑑𝑥 𝜆 𝑙 𝑑𝑥 𝜆 1 𝑙 𝜆 1 1 𝜆𝑙
𝐸 = ∫ 𝑑𝐸 = ∫0 4𝜋𝜀 2 = 4𝜋𝜀0
∫0 2 = 4𝜋𝜀0
[− ]
𝑥+𝑎 0
= [
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑎
− 𝑙+𝑎] = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑎(𝑙+𝑎)
=
0 (𝑥+𝑎) (𝑥+𝑎) 0
𝑞
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑎(𝑙+𝑎)

9. At what distance along the central axis of a uniform charged plastic disk of radius a is the
electric field strength equal to half the value of the field at the center of the disk.
→ Here, we have the electric field due to a charged disc of radius a at a distance x from its
center is
𝜎 𝑥
𝐸= [1 − ]
2𝜀𝑜 √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2

73
 𝜎
𝐴𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝐸0 =
2𝜀𝑜
1
𝐵𝑦 𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝐸 = 𝐸0
2
𝜎 𝑥 1 𝜎
𝑜𝑟, [1 − ]=
2𝜀𝑜 √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 2 2𝜀𝑜
𝑥 1
𝑜𝑟, =
√𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 2
𝑥2 1
𝑜𝑟, 2 2
=
𝑥 +𝑎 4
𝑜𝑟, 4𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑎2
2 2
𝑎
𝑜𝑟, 𝑥 =
√3
This is the required distance.
10. If a disk of radius 2.5cm had a surface charge density 5.5𝜇Cm-2 on its upper surface, what is the
electric field (i) at a point on the central axis at a distance 12cm from the disk and (ii) at the
surface of the disk.
→ Here, radius of charged disk, a=2.5cm=0.025m, surface charge density, 𝜎 = 5.5𝜇𝐶𝑚 −2 =
5.5 × 10−6 𝐶𝑚 −2
a) We have the electric field due to a charged disc of radius a at a distance x from its center is
𝜎 𝑥
𝐸= [1 − ] =?
2𝜀𝑜 √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2
b) at the surface, x=a so
𝜎 𝜎
𝐸= = =?
2𝜀𝑜 2𝜀𝑜
11. Four charges 12nC,-24nC, 31nC and 17nC are placed at the corners of a square of side 1.3m.
Calculate the potential at the center of the square.
→ Here, 𝑞1 = 12𝑛𝐶 = 12 × 10−9 𝐶, 𝑞2 = −24𝑛𝐶 = −24 × 10−9 𝐶, 𝑞3 = 31𝑛𝐶 = 31 ×
10−9 𝐶, 𝑞4 = 17𝑛𝐶 = 17 × 10−9 𝐶

Diagonal of square, 𝑑 = √1.32 + 1.32 =?

𝑑
∴ 𝑟 = 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑂𝐵 = 𝑂𝐶 = 𝑂𝐷 = =?
2
Now potential at the center is

74
 1 9×109
𝑉 = 𝑉𝐴 + 𝑉𝐵 + 𝑉𝐶 + 𝑉𝐷 = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 [𝑞1 + 𝑞2 + 𝑞3 + 𝑞4 ] = [12 − 24 + 31 + 17] × 10−9 =
𝑜 𝑟
⋯ … … . 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡
12. If the electric field intensity of a charged disk of radius a at point P at a distance x along its axis
𝜎 𝑥
from the center is E=2𝜖 [1 − √𝑥 2 ]. Find the electric potential at point P.
0 +𝑎 2
→ Here, electric field due to a charged disc at a distance x is
𝜎 𝑥
𝐸= [1 − ]
2𝜖0 √𝑥 + 𝑎2
2

𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑃 𝑖𝑠

𝜎 𝑥 𝜎 𝜎
𝑉 = − ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ [1 − ] 𝑑𝑥 = − [𝑥 − √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 ] = [√𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 − 𝑥]
2𝜖0 √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 2𝜖0 2𝜖0

13. Two large parallel plates are separated by a distance of 5cm. The plates have equal but
opposite charges that create an electric field in the region between the plates. An alpha
particle (q=3.2x10-19,m=6.68x10-27kg) is released from the positively charged plate, and it
strikes the negatively charged plate 2x10-6s later. Assuming that the electric field between the
plates is uniform and perpendicular to the plates, what is the strength of electric field?
→ Here, distance between two plates, d=5cm=0.05m, Charge, q=3.2x10-19C, mass, m=6.68x10-
27
kg, Time, t=2x10-6s
1 1
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑆 = 𝑑 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 = 𝑎𝑡 2 (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑢 = 0)
2 2
2𝑑
∴𝑎= 2
𝑡
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑞𝐸
𝑚𝑎 𝑚 2𝑑
∴𝐸= = =?
𝑞 𝑞 𝑡2
14. Calculate the electric potential at a point due to a uniform line of charge of length L at a
distance D from its one end which lies in perpendicular line.
→ Here,

The electric potential due to a small charge element 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜆𝑑𝑥 is

75
 1 𝑑𝑞 1 𝜆𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑉 = =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 √𝑥2 + 𝐷2
𝐿
𝜆 𝑑𝑥
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑡 𝑃 𝑖𝑠 𝑉 = ∫ 𝑑𝑉 = ∫
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 0 √𝑥2 + 𝐷2
𝐿
𝜆 2
= [ln(𝑥 + √𝑥2 + 𝐷 )]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 0

𝜆 𝑞 𝐿 + √𝐿2 + 𝐷2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑉 = [ln (𝐿 + √𝐿2 + 𝐷2 ) − 𝑙𝑛𝐷] = ln ( )
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝐿 𝐷
15. A spherical drop of water carrying a charge of 30pC has a potential of 500V at its surface. (a)
What is the radius of the drop? (b) if two such drops of the same charge and radius combine to
form a single spherical drop, what is the potential at the surface of the new drop?
→ Here, charge q=30pC=30x10-12C, Potential, v= 500V
1 𝑞
a) We have, 𝑣 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟
1 𝑞 9 30 × 10−12
∴𝑟= = 9 × 10 × = ⋯……..𝑚
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑣 500
b) Let R and V be the radius and potential of bigger drop.
Charge on the bigger drop is Q=2q
Here, initial volume = final volume
4 4
𝑜𝑟, 2 × 𝜋𝑟 3 = 𝜋𝑅3
3 3
1⁄3
𝑜𝑟, 𝑅 = 2 𝑟
Now potential of bigger drop is
1 𝑄 1 2𝑞 1 𝑞
𝑉= = 4𝜋𝜀 = 22⁄3 (4𝜋𝜀 ) = 22⁄3 × 𝑣 = 22⁄3 × 500 =?
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅 𝑜 21⁄3 𝑟 𝑜 𝑟
16. What is the magnitude of electric field at point (3i-2j+4k) m if the electric potential is given by
V=2xyz2, where V is in volts and x, y, and z are in meters.
→ Here, potential, 𝑉 = 2𝑥𝑦𝑧 2
𝜕𝑉
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑, 𝐸𝑥 = − 𝜕𝑥 = −2𝑦𝑧 2
𝜕𝑉
𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑, 𝐸𝑦 = − 𝜕𝑦 = −2𝑥𝑧 2
𝜕𝑉
And 𝑧 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑, 𝐸𝑧 = − 𝜕𝑧 = −4𝑥𝑦𝑧

Hence the magnitude of electric field is 𝐸 = √𝐸𝑥2 + 𝐸𝑦2 + 𝐸𝑧2 = √4𝑦 2 𝑧 4 + 4𝑥 2 𝑧 4 + 16𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧 2
Now at point (3i-2j+4k)
𝐸 = √4𝑦 2 𝑧 4 + 4𝑥 2 𝑧 4 + 16𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧 2 = ⋯ … … … . 𝑉/𝑚

17. The potential in a region between x=0m and x=6m is V=a+bx2 where a=10 and b = -7v/m.
Determine (i) the potentials at x= 0m, 3m and 6m and (ii) the magnitude of electric fields at
x:=0m, 3m and 6m.
→ Here, potential 𝑉 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑎 = 10 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = −7𝑉/𝑚

76
 i) At x=0m, 𝑉 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 2 = 10 + (−7) × 02 = 10 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡
At x=3m, 𝑉 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 2 = 10 + (−7) × 32 = −53 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡
At x=6m, 𝑉 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 2 = 10 + (−7) × 62 =?
𝑑𝑉
ii) For second part, 𝐸 = − = −2𝑏𝑥
𝑑𝑥
∴ At x=0m, 𝐸 = −2𝑏𝑥 = 0
At x=3m, 𝐸 = −2𝑏𝑥 = −2 × −7 × 3 = 42𝑉/𝑚
At x=6m, 𝐸 = −2𝑏𝑥 =?

