PSIR 2024 UPSC Mains

Model Answers

by
Abhijeet Pimparkar
Politics for India
https://politicsforindia.com/
Politics for India PSIR Model Answers 2024

Table of Content
PAPER I - SECTION 1A: POLITICAL THEORY
CH 1] AN INTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL THEORY ............................................................................................................... 3
CH 2] THEORIES OF STATE .............................................................................................................................................. 4
CH 3] JUSTICE............................................................................................................................................................... 4
CH 4] EQUALITY ............................................................................................................................................................. 4
CH 5] RIGHTS ................................................................................................................................................................ 5
CH 6] DEMOCRACY ......................................................................................................................................................... 6
CH 7] POWER ................................................................................................................................................................ 6
CH 8] IDEOLOGY ............................................................................................................................................................ 7
CH 9] INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT .................................................................................................................................. 8
CH 10] WESTERN POLIITCAL THOUGHT.......................................................................................................................... 10

PAPER I - SECTION B: INDIAN GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

CH 1] INDIAN NATIONALISM ...........................................................................................................................................11
CH 2] MAKING OF THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION ..................................................................................................................11
CH 3] SALIENT FEATURES OF THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION ................................................................................................. 12
CH 4] PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF THE GOVERNMENT............................................................................................................. 14
CH 5] GRASSROOT DEMOCRACY .................................................................................................................................... 14
CH 6] STATUTORY INSTITUTIONS / COMMISSIONS ........................................................................................................... 15
CH 7] FEDERALISM ....................................................................................................................................................... 15
CH 8] PLANNING AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT ............................................................................................................ 15
CH 9] CASTE, RELIGION AND ETHNICITY IN INDIAN POLITICS ............................................................................................. 17
CH 10] PARTY SYSTEM ................................................................................................................................................. 17
CH 11] SOCIAL MOVEMENT ........................................................................................................................................... 17

PAPER II - SECTION A: COMPARATIVE POLITICS AND INT. RELATIONS

CH 1] COMPARATIVE POLITICS ....................................................................................................................................... 20
CH 2] STATE IN COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE ................................................................................................................... 20
CH 3] POLITICS OF REPRESENTATION AND PARTICIPATION ............................................................................................... 21
CH 4] GLOBALIZATION .................................................................................................................................................. 21
CH 5] APPROACHES TO STUDY INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS .............................................................................................. 22
CH 6] KEY CONCEPTS IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS ...................................................................................................... 24
CH 7] CHANGING INTERNATIONAL POLITICAL ORDER ....................................................................................................... 24
CH 7] EVOLUTION OF INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC SYSTEM ............................................................................................... 26
CH 9] UNITED NATIONS ................................................................................................................................................ 26
CH 10] REGIONALIZATION OF WORLD POLITICS ............................................................................................................... 26
CH 11] CONTEMPORARY GLOBAL CONCERNS .................................................................................................................. 27

PAPER II - SECTION B: INDIA AND THE WORLD

CH 1] INDIAN FOREIGN POLICY ...................................................................................................................................... 29
CH 1] INDIA AND THE NON ALIGNMENT MOVEMENT ......................................................................................................... 29
CH 3] INDIA AND SOUTH ASIA ........................................................................................................................................ 30
CH 4] INDIA AND THE GLOBAL SOUTH ............................................................................................................................ 32
CH 5] INDIA AND THE GLOBAL CENTRES OF POWER ......................................................................................................... 33
CH 6] INDIA AND THE UN SYSTEM .................................................................................................................................. 35
CH 7] INDIA AND THE NUCLEAR QUESTION ..................................................................................................................... 35
CH 8] RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIAN FOREIGN POLICY .............................................................................................. 36

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Paper I - Section 1A: Political Theory

Ch 1] An Introduction to Political Theory
1. Comment on Behavioural approach to Political Science [2024/10m/150w/1a]

The behavioural approach in political science marks a shift towards scientific methods,
seeking to transform political science. This approach arose due to the perceived irrelevance of
political science in addressing social issues and its over-emphasis on traditional approaches.