18. What is the magnitude of the electric field at point (3,2) m if the electric potential is given by
V= 2x-5xy+3y2 volts. What acceleration does an electron experiences in the x-direction.
→ Here, potential V= 2x-5xy+3y2
𝜕𝑉
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑, 𝐸𝑥 = − 𝜕𝑥 = −(2 − 5𝑦)
𝜕𝑉
And 𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑, 𝐸𝑦 = − 𝜕𝑦 = −(−5𝑥 + 6𝑦)

Hence the magnitude of electric field is 𝐸 = √𝐸𝑥2 + 𝐸𝑦2 = √(2 − 5𝑦)2 + (−5𝑥 + 6𝑦)2
Now at point (3,2)
𝐸 = √(2 − 5𝑦)2 + (−5𝑥 + 6𝑦)2 = ⋯ … … … . 𝑉/𝑚
Again we have 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑒𝐸𝑥
𝑒𝐸𝑥
∴𝑎= 𝑚
Where, 𝐸𝑥 = −(2 − 5𝑦) = 8𝑉/𝑚
1.6 × 10−19 × 8
𝑜𝑟, 𝑎 = =?
9.1 × 10−31

19. Over certain region of space, the electric potential is V=5x-3x2y+2yz2. Find the expressions for
the x, y and z components of the electric field over this region. What is the magnitude of the
field at the point P that has coordinates (1,0,-2)m?
→ Here, Same as 21,22,23.

20. A particle of charge –q and mass m is placed midway between two equal positive charges q0 of
separation d. If the negative charge –q is displaced in perpendicular direction to the line joining
𝝅𝟑𝒅𝟑 𝒎𝝐𝟎
them and released, show that the particle describes a SHM with a period T=√ .
𝒒𝒒𝟎
→ Here,

77
 𝑑2
Here, 𝑟 = √𝑦 2 +
4
1 𝑞𝑞0
We have, 𝐹𝐴 = 𝐹𝐵 = − 4𝜋𝜀 𝑑2
= 𝐹(𝑠𝑎𝑦)
𝑜 (𝑦 2 + 4 )

Net force is 𝐹 ′ = 2𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

1 𝑞𝑞0 𝑦
𝑜𝑟, 𝑚𝑎 = −2 2
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑦 2 + 𝑑 ) 2 𝑑2
4 √𝑦 + 4
2𝑞𝑞0 𝑦
𝑜𝑟, 𝑚𝑎 = −
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑑2 3
(𝑦 2 + 4 ) ⁄2
𝑑2 3 𝑑3
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑦 ≪ 𝑑, (𝑦 2 + ) ⁄2 ≈
4 8
4𝑞𝑞0
∴ 𝑚𝑎 = − 𝑦
𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑑3
4𝑞𝑞0
𝑜𝑟, 𝑎 = − 𝑦
𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑚𝑑3
4𝑞𝑞0
𝑜𝑟, 𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑦 Where, 𝜔 = √𝜋𝜀 3
𝑜 𝑚𝑑

𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦
4𝑞𝑞0
𝜔=√
𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑚𝑑3

𝜔 1 4𝑞𝑞0 𝑞𝑞0
∴ 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑓 = = √ = √
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑚𝑑3 𝜋 3 𝜀 𝑜 𝑚𝑑 3

1 𝜋3 𝑑3 𝑚𝜀𝑜
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑇 = =√
𝑓 𝑞𝑞0
21. For the system of charges as shown in fig, prove that the potential at point p for r>>d is
𝒒 𝟐𝒅
V=𝟒𝝅𝝐 [𝟏 + 𝒓
]
𝟎

78
 → Here,

1 𝑞
Potential at P due to charge -q at A, 𝑉𝐴 = − 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟+𝑑
𝑜
1 𝑞
Potential at P due to charge +q at B, 𝑉𝐵 = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟
𝑜
1 𝑞
Potential at P due to charge +q at C, 𝑉𝐶 = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟−𝑑
𝑜
𝑞 1 1 1
∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑡 𝑃 𝑖𝑠 𝑉 = 𝑉𝐴 + 𝑉𝐵 + 𝑉𝐶 = [− + + ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟+𝑑 𝑟 𝑟−𝑑
𝑞 1 2𝑑
= [ + ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 (𝑟 − 𝑑)(𝑟 + 𝑑)
𝑞 1 2𝑑
𝑜𝑟, 𝑉 = [ + 2
]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟
𝑟2 − 𝑑
𝑞 1 2𝑑 𝑞 2𝑑
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑟 ≫ 𝑑, 𝑉 = [ + 2] = [1 + ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 𝑟

22. A plastic rod contains uniformly distributed charge –q. the rod has been bent in 1200 circular
arc of radius R as in fig. Prove that the magnitude of electric field E produced at the center of
𝟎.𝟖𝟑𝒒
the bent rod is E=𝟒𝝅𝝐 𝟐 .
𝟎𝑹

→ Here, Consider the bent rod has linear charge density 𝝀.

79
 Electric field at the center due to a small charge 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑅𝑑𝜃 is
1 𝑑𝑞 1 λ𝑑𝑥 1 λ𝑅𝑑𝜃 1 λ𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝐸 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅 2 = 2 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅 2 = 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅

Here, 𝑑𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 components of electric field cancel out and the effective components are
𝑑𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃.

𝜃 1 λ𝑑𝜃 λ 𝜃
∴ 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠, 𝐸 = ∫ 𝑑𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = ∫−𝜃 4𝜋𝜀 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 4𝜋𝜀 ∫−𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝜃
𝑜 𝑅 𝑜 𝑅

λ λ λ 2λsin𝜃 2λsin600
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 = [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃]𝜃−𝜃 = [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − sin(−𝜃)] = [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + sin𝜃] = =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅

Here, for 3600 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 2𝜋𝑅

120 2𝜋𝑅
∴ For 1200 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 2𝜋𝑅 =
360 3

q 3q
Hence, λ = 2𝜋𝑅 =
2𝜋𝑅
3

2λsin600 2sin600 3q 0.83q

∴𝐸= = × 2𝜋𝑅 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅2

80
Capacitor
𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉
𝜀0 𝐴
Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor, 𝐶 = 𝑑

When a dielectric slab of thickness t and dielectric constant K is inserted in the space between the plates
then

𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶= 𝑡
𝑑−𝑡+𝑘

𝐾𝜀0 𝐴
If 𝑑 = 𝑡 then 𝐶 =
𝑑

Capacitance of spherical capacitor

𝑎𝑏
𝐶 = 4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑏−𝑎) (When inner sphere is charged in outer sphere is earthed)

𝑏2
𝐶 = 4𝜋𝜀0 ( ) (When outer sphere is charged in inner sphere is earthed)
𝑏−𝑎

Capacitance of isolated spherical capacitor 𝐶 = 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑎

2𝜋𝜀0 𝑙
Capacitance of cylindrical capacitor is given by 𝐶 = 𝑏
ln( )
𝑎

𝑞2 1 1
𝑈𝐸 = = 𝐶𝑉 2 = 𝑞𝑉
2𝐶 2 2

1
𝑢𝑏 = 2 𝜖0 𝐸 2

Gauss Law in Dielectrics

𝑞
Electric field between the plates without dielectrics, 𝐸0 = 𝜀
0𝐴

𝐸0 𝑞−𝑞𝑖
Electric field between the plates with dielectrics, 𝐸 = 𝐸0 − 𝐸𝑖 = =
𝐾 𝜀𝑜 𝐴

1
Induced charge, 𝑞𝑖 = (1 − 𝐾 ) 𝑞

𝐷 = 𝜀𝑜 𝐸 + 𝑃
𝑞 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
Magnitude of displacement vector 𝐷 = =
𝐴 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

81
 𝑞𝑖 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
Magnitude of polarization vector𝑃 = =
𝐴 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

RC-Circuit (Charging and Discharging of Capacitor)

Charging
1
𝑞 = 𝑞0 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 𝑡 )
1
𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 𝑡

Discharging
1
𝑞 = 𝑞0 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶𝑡
1
𝐼 = −𝐼0 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 𝑡

Capacitive time constant, 𝜏𝐶 = 𝑅𝐶

2𝑡 2𝑡
𝑞2 𝑞0 2
For discharging, 𝑈𝐸 = 2𝐶 = 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 = 𝑈0 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶
2𝐶

1. A sheet of paper 40mm wide and 1.5x10-2mm thick between metal plates of the same width is
used to make a 2𝜇𝐹 capacitor. If the dielectric constant of the paper is 2.5, what is the length of
paper required?
→ Here, width of paper = width of plate =w=40mm=0.04m,
Thickness of paper = distance between plates=d=1.5x10-2mm=1.5x10-5m, capacitance C’=2 𝜇𝐹 =
2 × 10−6 𝐹
Dielectric constant, K=2.5
Let 𝑙 be the length of paper required.
We have capacitance of a capacitor with dielectric is
𝐾𝜀0𝐴 𝐾𝜀0 (𝑙×𝑤)
𝐶′ = =
𝑑 𝑑
𝐶′𝑑 2 × 10−6 × 1.5 × 10−5
∴𝑙= = =?
𝐾𝜀0 𝑤 2.5 × 8.85 × 10−12 × 0.04

2. Into a parallel plate capacitor of separation d and plate area A, an uncharged copper plate of
thickness b is inserted, midway between plates. Find the change in capacitance.
𝜀0 𝐴
→ Here, initial capacitance before inserting the copper plate is 𝐶 = 𝑑
𝐴𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒,
0 0𝜀 𝐴 2𝜀 𝐴
𝐶1 = 𝐶2 = (𝑑−𝑏) = (𝑑−𝑏)
⁄2

82
 Since, 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are in series, so net capacitance is
2𝜀0 𝐴 2𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶1 𝐶2 (𝑑 − 𝑏) (𝑑 − 𝑏) 𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶′ = = =
𝐶1 + 𝐶2 2𝜀0 𝐴 2𝜀0 𝐴 (𝑑 − 𝑏)
+
(𝑑 − 𝑏) (𝑑 − 𝑏)
𝜀0 𝐴 𝜀0 𝐴 𝜀0 𝐴𝑏
∴ 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐶′ − 𝐶 = − =
(𝑑 − 𝑏) 𝑑 𝑑(𝑑 − 𝑏)
3. A parallel plate capacitor is filled with is filled with two dielectric having dielectric constant k 1
and k2 in the way as in fig. prove that the capacitance is given by (a)
𝟐𝝐𝟎 𝑨 𝒌𝟏𝒌𝟐 𝝐𝟎 𝑨 𝒌𝟏+𝒌𝟐
( ) 𝐚𝐧𝐝 (𝐛) ( )
𝒅 𝒌𝟏+𝒌𝟐 𝒅 𝟐

→ Here, (a) In this case, distance is divided. So

𝐾1 𝜀0𝐴 2𝐾1 𝜀0𝐴 𝐾2𝜀0 𝐴 2𝐾2𝜀0𝐴
𝐶1 = 𝑑/2
= 𝑑
and 𝐶2 = 𝑑/2
= 𝑑
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠
2𝐾1 𝜀0 𝐴 2𝐾2 𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶1 𝐶 2 𝑑 𝑑 2𝜖0 𝐴 𝑘1 𝑘2
𝐶′ = = = ( )
𝐶1 + 𝐶2 2𝐾 𝜀
1 0 𝐴 2𝐾 𝜀
2 0 𝐴 𝑑 𝑘1 + 𝑘2
𝑑 + 𝑑
(𝑏) In this case, area is divided. So
𝐾1 𝜀0𝐴 𝐾2𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶1 = 2𝑑
and 𝐶2 = 2𝑑
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑠𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠
𝐾1 𝜀0 𝐴 𝐾1 𝜀0 𝐴 𝜖0 𝐴 𝑘1 + 𝑘2
𝐶 ′ = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 = + = ( )
2𝑑 2𝑑 𝑑 2
4. An air filled parallel plate capacitor has an capacitance of 1.32pF. The separation of the plates
is doubled and wax is inserted between them. The new capacitance is 2.57pF. Find the
dielectric constant of the wax.
→ Here, Capacitance without dielectric C=1.32pF, Capacitance with dielectric C’=2.57pF
𝜀0 𝐴
We have, 𝐶 = 𝑑

83
 𝐾𝜀0𝐴 𝐾𝐶
New capacitance with dielectric and distance doubled, 𝐶 ′ = =
2𝑑 2
2𝐶′
∴𝐾= =?
𝐶
5. When a dielectric slab of thickness 0.5cm and dielectric constant 2.5 is inserted
between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor of area 100 cm 2 and separation 1.5cm.
Calculate the resultant capacitance.
𝜀0 𝐴
→We have, 𝐶 = 𝑡 =?
𝑑−𝑡+
𝑘
6. If a parallel plate capacitor is to be designed to operate in an environment of fluctuating
temperature, prove that the rate of change of capacitance C with temperature T is given by
𝒅𝑪 𝟏 𝒅𝑨 𝟏 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝑻
=C[𝑨 𝒅𝑻 − 𝒙 𝒅𝑻].
→ Here, we have the capacitance of parallel plate capacitor with plate area A and plate
separation x is
𝜖0 𝐴
𝐶=
𝑥
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑇,
𝑑𝐶 1 𝑑𝐴 𝐴 𝑑𝑥 𝜖0 𝐴 1 𝑑𝐴 1 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝐴 1 𝑑𝑥
= 𝜖0 [ − ]= [ − ] = 𝐶[ − ]
𝑑𝑇 𝑥 𝑑𝑇 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑇 𝑥 𝐴 𝑑𝑇 𝑥 𝑑𝑇 𝐴 𝑑𝑇 𝑥 𝑑𝑇
7. A long cylindrical conductor has length 1m and is surrounded by a co-axial cylindrical
conducting shell with inner radius double that of long cylindrical conductor. Calculate the
capacitance of this capacitor assuming that there is a vacuum in space between cylinders.
→ Here, length 𝑙 = 1𝑚, outer radius b=2a
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑙
𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝐶 =
𝑏
ln(𝑎)
2 × 𝜋 × 8.85 × 10−12 × 1
= =?
𝑙𝑛2

8. The space between two concentric conducting spherical shells of radii 1.7cm and 1.2cm is
filled with a substance of dielectric constant K=23.5. A potential difference V=73V is applied
across the inner and outer shells. Determine (a) the capacitance of the device, (b) the free
charge q on the inner shell, and (c) the charge q’ induced along the surface of inner shell.
→ Here, outer radius, b=1.7cm=1.7x10-2m inner radius, a=1.2cm=1.2x10-2m dielectric constant,
K=23.5
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑉 = 73𝑉
𝑎𝑏 23.5 1.7×1.2
a) We have, capacitance 𝐶 = 4𝜋𝜀0 𝐾 (𝑏−𝑎) = 9×109 (1.7−1.2) × 10−2 =?
b) Free charge 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉 =?
1
c) Induced charge, 𝑞′ = (1 − 𝐾) 𝑞 =?
9. A parallel plate capacitor has a capacitance of 100 pF, a plate area of 100 cm2 and a mica
dielectric. At 50 volts potential difference calculate the magnitudes of (a) E in the mica (b) the

84
 free charge on the plates and (c) the induced surface charge(d) Displacement vector (e)
polarization vector, if dielectric constant for mica, k = 5.4]
→ Here, Capacitance, C=100pF=100x10-12F, plate area A=100cm2=100x10-4m2, potential
difference, V=50V
𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐾 = 5.4
𝑞 𝐶𝑉
a) We have 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐸 = 𝜺 =𝜺 =?
𝟎 𝑨𝑲 𝟎 𝑨𝑲
b) Free charge 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉 =?
1
c) Induced charge, 𝑞′ = (1 − 𝐾) 𝑞 =?
𝑞
d) Displacement vector 𝐷 = 𝐴 =?
𝑞′
e) Polarization vector 𝑃 = 𝐴
=?
10. A parallel plate capacitor of plate area 115 cm 2 and separation 1.24 cm is charged by a
p.d. 85.5V. The battery is disconnected then a dielectric slab of dielectric constant 2.61
and thickness 0.78mm is inserted between the plates. Calculate (a) the capacitance
before the slab is inserted (b) the induced electric field and (c) the capacitance when
the slab is inserted. Ans.:8.20pF, 4253V/m, 8.53pF
𝜀0 𝐴
→ (a) Capacitance before the slab is inserted, 𝐶 = =?
𝑑
𝑞 𝐶𝑉
(b)Electric field before the slab is inserted, 𝐸0 = = =?
𝜀0 𝐴 𝜀0 𝐴
𝑞 𝐶𝑉
Electric Field after the slab is inserted, 𝐸 = 𝜀 =𝜀 =?
0 𝐴𝐾 0 𝐴𝐾

∴ Induced electric field 𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸0 − 𝐸 =?