Thus, scholars like Charles Merriam advocated for a systematic, evidence-based study of
political processes. Further, David Easton's eight features of behavioralism outlined principles aimed
at making political science, ‘scientific’.

Easton advocated making political theory verifiable, measurable, and as close to "pure
science" as possible. Behavioralists believed these methods would revive the discipline, make it
relevant to policy, and allow for practical applications, like understanding electoral behaviour.

However, behaviouralism was seen as overly focused on techniques, often sidelining the
normative aspects—justice, rights, and liberty—central to political thought. This led to post-
behavioralism, which suggested that research should be relevant and action-oriented. David Easton
called for a "Credo of Relevance" and there was a reintroduction of values and purpose into political
studies.

Seen from a longer perspective, more than an approach, behaviouralism was a movement
in political science. It gained prominence for a brief period, reformed the original discipline, and then
subsided. [189 words]

2. Elucidate the meanings inherent in the term 'political' with appropriate illustrations.
[2024/20m/250w/2a]

The term ‘political’ is omnipresent in the discipline of political science. Although widely used,
it can assume different meanings in different contexts.

British political scientist Andrew Heywood suggests three conceptions of politics. First, he
suggests politics to be dealing with formal institutions of government and the activities which take
place therein. This includes the constitutions, written or unwritten laws, the different wings of
governments, established processes like elections etc.

His second interpretation is linked to public life and public activities, in contrast to what is
thought of as private or personal. We find a commonality of this conception in Aristotle as well, who
treated family as a sphere of altruism and separated it from politics. While the feminists have given
a call to include personal in political, it has not gained much momentum.

Thirdly, Heywood suggests politics to denote the distribution of power, wealth and
resources, something that takes place within all institutions and at every level of social existence.
This conception can be further expanded to include the fundamental theories and thoughts, which
seek to explain the power and resource distribution in society.

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It is interesting to note that while we’ve almost perfected the craft of physical sciences, our
political life remains elusive. We’ve been trying to come up with universal political principles and
systems for millennia, and still, it continues to baffle us. While we’ve undeniably made progress,
current political systems are far from perfect.

Thus, there is no universal definition that can explain the term political. It is suggested that
‘language is not simply a means of communication, it is a political weapon; it is shaped and honed
to convey political intent.’ This could, perhaps explain the popular meaning of the term ‘political’,
which often means ‘cunning’ or ‘untruthful’. [292 words]

Ch 2] Theories of State
3. Comment on Pluralist theory of State [2024/10m/150w/1b]

The state is best thought of as one that establishes sovereign jurisdiction within defined
territorial borders. Further, state is often accompanied by an institutional apparatus that gives
expression to its authority. While sovereignty is the main feature of the state, the nature and centre
of sovereignty remains contested.

In this context, the pluralist theory of state suggests that political power is dispersed
amongst a wide variety of social groups rather than an elite or ruling class. Robert Dahl uses the word
‘polyarchy’ – rule by the many – to explain this phenomenon.

Pluralist scholars explain that in modern liberal states, electoral choice ensures that
government must respond to public opinion. Thus, a rough equality exists among organized groups
and interests in that each enjoys some measure of access to government, and the government is
prepared to listen impartially to all.

Developing on this, neo-pluralist theory, developed by Galbraith and Lindblom, argues that
the modern industrialized state is both more complex and less responsive to popular pressures. They
suggest the use of the term ‘deformed polyarchy’ to denote the phenomenon, suggesting a pre-
eminent influence of the capitalist class in modern states. [188 words]

Ch 3] Justice
There was no question on this topic in 2024 Mains.

Ch 4] Equality
4. The nature of relationship between equality of democratic citizenship and liberty of citizens
is influenced by economic equality. Comment. [2024/15m/200w/2c]

‘Equality of democratic citizenship’ suggests that citizens, regardless of their background or status,
possess equal political rights. Each citizen is equal in eyes of the state, has an equal vote and right to
participate in governance.