𝜀0 𝐴
(c)Capacitance when the slab is inserted, 𝐶′ = 𝑡 =?
𝑑−𝑡+
𝑘
11. Two capacitors having capacitance 25 𝝁𝑭 and 5 𝝁𝑭 are connected in parallel and charged with
a 100V power supply. Calculate the total energy stored in the two capacitors.
→ Here, 𝐶1 = 25𝜇𝐹 = 25 × 10−6 𝐹, 𝐶2 = 5𝜇𝐹 = 5 × 10−6 𝐹, P.D., V=100V
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐶1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠
𝐶 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 = 30 × 10−6 𝐹
1
∴ 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑈 = 𝐶𝑉 2 =?
2
12. A cylindrical capacitor has radii a and b. Show that the half the stored potential energy lies
with a cylinder of radius r=√𝒂𝒃.
→ Here, we have the capacitance of cylindrical capacitor having outer radius b and inner radius
a is
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑙
𝐶= 𝑏
ln(𝑎)
∴ 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑎 𝑖𝑠
𝑞2 𝑞2 𝑏
𝑈= = ln( )
2𝐶 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑙 𝑎
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟 𝑖𝑠

85
 𝑞2 𝑏
𝑈′ = ln( )
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑙 𝑟
1
𝐵𝑦 𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑈′ = 𝑈
2
𝑞2 𝑏 1 𝑞2 𝑏
ln ( ) = ln ( )
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑙 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑙 𝑎
𝑏 1 𝑏
𝑜𝑟, ln ( ) = ln ( )
𝑟 2 𝑎
𝑏 𝑏
𝑜𝑟, ln ( ) = 𝑙𝑛√
𝑟 𝑎

𝑏 𝑏
𝑜𝑟, =√
𝑟 𝑎
𝑜𝑟, 𝑟 = √𝑎𝑏

13. A fully charged capacitor stores energy W0. How much energy remains when its charge has
decrease to ½ its original value.
1 𝑞02
→ Here, 𝑊0 =
2 𝐶
𝑞0
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑞 =
2
𝑞
0 2
1 𝑞2 1(2) 1 1 𝑞02 1
Then energy 𝑊 = = = = 𝑊0
2 𝐶 2 𝐶 42 𝐶 4
14. A capacitor of capacitance C is discharged through a resister of resistance R. After how many
time constants is the stored energy ¼ of its initial value?
𝑡 𝑡
−
→ Here, we have in case of discharging, 𝑞 = 𝑞0 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 = 𝑞0 𝑒 𝜏𝐶
1 𝑞02
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑈0 =
2𝐶
1 𝑞2 1 𝑞02 −2𝑡 −
2𝑡
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑈 = = 𝑒 𝜏𝐶 = 𝑈0 𝑒 𝜏𝐶
2𝐶 2𝐶
1 2𝑡
−
𝑜𝑟, 𝑈0 = 𝑈0 𝑒 𝜏𝐶
4
2𝑡
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑙𝑛4
𝜏𝐶
𝑙𝑛4
𝑜𝑟, 𝑡 = 𝜏 = 0.693𝜏𝐶
2 𝐶
15. A capacitor C is discharged through a resistor R. After how many time constants does its (i)
charge falls to ½ of its initial value (ii) the store energy drop to ½ of its initial value.
𝑡 𝑡
−
→ Here, (i) we have in case of discharging, 𝑞 = 𝑞0 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 = 𝑞0 𝑒 𝜏𝐶

1 𝑡
−
𝑜𝑟, 𝑞0 = 𝑞0 𝑒 𝜏𝐶
2

86
 𝑡
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑙𝑛2
𝜏𝐶
𝑜𝑟, 𝑡 =?
2𝑡 2𝑡
1 𝑞2 1 𝑞02 − −
(ii) Again, 𝑈 = 2 𝐶
=2 𝐶
𝑒 𝜏𝐶 = 𝑈0 𝑒 𝜏𝐶

1 2𝑡
−
𝑜𝑟, 𝑈0 = 𝑈0 𝑒 𝜏𝐶
2
2𝑡
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑙𝑛2
𝜏𝐶
𝑜𝑟, 𝑡 =?
16. How many time constants must elapse before a capacitor in an RC circuit is charged for 99% of
its maximum charge?
𝑡
→ Here, we have in case of charging, 𝑞 = 𝑞0 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 )
𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 0.99 𝑞0 = 𝑞0 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 )
𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 = 0.01
𝑡
𝑜𝑟, − = 0.01
𝜏𝐶
𝑜𝑟, 𝑡 =?

87
Chapter 6: Electromagnetism
𝑑ɸ𝐵
Induced emf 𝜀 = − 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐼
𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝜀 = −𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝜇0 𝑁 2𝐴
Self-Inductance of solenoid 𝐿 = 𝑙
= 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝐴𝑙

𝜇0 𝑁 2 ℎ 𝑅
Self-Inductance of toroid 𝐿 = 2𝜋
ln(𝑅2 )
1

1
Energy stored in Magnetic Field 𝑈𝐵 = 2 𝐿𝐼2

𝐵2
Magnetic energy density 𝑢𝑏 =
2𝜇0

LR-Circuit (Growth and Decay of Current)

Growth of Current
𝑅
𝐼 = 𝐼0 (1 − 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 )

Decay of current
𝑅
𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡
𝐿
Inductive time constant 𝜏𝐿 = 𝑅

𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝑉
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑑 = 𝜖0 𝐴 =𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝐸
Displacement current density is 𝑗𝑑 = 𝐴
= 𝜀0 𝑑𝑡

1 𝑑𝐸 1
Induced magnetic field for 𝑟 ≤ 𝑅, 𝐵 = 2 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑟 𝑑𝑡 = 2 𝜇0 𝑟𝑗𝑑

1 𝑑𝐸 1 𝑅2
Induced magnetic field for 𝑟 ≥ 𝑅, 𝐵 = 2𝑟 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑅2 𝑑𝑡 = 2 𝜇0 𝑟
𝑗𝑑

Cyclotron
𝑚𝑣
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛, 𝑟=
𝐵𝑞
𝜋𝑚
Time taken by the charged particle to complete the semi-circle inside a dee is 𝑡 =
𝐵𝑞

88
 2𝜋𝑚
Time period of cyclotron is 𝑇 = 𝐵𝑞

1 𝐵𝑞
Frequency,𝑓 = 𝑇 = 2𝜋𝑚

𝐵𝑞
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 =
𝑚
1 1
Energy gained by the charged particle is 𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 = 2𝑚 𝐵2 𝑞2 𝑟 2 = 2𝜋 2 𝑓 2 𝑟 2 𝑚

1. A solenoid 1.3m long 2.6cm in diameter carries a current of 18 A. The magnetic field inside the
solenoid is 23mT. Find the length of the wire forming the solenoid and self inductance of the
solenoid.
→ Here, length of solenoid 𝑙 = 1.3𝑚, 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑟 = 1.3𝑐𝑚 = 0.013𝑚,
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼 = 18𝐴, 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝐵 = 23𝑚𝑇 = 0.023𝑇
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
We have 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼 = 𝑙
∴ 𝑁 =?
Now, length of wire forming the solenoid= 𝑁 × 2𝜋𝑟 =?

Again, self- inductance

𝜇0 𝑁 2 𝐴 𝜇0 𝑁 2
𝐿= = × 𝜋𝑟 2 =?
𝑙 𝑙

2. A toroid has number of turns 1250, internal radius 52 mm, external radius 95 mm and thickness of
the ring 13 mm, calculate the inductance.
→ Here,𝑁 = 1250, 𝑅1 = 52𝑚𝑚 = 0.052𝑚, 𝑅2 = 95𝑚𝑚 = 0.095𝑚, ℎ = 13𝑚𝑚 = 0.013𝑚
𝜇0 𝑁 2 ℎ 𝑅2
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐿 = ln ( ) =?
2𝜋 𝑅1
3. A circular loop of wire of radius 5cm carries a current of 100A. What is the energy density at the
center of the loop?
→ Here, radius 𝑅 = 5𝑚 = 0.05𝑚, 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼 = 100𝐴
𝐵2 1 𝜇0 𝐼 2
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑢𝑏 = = ( ) =?
2𝜇0 2𝜇0 2𝑅
4. Calculate the energy required to set up in a cube of 10cm edge (a) a uniform electric field of 105V/m
(b) a uniform magnetic field of 1T.

→ Here, Side of cube 𝑙 = 10𝑐𝑚 = 0.1𝑚, E=105V/m, B=1T

1
a) 𝑈𝐸 = 𝑢𝑒 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 2 𝜖0 𝐸 2 × 𝑙 3 =?
𝐵2
b) 𝑈𝐵 = 𝑢𝑏 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 2𝜇 × 𝑙 3 =?
0

89
5. A loop of wire of radius r is placed in a uniform magnetic field perpendicular to its plane. The
magnitude of the field varies with time according to 𝐵 = 𝐵0𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 where 𝐵0 and 𝜏 are constant. Find
the emf in the loop as a function of time.

→ Since the plane of the loop is perpendicular to the magnetic field B, We have the magnetic flux
𝑡
through the loop is 𝜑𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐴𝐵0 𝑒 −𝜏
𝑡
−
𝑑𝜑𝐵 𝐴𝐵0 𝑒 𝜏
From Faraday’s law we have, induced emf is 𝑒 = − 𝑑𝑡
= 𝜏

6. A helicopter has blades of length 3m extending out from a central hub and rotating at 2rev/s. If the
vertical component of earth’s magnetic field is 50𝜇𝑇, what will be the induced emf between the
blade tip and central hub.
→ The induced emf due to the rotation of the helicopter blades in the magnetic field B is
𝑑𝜀 = 𝐵𝑣𝑑𝑟 = 𝐵𝑟𝜔𝑑𝑟
𝑙 𝑙
𝐵𝜔𝑙 2 𝐵2𝜋𝑓𝑙 2
∴ 𝜀 = ∫ 𝑑𝜀 = ∫ 𝐵𝑟𝜔𝑑𝑟 = = =?
0 0 2 2

7. An inductance L is connected to a battery of emf E through a resistance R. Show that the potential
𝑹𝒕
difference across the inductance after time t is VL=E𝒆− 𝑳 . At what time is the p.d. across the
inductance equal to that across the resistance such that i=i 0/2.
𝑅
→ We have,𝐼 = 𝐼0 (1 − 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 )

Now, potential difference across the inductor is

𝑑𝐼 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
𝑉𝐿 = 𝐿 = 𝐿 × 𝐼0 × 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 = 𝐼0 𝑅𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 = 𝐸𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐿

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐸 = 𝐼0 𝑅

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡, 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑅

𝑅
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑅 𝐼0
𝑜𝑟, 𝐼0 𝑅𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 = 𝑅
2
𝑅
𝑜𝑟, 𝑡 = 𝑙𝑛2
𝐿
𝐿
𝑜𝑟, 𝑡 = 𝑙𝑛2 × = 0.693𝜏𝐿
𝑅

90
8. A solenoid having an inductance of 6.3𝝁H is connected in series with a 1.2 kΩ resistor. (a) If a 14V
battery is connected across the pair, how long will it take for the current through the resistor to
reach 80% of its final value? (b) What is the current resistor at time t=𝝉L?

→ Here, L=6.3𝜇H=6.3× 10−6 𝐻, 𝑅 = 1.2kΩ = 1200Ω, 𝐸 = 14𝑉

𝑅
𝑎) 𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑐𝑒, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 (1 − 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 )
𝑅
𝑜𝑟, 0.8𝐼0 = 𝐼0 (1 − 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 )

𝑅
𝑜𝑟, 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 = 0.2

𝑜𝑟, 𝑡 =?

𝐸
𝑏) 𝐴𝑡 𝑡 = 𝜏𝐿 , 𝐼 = 𝐼0 (1 − 𝑒 −1 ) = 0.63𝐼0 = 0.63 × =?
𝑅

9. A series circuit has 25ohm resistance and 0.1henry inductance. What will be the initial rate of
increase of current if the circuit contains a 12V steady source? What time is required for the
current to attain a value of 100mA?
→ Here, R=25Ω, L=0.1H, E=12V, I=100mA=0.1A
𝑅
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑐𝑒, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 (1 − 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 )
𝑑𝐼 𝑅 𝑅 𝐸 𝑅
∴ = 𝐼0 × 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 = 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 =?
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐿
𝑅
Again, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 (1 − 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 )
𝐸 𝑅
𝑜𝑟, 𝐼 = (1 − 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 )
𝑅
∴ 𝑡 =?
10. A parallel plate capacitor with circular plates of radius R be charged, prove that the induced
magnetic field at radius r in the region between the plates is
𝟏 𝒅𝑬
B= 𝝁0𝝐0r for r≤ 𝑹 and
𝟐 𝒅𝒕
𝟏 𝒅𝑬
B=𝟐𝒓 𝝁0𝝐0R2 𝒅𝒕 for r≥ 𝑹
→ 𝐹𝑜𝑟 r ≤ 𝑅, 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒

91
 𝑑ɸ𝐸
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜀0
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
∮𝐵
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝐴
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 × 𝜋𝑟 2
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑟
2 𝑑𝑡
𝐹𝑜𝑟 r ≥ 𝑅, 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒

𝑑ɸ𝐸
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜀0
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
∮𝐵
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝐴
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 × 𝜋𝑅2
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑅2
2𝑟 𝑑𝑡

92
11. Calculate the displacement current between the circular plates of area 1.5x10 -2 and rate of electric
field change is 1.5x1012 V/ms. Also calculate the displacement current density and induced
magnetic field for r=R=69mm.
𝑑𝐸
→ Here, A=1.5× 10−2 𝑚 2 , 𝑑𝑡
=1.5x1012 V/m-s
𝑑𝐸
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑑 = 𝜀0 𝐴 =?
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑦 𝑗𝑑 = 𝜀0 =?
𝑑𝑡
1
𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑟𝑗𝑑 =?
2

12. The induced magnetic field at radial distance 6mm from the central axis of a circular parallel plate
capacitor is 2x10-7T. The plates have radius 3mm. At what rate is the electric field between the
plates changing?
→ Here, 𝑟 = 6𝑚𝑚 = 0.006𝑚, 𝐵 = 2 × 10−7 𝑇, 𝑅 = 3𝑚𝑚 = 0.003𝑚
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 r > 𝑅

𝑑ɸ𝐸
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜀0
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
∮𝐵
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝐴
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 × 𝜋𝑅2
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑅2
2𝑟 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸 𝐵 × 2𝑟
∴ = =?
𝑑𝑡 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑅2

13. As a parallel plate capacitor with circular plates 20cm in diameter is being chatged, the current
density of the displacement current in the region between the plates is uniform and has a
magnitude of 20A/m2. (a) Calculate the magnitude B of the magnetic field at a distance r=50mm
for the axis of symmetry of this region. (b) Calculate dE/dt in this region.

93
 → Here, R=10cm=0.1m, 𝑗𝑑 =20A/m2, r=50mm=0.05m

For r<R,
𝑑ɸ𝐸
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜀0
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
∮𝐵
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝐴
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 × 𝜋𝑟 2
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑𝐸 1
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑟 = 𝜇 𝑟𝑗 =?
2 𝑑𝑡 2 0 𝑑
𝑑𝐸
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝑗𝑑 = 𝜀0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸 𝑗𝑑
∴ = =?
𝑑𝑡 𝜀0

14. A parallel plate capacitor with circular plates of 10cm radius is charged by varying electric field of
1.5x1012V/ms. Evaluate induced magnetic field if the radius of the plate is 55mm and
displacement current in this situation.
𝑑𝐸
→ Here, R=10cm=0.1m, 𝑑𝑡 =1.5x1012V/m-s, r=55mm=5.5cm=0.055m

94
 For r<R,
𝑑ɸ𝐸
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜀0
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
∮𝐵
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝐴
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 × 𝜋𝑟 2
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑟 =?
2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝐸
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝑖𝑑 = 𝜀0 𝐴 = 𝜀0 × 𝜋 × 𝑟 2 × =?
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

15. A circular parallel plate capacitor of area 154cm2 is being charged has a uniform current density of
a displacement current, having magnitude 20 Am-2. Calculate (a) the magnitude of magnetic field
at a distance r=50mm about the central axis between the plates. (b) dE/dt in this region.

→ Here, 𝜋𝑅2 = 154𝑐𝑚 2

∴ 𝑅 = 7𝑐𝑚 = 0.07𝑚,𝑗 𝑑 =20 Am-2, r=50mm=5cm=0.05m

a) For r<R,

95
 𝑑ɸ𝐸
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜀0
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
∮𝐵
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝐴
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 × 𝜋𝑟 2
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑟 =?
2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸
𝑏) 𝑗𝑑 = 𝜀0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸 𝑗𝑑
∴ = =?
𝑑𝑡 𝜀0

16. A parallel plate capacitor with circular plates is charged by current i. (a) what is the magnitude of
∮ 𝑩. 𝒅𝒔 in terms of µ0 and i between the plates if r=a/5 from the center? (b) What is the
magnitude of induced magnetic field for r=a/5 in terms of displacement current.