‘Liberty of citizens’, on the other hand, refers to the freedoms individuals have to act, think, and
express themselves. This includes personal as well as political freedoms.

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The relationship between the two concepts is complementary. While equality ensures that all
citizens can equally participate in political processes, liberties empower them to exercise their rights.
And by definition of democracy, when all citizens are equally empowered, democracy is more robust.

Economic equality plays a critical role in this relationship. When economic disparities are significant,
certain groups will have greater access to political influence, resources, and opportunities. This in
turn weakens equality. Further, economic imbalance also limits disadvantaged sections to fully
exercise their liberties.

In this context, we can quote Ambedkar who suggested that “Political democracy cannot last unless
there lies at the base of it social democracy.” Social democracy invariably depends on economic
factors. And thus, without social and economic equality, liberty remains superficial.

Therefore, economic equality is essential for real democratic citizenship and liberty. Only then does
democracy become a meaningful and sustainable system, embodying the cherished principles of
liberty, equality, and fraternity. [219 words]

Ch 5] Rights
5. The debate on human rights is caught between the limitations of both universalism and
cultural relativism. Comment. [2024/20m/250w/3a]

The theory of human rights is based on the belief that all humans inherently possess certain
fundamental rights by virtue of being human.

Rooted in ideas of natural law (John Locke) and human dignity (Immanuel Kant), the theory of
human rights was developed prominently after 2nd World War. It suggests that rights like life, liberty,
and equality should be guaranteed to all, regardless of nationality, race, gender etc.

While there is a large consensus regarding the priority of human rights in statecraft, the nature of
these rights remains a matter of debate. The two schools of thought, one advocating a universal
theory of human rights, and the other advocating to accommodate traditional, and cultural
differences, are at two ends of his debate.

Universalists hold that certain rights are universally applicable, transcending differences. The
Univeral Declaration of Human Rights exemplifies this universalism advocating for certain civil and
political rights. This school of thought is mostly propagated by Western scholars like Kant, Rawls,
Donelly etc.

On the contrary, cultural relativists see this as an attempt to impose Western ideals overlooking local
traditions, and societal norms. Southeast Asian leaders like Lee-Kuan-Yew, and Mahathir
Mohammad emphasize ‘Asian values’, which prioritize community well-being and social harmony
over individual freedoms. Additionally, for cultural relativists, human rights must be interpreted in
the context of each culture’s values and beliefs and that rigid application of universal human rights
can lead to cultural imperialism.

Further, it’s also true that both schools of thought have been misused. While the West has used
universalism to justify its adventures in the Middle East and North Africa, cultural relativism is
sometimes used to justify archaic, gendered or harmful practices.

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Unfortunately, this tension between these opposing schools of thought hampers the growth of
human rights as a theory. This has created challenges for international human rights bodies in
finding common ground. Thus, without a consensus on whether rights are truly universal or context-
dependent, the theory of human rights struggles to develop. [327 words]

Ch 6] Democracy
6. Deliberative democracy seeks to promote democratic decision making about public issues
among the citizens. Discuss. [2024/15m/200w/3b]

The term ‘demos’ denotes people or the common populace. ‘Democratic’ decision-making, in turn,
suggests a process in which all members of society participate. This method is based on the
principles of equality, allowing every person to voice their preferences.

Deliberative democracy, on the other hand, emphasizes the role of discussion and reasoned debate
in decision making. It has an important role to play in making the process of decision making
‘democratic’.

In this context, Joshua Kohen gives five features of deliberative democracy:

1. It is an independent and ongoing association of people with expected continuity.

2. People accept that deliberation is the only deciding factor in formulation of policies.
3. Existence of a non-coercive environment, where each person understands and gives respect to
other person’s capacity to speak.
4. There is a respect for pluralism of values.
5. Deliberation is a source of legitimacy.

As we can infer, deliberative democracy focuses not only on the aspect of deliberation, but also on
ensuring that the process is all inclusive, and hence also democratic.