→ (a) Wehave, ∮ 𝑩. 𝒅𝒔 = 𝝁𝟎 𝒊′

𝑖 𝑖′
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐽 = 2
= 2
𝜋𝑎 𝜋𝑟

𝑟2
′
1
∴𝑖 = 2×𝑖 = 𝑖
𝑎 25
1 𝝁𝟎 𝒊
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, ∮ 𝑩. 𝒅𝒔 = 𝝁𝟎 × 𝑖=
25 25

(b) Again we have, ∮ 𝑩. 𝒅𝒔 = 𝝁𝟎 𝒊′

96
 𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝝁𝟎 𝒊′

𝝁𝟎 𝒊′ 𝝁𝟎 1 𝝁𝟎 5 1 𝝁𝟎 𝒊
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 = = × 𝑖= × 𝑖=
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑟 25 2𝜋 𝑎 25 10𝜋𝑎

17. If a test charge revolves round a circular path of radius 8.5cm where the magnetic field increases
at steady rate 0.13T/s, calculate the magnitude of induced electric field at a point 12.5cm and
4cm.
𝑑𝐵
→ Here, R=8.5cm=8.5x10-2m, 𝑑𝑡 = 0.13𝑇

For r=12.5cm=12.5x10-2m, we have from Faraday’s law

𝑑𝜑𝐵
∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 =
𝑑𝑡

𝑑(𝐵𝐴)
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐵
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜋𝑅2 ×
𝑑𝑡

1 𝑅2 𝑑𝐵
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 = =?
2 𝑟 𝑑𝑡

Again for r=4cm=4x10-2m,

𝑑𝜑𝐵
∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 =
𝑑𝑡

𝑑(𝐵𝐴)
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐵
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ×
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑𝐵
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 = 𝑟 =?
2 𝑑𝑡

18. A long solenoid of radius 2cm has 1000 turns per meter and carries a sinusoidally varying current
𝑰 = 𝟓𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟎𝟎𝝅𝒕, where 𝑰 is in ampere and t is in second. Determine the magnitude of induced
electric field at a radius r=1cm and r=3cm from its central axis.

→ Here, R=2cm=2x10-2m, n=1000 turns/m, 𝐼 = 5𝑠𝑖𝑛100𝜋𝑡

𝑑𝐵 𝑑(𝜇0 𝑛𝐼) 𝑑(5𝑠𝑖𝑛100𝜋𝑡)
We have, 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑡
= 𝜇0 𝑛 𝑑𝑡
= 𝜇0 𝑛 × 5 × 100𝜋𝑐𝑜𝑠100𝜋𝑡 = ⋯ … … 𝑐𝑜𝑠100𝜋𝑡 T/s

97
For r=1cm=1x10-2m,

𝑑𝜑𝐵
∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 =
𝑑𝑡

𝑑(𝐵𝐴)
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐵
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ×
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑𝐵
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 = 2 𝑟 𝑑𝑡 = ⋯ … … … . . 𝑐𝑜𝑠100𝜋𝑡 V/m

For r=3cm=3x10-2m, we have from Faraday’s law

𝑑𝜑𝐵
∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 =
𝑑𝑡

𝑑(𝐵𝐴)
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐵
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜋𝑅2 ×
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑅 2 𝑑𝐵
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 = 2 𝑟 𝑑𝑡
= ⋯ … … . 𝑐𝑜𝑠100𝜋𝑡 V/m

19. An air cored solenoid with length 25cm, area of cross-section 30cm2 and number of turns 490
carries a current of 20A. The current is suddenly switched off in a brief time of 10 -3 sec. How much
is the average back emf induced across the ends of the open switch in the circuit?

→ Here, we have induced emf

𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝐼 490 20
𝜀 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝐴𝑙 𝑑𝑡 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 × (0.25)2 × 30 × 10−4 × 0.25 10−3 = ⋯ … . 𝑉

20. An LR circuit having inductance 4H, resistance 1 ohm and applied D.C. emf of 6V is
switched at t=0. Find the power dissipated in the circuit at t=4sec.
→ We have current at t=4s is
𝑅 𝐸 𝑅
𝐼 = 𝐼0 (1 − 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 ) = (1 − 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 ) =?
𝑅
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅 =?

98
21. In a certain cyclotron, a proton moves in a circle of radius 0.5m. The magnitude of magnetic field
is 1.2 T. (a) What is the oscillator frequency? (b) What is the K.E. of the proton, in eV?

→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑟 = 0.5𝑚, 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝐵 = 1.2𝑇, 𝑞 = 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶,

Mass of proton, 𝑚 = 1.67 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔

𝐵𝑞
𝑎) We have frequency 𝑓 = 2𝜋𝑚 =?

1
𝑏) 𝐾. 𝐸 = 2𝜋 2 𝑓 2 𝑟 2 𝑚 = ⋯ … . . 𝐽 = ⋯ … … .× 𝑒𝑉
1.6 × 10−19

22. A physicist designed a cyclotron to accelerate protons to 1/10th the speed of light. The magnet used
will produce a field of 1.4T Calculate (a) the radius of the cyclotron (b) the corresponding oscillator
frequency.
𝑐
→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑣 = 10 = 3 × 107 m/s, B=1.4T , 𝑞 = 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶, 𝑚 = 1.67 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔

𝑚𝑣
𝑎) 𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑟 = =?
𝐵𝑞

𝐵𝑞
𝑏) 𝑓 = =?
2𝜋𝑚

23. A cyclotron is operated at an oscillator frequency of 12MHz and has radius 53cm. (a) What is the
magnitude of magnetic field needed for deuterons to be accelerated in the cyclotron? (b) What is
the resulting K.E. of deuterons?

→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑓 = 12𝑀𝐻𝑧 = 12 × 106 𝐻𝑧, 𝑟 = 53𝑐𝑚 = 0.53𝑚, 𝑞 = 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶,

𝑚 = 2𝑚𝑝 = 2 × 1.67 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔

𝐵𝑞
a) We have, 𝑓 = 2𝜋𝑚
∴ 𝐵 =?
b) K.E.= 2𝜋 2 𝑓 2 𝑟 2 𝑚 =?
24. Deuterons in a cyclotron describe a circle of radius 0.32m just before emerging from dees. The
frequency of the applied emf is 10MHz. Find the flux density of the magnetic field and the velocity
of deuterons emerging out of the cyclotron. Mass of deuteron=3.32x10-27Kg, charge=1.6x10-19C.

→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑟 = 0.32𝑚, 𝑓 = 10𝑀𝐻𝑧 = 10 × 106 𝐻𝑧, 𝑚 = 3.32 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔, 𝑞 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶
𝐵𝑞
We have, 𝑓 = 2𝜋𝑚
∴ 𝐵 =?
𝑚𝑣
Again, 𝑟 =
𝐵𝑞
𝐵𝑞𝑟
∴𝑣= =?
𝑚

99
25. An electron with kinetic energy 2.5KeVcircles in a plane perpendicular to a uniform
magnetic field. The radius of the orbit is 25cm. Calculate(i) the speed of the electron(ii)
the flux density of magnetic field (iii) the number of revolutions per second.
→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, E=2.5KeV=2.5x1000x1.6x10-19J, r=0.25m, q=e=1.6x10-19C, m=9.1x10-31kg
1
(𝑖 ) 𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
2𝐸
∴ 𝑣 = √ =?
𝑚
𝑚𝑣
(ii)Again, 𝑟 = 𝐵𝑞
𝑚𝑣
∴𝐵= =?
𝑟𝑞
𝐵𝑞
(iii)and , 𝑓 = 2𝜋𝑚 =?

26. A 10eV electron is circulating in a plane at right angles to a uniform field of magnetic
induction 1x10-4 Wb/m2. Calculate the orbital radius, cyclotron frequency, and period of
revolution.
→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, E=10eV=10x1.6x10-19J, B=1x10-4 Wb/m2, q=e=1.6x10-19C, m=9.1x10-31kg
1
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
2𝐸
∴ 𝑣 = √ =?
𝑚

𝑚𝑣
Now, 𝑟 = 𝐵𝑞
=?

𝐵𝑞
𝑓 = 2𝜋𝑚 =?
1
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇 = =?
𝑓

27. A cyclotron in which the flux density is 1.4wb/m2 is employed to accelerate process. How rapidly
should the electric field between the dees be reversed? Mass of proton =1.67x10-27Kg and
charge=1.6x10-19C.
𝜋𝑚
→ The required time is 𝑡 = 𝐵𝑞
=?
28. What radius is needed in proton synchrotron to atom particle energy of10GeV, assuming that a
guide field of 1.8wb/m2 is available?
→ We have total energy of proton 𝐸 = 𝐾. 𝐸. + 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 = 10𝐺𝑒𝑉 + 𝑚0 𝑐 2 = 10 × 109 × 1.6 × 10−19 + 1.67 ×× 10−27 × (3 × 108 )2 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
Again we have 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2

100
 𝐸
∴𝑚= =?
𝑐2
𝑚𝑣 𝑚𝑐
Now, 𝑟 = 𝐵𝑞 = 𝐵𝑒 =?

101
Chapter 7 : Electromagnetic Waves
𝐸 𝐸
𝐵
= 𝐵0 = 𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
0

𝐸0 𝐵0 𝑐𝐵2 𝐸2 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟(𝑃)
Intensity of electromagnetic wave 𝐼 = 2𝜇0
= 2𝜇0 = 2𝑐𝜇0 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝐴)
0 0

𝑐
𝑓=
λ
𝐼
Radiation Pressure for perfectly absorbing surface, 𝑝𝑟 = 𝐶

2𝐼
Radiation Pressure for perfectly reflecting surface, 𝑝𝑟 = 𝐶

Numerical on Electromagnetic Waves

1. The earth’s mean radius is 6.37x106m and mean earth-sun distance is 1.5x108km. What fraction of
the radiation emitted by the sun is intercepted by the disk of the earth?

→ Here, radius of earth r=6.37x106m, mean earth sun distance R=1.5x108km=1.5x1011m

𝑃
We have, the intensity of radiation emitted by sun 𝐼 = 4𝜋𝑅 2

𝑃
And the intensity of radiation received by the disc of earth 𝐼′ = 𝜋𝑟 2

𝐼
∴ =?
𝐼′

2. The intensity of direct solar radiation that is not absorbed by the atmosphere on a particular
summer day is 100W/m2. How close would you stand to a 1KW electric heater to feel the same
intensity for uniform distribution of heater radiation?

→ Here, Intensity 𝐼 = 100W/m2, Power P=1KW=1000W

𝑃 𝑃
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝐼 = =
𝐴 4𝜋𝑟 2

∴ 𝑟 =?

3. A space probe 2x1010m from a star measures the total intensity of em radiation from the star to be
5x103 W/m2. If the star radiates uniformly in all directions, what is the total average power output?

→ Here, distance r=2x1010m, Intensity 𝐼 = 5000W/m2

𝑃 𝑃
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝐼 = =
𝐴 4𝜋𝑟 2

102
 ∴ 𝑃 =?

4. Sunlight just outside the earth’s atmosphere has an intensity of 1.4KW/m 2. Calculate the
magnitude of pointing vector, maximum electric field and maximum magnetic fields for sunlight,
assuming it to be a plane wave.

→ Here, Intensity 𝐼 =1.4KW/m2=1400 W/m2

Magnitude of pointing vector S=1400 W/m2

𝑐𝐵2
We have, 𝐼 = 2𝜇0
0

2𝜇0 𝐼
∴ 𝐵0 = √ =?
𝑐

Again 𝐸0=c𝐵0 =?

5. Calculate the magnitude of Poynting vector and amplitudes of electric and magnetic
fields at a distance of 3Km from a radio station which a radar power of 10 5W uniformly
radiates in all direction.
𝑃 𝑃
→ Magnitude of Poynting vector 𝐼 = 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟2 =?

𝑐𝐵2
Again 𝐼 = 2𝜇0
0

2𝜇0 𝐼
∴ 𝐵0 = √ =?
𝑐

And 𝐸0=c𝐵0 =?

6. Sunlight strikes the earth outside its atmosphere with an intensity of 2cal/cm 2-min. Calculate the
magnitudes of electric and magnetic fields.
2×4.2
→ Here, Intensity 𝐼 =2cal/cm2-min10−4 ×60 = 1400 W/m2

𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑠 4.

7. The maximum electric field 10m from an isotropic point source is 2V/m. What are (a) the
maximum value of magnetic field (b) average intensity of light and (c) power of the source?

→ Here, distance r=10m, 𝐸0 =2V/m

103
 𝐸0
𝑎)we have, 𝐵0 = 𝑐
=?

𝑐𝐵02
𝑏) 𝐼 = =?
2𝜇0

𝑐) 𝑃 = 𝐼 × 𝐴 = 𝐼 × 4𝜋𝑟 2 =?

8. A certain radio station broadcasts at a frequency of 10 20 Hz. At a point some distance from the
transmitter, the maximum magnetic field of the em wave is 1.6x10-4T. (a) What is the speed of
the propagation of the the wave (b) What is the wavelength? (c) What is the maximum electric
field?

→ Here,𝑓 = 1020 𝐻𝑧, 𝐵0 =1.6x10-4T

𝑎)𝑣 = 𝑐 = 3 × 108 m/s

𝑐
𝑏) 𝜆 = =?
𝑓

𝑐) 𝐸0 = 𝑐𝐵0 =?

9. Calculate the power per unit area delivered by a laser pulse of energy 4x10-3J and the pulse
length in time 10-9s when the pulse is focused on target to a very small spot of radius
1.5x10-5m.
𝐸
→ Here, power 𝑃 = 𝑡
=?
𝑃 𝑃
Now 𝐼 = 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟2 =?
10. A certain plane wave emitted by a microwave antenna has a wavelength of 3cm and maximum
magnitude of electric field 2x10-4V/m.(a) What is the frequency of wave? (b) What is the maximum
magnetic field? (c) What is maximum energy density? (d) What is intensity of wave?

→ Here,=3cm=0.03m, 𝐸0 =2x10-4V/m
𝑐
a) 𝑓 = λ =?
𝐸0
b) 𝐵0 = 𝑐
=?
𝐵02
c) 𝑢𝑏 = 2𝜇 =?
0
𝑐𝐵02
d) 𝐼 = 2𝜇 =?
0
11. An isotropic point source emits light at wavelength 500nm at the rate of 200W. A light detector is
positioned 400m from the source. What is the maximum rate at which magnetic component of the
light changes with time at the detector’s location?

→ Here, 𝝀=500nm=500× 10−9 𝑚, P=200W, r=400m

104
 We have, 𝐵 = 𝐵0 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)

𝑑𝐵
∴ = 𝜔𝐵0 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐵
𝑜𝑟, [ ] = 𝜔𝐵0 ……………..(i)
𝑑𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑐𝐵02 𝑃
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐼 = =
2𝜇0 4𝜋𝑟 2

∴ 𝐵0 =?

𝑑𝐵 𝑐
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (𝑖 ), [ ] = 2𝜋𝑓 × 𝐵0 = 2𝜋 × × 𝐵0 =?
𝑑𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥 λ

12. What is the radiation pressure 1.5m away from a 500W light bulb? Also calculate the amplitudes
of electric and magnetic field there.

→ Here, r=1.5m, P=500W

𝐼 𝑃
We have radiation pressure 𝑝𝑟 = 𝑐 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑐 =?

𝑃 𝑐𝐵2
Again, 𝐼 = 4𝜋𝑟2 = 2𝜇0
0
∴ 𝐵0 =?

Also, 𝐸0 = 𝑐𝐵0 =?

13. The sun delivers about 103W/m2 of energy to the earth’s surface through EM radiation. Calculate
(a) the total power incident on a roof of dimensions 8mx20m. (b) radiation pressure and force
exerted on the roof, assuming roof is perfect absorber.

→ Here, I=103W/m2, Area A=8mx20m

a) P=IxA=?
𝐼
b) 𝑝𝑟 = 𝑐 =?
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹 = 𝑝𝑟 × 𝐴 =?
14. The relative permittivity of distilled water is 81. Calculate the refractive index and velocity
of light in it.

→ We have the refractive index 𝑛 = √𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟 = √1 × 81 = 9 (Since 𝜇𝑟 = 1 for non-magnetic material)

𝑐
And 𝑣 = =?
√𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟

105
Chapter 8: Photon and matter waves
ℎ
𝑑𝑒 − 𝐵𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝜆=
𝑃
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 1 − 𝐷 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙

𝑛2 𝜋 2ℏ2 𝑛 2 𝒉2
𝐸𝑛 = 2𝑚𝑎 2
= 8𝑚𝑎2; 𝑛 = 1,2,3, … . (≠ 0)

𝐸 𝐸 2𝑚
Transmission coefficient 𝑇=16𝑉 (1 − 𝑉 )𝑒 −2𝛽𝑎 Where, 𝛽 = √ ℏ2 (𝑉0 − 𝐸)
0 0

Reflection coefficient is given by R=1-T

∆𝑥. ∆𝑃 ≥ ℏ

∆𝐸. ∆𝑡 ≥ ℏ

∆𝜃. ∆𝐽 ≥ ℏ

Numerical on Photons And Matter Waves

1. Find the de-Broglie wavelength of a 15KV proton.

→ Here, V=15KV=15000V

ℎ ℎ ℎ 6.62×10−34
We have, de-Broglie wavelength 𝜆 = 𝑃 = = = √2×1.67×10−27 =?
√2𝑚𝐸 √2𝑚𝑒𝑉 ×1.6×10−19 ×15000

2. Prove that the group speed of a wave packet is identical to the speed of a particle.

→ We have, group speed

𝑑𝜔 𝑑(ℏ𝜔) 𝑑𝐸 𝑑 𝑃2 2𝑃 𝑚𝑣
𝑣𝑔 = = = = ( )= = = 𝑣 ; 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑑𝑘 𝑑(ℏ𝐤) 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃 2𝑚 2𝑚 𝑚

3. An electron and a photon have a wavelength of 0.2nm. What is the momentum of the (a) electron
and (b) Photon? What is the energy in eV of (c) electron and (d) Photon?
→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝜆𝑝 = 𝜆𝑒 = 0.2𝑛𝑚 = 0.2 × 10−9 𝑚,
ℎ
a) Momentum of electron 𝑃𝑒 =𝜆 =?
𝑒
ℎ
b) Momentum of photon𝑃𝑝 = =?
𝜆𝑝
𝑒 𝑃2
c) Energy of electron 𝐸𝑒 = 2𝑚 =?
𝑒
d) Energy od Photon 𝐸𝑝 = 𝑃𝑝 𝑐 =?