Apart from asking people to deliberate, deliberative democracy also holds an educational value as
suggested by Amartya Sen. By involving people, it forces them to have a deeper discussion on public
issues as well as take responsibility for decisions. As suggested by Hannah Arendt, when we
participate in political action, only then we’re able to achieve the ‘human condition’ because, after
all, man is ‘zoon politikon’ (political animal). [240 words]

Ch 7] Power
7. Comment on linkage between Power and Hegemony [2024/10m/150w/1e]

The concepts of power and hegemony are quite intertwined with each other. The term power
suggests an ability to influence others’ beliefs or actions, often to achieve a specific goal. On similar
lines, hegemony, as developed by Marxist scholar Gramsci, denotes a dominance of one group, class,
or state over others, often maintained through a mix of consent and coercion.

Hegemony, in fact, is a medium through which power is generated, maintained and exercised. While
power can be direct and coercive, hegemony works on a subtler level, on the level of mind. It makes
subjects adopt certain values and beliefs willingly through cultural and ideological influence. Thus,
the subjugation feels natural and even for the good of subjects.

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The concept of hegemony as explained by Gramsci remains important in our understanding of

power. It was through this hegemony only that upper castes were able to maintain their dominance
for millennia in Indian society, and the same hegemony was responsible for exercise of power by the
British on Indians for almost two centuries. [172 words]

8. Legitimacy adds positive value to political authority and obligation. Discuss.

[2024/20m/250w/4a]

Legitimacy is defined as the ‘consent of the governed’. Although simple by definition, legitimacy is a
quintessential characteristic for any exercise of power to be perceived as just and fair.

Legitimacy gives moral and societal justification to the governing power. Only when authority is
perceived as legitimate, do people voluntarily comply with the state. Thus, legitimacy supports
authority by affirming the ruler’s right to govern.

This concept of legitimacy was also used by Weber in explaining why revolution did not take place
as Marx expected. Weber held that despite Marx’s explanation, since people consider the exercise of
power by the state as legitimate, revolution did not take place in capitalist societies.

Apart from supporting authority, legitimacy also furthers a sense of political obligation. When the
state is seen as legitimate, citizens themselves feel a moral duty to obey the law and support the
state. Such contribution can be seen in multiple forms such as payment of taxes, voting, civic
engagement etc.

On the other hand, when the legitimacy is lacking, political authority can quickly become unstable.
It can lead to increased opposition, civil unrest and in extreme cases, even revolts. The key reason
behind the violent French revolt was indeed loss of legitimacy of state in the eyes of masses.

Further, lack of legitimacy also weakens political obligation. If people do not view the authority as
legitimate, they are less likely to feel obligated to follow laws or support the government. This
undermines the social contract and weakens loyalty to the state. The Gandhian non-cooperation,
and civil disobedience movements reflect such aspects of obligation.

Thus, legitimacy adds a substantial value to authority and obligation, and is essential for the state to
be able to maintain these. [286 words]

Ch 8] Ideology
9. Comment on decline of Liberalism [2024/10m/150w/1d]

As a political ideology, liberalism emphasizes individual freedom, equal rights, democratic

governance, rule of law, free markets etc. In the words of Locke, aka the father of liberalism, the right
to life liberty and property.

Rooted in the belief in human reason and advocation for individual autonomy, liberalism took birth
from the dark period of the medieval ages. While it has become a hegemonic ideology in
contemporary times, we also witness its decline in some areas.

The main challenge to liberalism comes from the rise of right-wing movements. These have
challenged liberal policies of immigration and multiculturalism, which they argue, undermines

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national sovereignty and identity. This can be seen in the rise of right-wing politics in Europe as well
as USA, in recent elections.

Further, postmodernist scholars like Nietzsche and Derrida have questioned the idea of objective
truth, and universal values, and in turn, challenged liberalism. Postmodernism emphasizes the
relativity of truth and makes it harder for liberalism to claim a moral high ground.