106
4. A non- relativistic particle is moving three times as fast as an electron. The ratio of the de-Broglie
wavelength of the particle to that of electron is 1.813x10-4. By calculating its mass, identify the
particle.
𝜆𝑝
→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑣𝑝 = 3𝑣𝑒 , = 1.813 × 10−4
𝜆𝑒
𝜆𝑝 ℎ⁄𝑚𝑝 𝑣𝑝 𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑒
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, = =
𝜆𝑒 ℎ⁄𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑝 𝑣𝑝
𝑣 𝜆 1 1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑚𝑝 = 𝑣𝑒 𝜆 𝑒 𝑚𝑒 = 3 × 1.813×10−4 × 9.1 × 10−31 = 1.673 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔 (neutron)
𝑝 𝑝

5. Calculate permitted energy levels of an electron in one dimensional potential well of width 2A 0.

→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑎 = 2𝐴0 = 2 × 10−10 𝑚

𝑛 2 𝒉2
We have 𝐸𝑛 = 8𝑚𝑎2 ; 𝑛 = 1,2,3, … … ….

𝑛 2 𝒉𝟐 𝑛2 × (𝟔. 𝟔𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 )2
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸𝑛 = = = 1.5 × 10−18 × 𝑛2 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
8𝑚𝑎2 8 × 9.1 × 10−31 × (2 × 10−10 )2

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1, 𝐸1 = 1.5 × 10−18 × 12 =?

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 2, 𝐸2 = 1.5 × 10−18 × 22 =?

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 3, 𝐸3 = 1.5 × 10−18 × 32 =? 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑜𝑛.

6. An electron is confined to an infinite height box of size 0.1nm. Calculate the ground state energy
of the electron and radiation frequency. How this electron can be put to the third energy level?

→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑎 = 0.1𝑛𝑚 = 0.1 × 10−9 𝑚

𝑛 2 𝒉2
We have 𝐸𝑛 = 8𝑚𝑎2

For ground state, 𝑛 = 1

𝒉2
∴ 𝐸1 = 8𝑚𝑎2 =?

𝐸1
So radiation frequency 𝑓 = ℎ
=?

To put the electron to third energy level, we need to supply energy=𝐸3 − 𝐸1 = 9𝐸1 − 𝐸1 = 8𝐸1 =?

7. An electron is confined to an one dimensional region in which its ground state energy is 2eV. (a)
what is the length of the region? And (b) how much energy is required to promote the electron to
its first excited state?

→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐸1 = 2𝑒𝑉 = 2 × 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽

107
 𝑛 2 𝒉2
a) We have 𝐸𝑛 = 8𝑚𝑎2
𝒉2
∴ 𝐸1 =
8𝑚𝑎2
∴ 𝑎 =?
b) To promote the electron to first excited state, we need to supply energy
=𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = 4𝐸1 − 𝐸1 = 3𝐸1 = 6𝑒𝑉
8. Write down the expression for the energy level of a 1gm particle in the infinite potential well of
width 1cm. If the energy of the particle is 1J, what is the value of quantum number at that state?
→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚 = 1𝑔𝑚 = 0.001𝑘𝑔, 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑎 = 1𝑐𝑚 = 0.01𝑚, 𝐸𝑛 = 1𝐽
𝑛 2 𝒉2
We have 𝐸𝑛 = 8𝑚𝑎2
∴ 𝑛 =?
9. A football of 500gm is confined between two impenetrable walls of Dasharath Rangashala that
can be modeled as a box of length 100m. Calculate the minimum speed of the ball.
→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚 = 500𝑔𝑚 = 0.5𝑘𝑔, 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑎 = 100𝑚
𝑛 2 𝒉2
We have 𝐸𝑛 = 8𝑚𝑎2
For minimum speed of ball n=1
𝒉2
∴ 𝐸1 =
8𝑚𝑎 2
1
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐸1 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
𝒉2 1
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑚𝑣 2
8𝑚𝑎2 2
ℎ
𝑜𝑟, 𝑣 = =?
2𝑚𝑎

10. A beam of electrons having energy of each 3eV is incident on a potential barrier of height 4eV. If
the width of the barrier is 20A0, calculate the percentage transmission of the beam through the
barrier.

→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝐸 = 3𝑒𝑉 = 3 × 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽,

Height of potential barrier 𝑉0 = 4𝑒𝑉 = 4 × 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽, width 𝑎=20𝐴0 = 20 × 10−10 𝑚

𝐸 𝐸
We have transmission coefficient 𝑇=16𝑉 (1 − 𝑉 )𝑒 −2𝛽𝑎
0 0

2𝑚
Where, 𝛽 = √ (𝑉0 − 𝐸) =?
ℏ2

∴ 𝑇 =?

And 𝑇 × 100% =?

108
11. A beam of electrons having energy of each 3eV is incident on a potential barrier of height 4eV. If
the width of the barrier is 10A0, calculate the probability of reflection and interpret your result.
→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝐸 = 3𝑒𝑉 = 3 × 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽,
Height of potential barrier 𝑉0 = 4𝑒𝑉 = 4 × 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽, width 𝑎=10𝐴0 = 10 × 10−10 𝑚
𝐸 𝐸
We have transmission coefficient 𝑇=16𝑉 (1 − 𝑉 )𝑒 −2𝛽𝑎
0 0

2𝑚
Where, 𝛽 = √ ℏ2 (𝑉0 − 𝐸) =?
∴ 𝑇 =?
And 𝑅 = 1 − 𝑇 =?
As the reflection coefficient is very high, most of the electrons be reflected back into the same
medium.
12. For an electron confined to an infinite potential well of width 0.1nm, determine the uncertainty in
measuring momentum and kinetic energy.
→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, ∆𝑥 = 0.1𝑛𝑚 = 0.1 × 10−9 𝑚
ℎ
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, ∆𝑥. ∆𝑃 =
2𝜋
ℎ
𝑜𝑟, ∆𝑃 = =?
2𝜋 × ∆𝑥
(∆𝑃)2
𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝐾. 𝐸. = =?
2𝑚
13. The uncertainty in the location of a particle moving with a velocity 7.28x107m/s is double of its de-
Broglie wavelength. Find out the uncertainty in measuring the velocity.
ℎ
→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒,velocity𝑣 = 7.28 × 107 𝑚/𝑠, ∆𝑥 = 2𝜆 = 2 × 𝑚𝑣
ℎ
𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, ∆𝑥. ∆𝑃 =
2𝜋
ℎ
𝑜𝑟, ∆𝑥. 𝑚∆𝑣 =
2𝜋
ℎ ℎ 𝑚𝑣 𝑣
𝑜𝑟, ∆𝑣 = = × = =?
2𝜋 × 𝑚∆𝑥 2𝜋 × 𝑚 2ℎ 4𝜋
14. Calculate the smallest possible uncertainty in the position of an electron moving with 3x107m/s.
→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, ∆𝑣 = 3 × 107 𝑚/𝑠
ℎ
𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, ∆𝑥. ∆𝑃 =
2𝜋
ℎ
𝑜𝑟, ∆𝑥. 𝑚∆𝑣 =
2𝜋
ℎ
𝑜𝑟, ∆𝑥 = =?
2𝜋 × 𝑚∆𝑣
15. A proton is confined to a nucleus of radius 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓m. Calculate the minimum uncertainty in its
momentum. Also calculate the minimum kinetic energy of proton should have.
→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, the maximum uncertainty in measuring the position of proton, ∆𝑥 = 2𝑟 =?
ℎ
∴ minimum uncertainty in momentum, ∆𝑃 = 2𝜋∆𝑥 =?
∆𝑃 2
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐾. 𝐸. = =?
2𝑚

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16. The position and momentum of a 1 keV electron are simultaneously determined. If its position is
located to within 1A0, what is the percentage of uncertainty in its momentum?
→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐸 = 1𝑘𝑒𝑉 = 1000 × 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽, ∆𝑥 =1A0= 10−10 m
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑛 𝑃 = √2𝑚𝐸 =?
ℎ
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, ∆𝑥. ∆𝑃 =
2𝜋
ℎ
𝑜𝑟, ∆𝑃 = =?
2𝜋∆𝑥
∆𝑃
𝑁𝑜𝑤 % 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = × 100% =?
𝑃

110