However, by remaining flexible liberalism has shown great resilience over centuries, and it may yet
do it again by incorporating contemporary changes, rather than challenging them. [190 words]

10. Marxism is a political theory of action demanding strict compliance with its core principles.
Comment. [2024/15m/200w/2b]

Marxism is not merely a theoretical framework but a call for a transformative action. For Marx, it was
not enough to ‘interpret the world—but what matters is that we change it’. Marxism demands not
just theoretical understanding but active struggle against class oppression.

The core principles of Marxism can be suggested to be the materialistic conception of history,
perpetual class struggle, call for revolution, dictatorship of the proletariat, abolition of private
property and communism.

Marx wanted to ensure that changing the world was more important than its interpretation. Marx
was in fact, worried that if his principles were open to interpretation or became mere academic
discussions, Marxism could lose its revolutionary essence and fall into the realm of intellectual
pastime. Thus, for Marx, strict adherence to the core principles was necessary.

However, this strictness in Marxism is seen by some scholars as a sign of its unscientific nature. In
‘The Open Society and Its Enemies’, Popper criticized Marxism for being a “closed” system of thought
that resists falsification. This, in Popper’s view, made Marxism a pseudoscience rather than a true
science.

We can say that this unyielding adherence to core principles may have contributed to the failure of
Marxism. While Marxism struggled to adapt, liberalism quickly changed in response to Marxism, and
converted itself into social-liberalism, making Marxism redundant. [220 words]

Ch 9] Indian Political Thought

11. Dharmashastra presents a duty-centric worldview for individuals and communities.
Comment. [2024/15m/200w/3c]

Ancient Indian political thought aka Dharmashastra, can be derived from multiple texts like
the Manusmriti, Vedas, Mahabharat etc. It is a wholesome body of knowledge, covering not only
political aspects but integrating with it, individual, ethical, social, as well as religious principles.

The law of karma and rebirth form the basic principles of Dharmashastra. Developing on this,
it suggests that different social orders are endowed with different social responsibilities, also known
as ‘dharma’. This ‘dharma’, or the ‘duty’ of the individual, supersedes all other considerations.

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Dharmashastras divides society into four varnas: Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaisya and Shudra.
Then, there are four ashramas (stages) of life an individual goes through i.e. brahmacharya (student
life), grihastha (married life), vanaprastha (retired life) and sanyas (renounced life).

The duty of an individual varies according to his varna and ashrama. Individually as well as
collectively, each is to follow his/her dharma (duty). According to Rig-veda, Prithvim dharmam
dhritam i.e. dharma is that which holds life on this earth. When people do not follow dharma, it will
lead to arajakata (anarchy). It will lead to pralaya (catastrophe). This will bring an end to the life on
earth.

Consequently, the most important duty of the king is to ensure all varnas follow their
dharma. It is for this reason, the king has the rod of danda (punishment).

Dandashastras represent a rich body of political thought. As remarked by British historian

Max Muller, ‘nowhere in the world, human mind has dealt with the various questions of life in such a
depth as in case of India.’ [257 words]

12. Manabendra Nath Roy's political thought highlighted the humanistic aspects of Marxism.
Discuss. [2024/15m/200w/4c]

MN Roy proposed the idea of radical humanism as his interpretation of Marxism. It grew out
of the dissatisfaction with existing major philosophies and as described by MN Roy, it is a philosophy
of freedom.

Roy felt that neither parliamentary democracy nor communism was the best model of
governance. While democracy does not give opportunity for direct participation, Communism
subsumes man under the collective ego of class. Roy wanted to give a philosophy that gives real
importance to man as an individual and aims to achieve freedom of man.

He suggested three components of radical humanism i.e. freedom, reason and ethics. For
MN Roy, real liberation means freedom from all sorts of fears. This can come with the promotion of
scientific rationality free from religious dogma. Roy wanted society to be based on secular rational
principles rather than superstitions. Thus, radical humanism aims to establish human society in
harmony with the principles of nature. It rejects metaphysics and believes in science.

Radical humanism supports intellectual revolution. The human brain is most important
means of production. It produces the most important things i.e. Ideas. The crisis of modern
civilization is the lack of faith in the innate rationality of man. Like Protagoras, MN Roy also believes
that man is a measure of everything. The progress of society is to be measured by the amount of
freedom it gives to man.

By giving centrality to humans as individuals and as the end of his theory, contrary to the
Marxist focus on class, MN Roy highlights the humanistic aspect of Marxism. Thus, his theory is rightly
called as ‘new humanism’. [267 words]

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Ch 10] Western Political Thought

13. Critically examine Plato's theory of Forms. [2024/15m/200w/4b]

The theory of forms is one of the central ideas in Plato’s political philosophy. However, it is
also an idea that most learners of Plato find difficult to grasp.

For Plato, ‘form’ cannot be seen, but can only be understood through reason. As explained
by Plato, everything we see around us has an ideal form. Be it humans, trees or fruit, everything has
a corresponding ideal form. All of these forms exist in a transcendental reality. Further, similar to the
physical objects, concepts such as justice, courage, temperance, state etc. also have an ideal form in
this transcendental reality.

However, forms cannot be visualised since they are not objects of the senses, just like we
cannot visualise the idea of justice or courage. These are objects of understanding rather than
senses. For Plato, ‘forms’ can only be understood via practice, through years of training in
mathematics and dialectics.

Plato’s allegory of caves follows from this theory of forms. In that, the cave represents the
world of appearances and objects in the material realm, and outside the cave is a metaphysical
reality or the world of forms/ideas. The awareness of being inside the cave and not having real
knowledge presents a situation where Socrates remarks ‘I know that I know nothing’. First stage in
attaining real knowledge.

By giving his theory of forms, Plato brings metaphysical elements to political science. By
suggesting that ideal forms can only be understood by years of practice and study, Plato alienates
the general public from politics, and this also serves as a justification for the unquestionable rule of
the philosopher king. As Popper points out, Plato’s theory does not pass the test of ‘falsification’, and
thus is a non-scientific theory, with totalitarian tendencies. [288 words]

14. Comment on Locke's views on Revolution [2024/10m/150w/1c]

Locke is a liberal thinker and believes in the human capacity to reason. If Hobbes has seen
the troubled phase of British history and gives a pessimistic view, Locke has seen the stable period
and so gives a ‘balanced view’ of human nature.

Locke suggests that governments derive their authority from the consent of the people. The
social contract is an agreement where individuals surrender some freedoms to a government to
protect their natural rights. Consequently, if the government violates the social contract by infringing
on natural rights or becoming tyrannical, it loses its legitimacy and people have a right to revolt.

Further, while people will have the right to revolt, there is no need for violence. Since people
are rational, problems can be resolved through dialogue. Thus, for Locke, revolution does not denote
bloodshed, but rather a simple change in the set of persons ruling.

While Locke has tried to give a peaceful approach to revolution, the reality can be quite
different. As we witnessed in the French Revolution, a lot of blood was shed to restore the liberal
values of liberty, equality and fraternity. [186 words]

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Paper I - Section B: Indian Government and Politics

Ch 1] Indian Nationalism
1. Discuss the contribution of the Dalit struggle to establish egalitarianism in Indian society
during freedom movement. [2024/20m/250w/7a]

While the mainstream Indian freedom movement focused on the fight against British Raj, a parallel
struggle was taking place where Dalits were fighting to create space for themselves in a highly
unequal society.

The beginning of this movement for Dalit rights started with the work of Jyotirao Phule in
Maharashtra. Phule was pioneer in establishing schools for Dalit children and women. He also
founded the Satyashodhak Samaj (Society of Seekers of Truth) to fight caste discrimination. Also
through his works like ‘Gulamgiri’ (Slavery), Phule criticized the caste system and highlighted the
need for Dalits to demand their rights.

Phule's activism and ideology laid the groundwork for subsequent Dalit leaders like Dr BR Ambedkar
and Periyar. Ambedkar's efforts were focused on securing civil rights for Dalits. He also led the
historic Mahad Satyagraha (1927) and the Kalaram Temple Entry Satyagraha (1930) to assert Dalit
rights. On similar lines, Periyar, a Tamil activist launched the Self-Respect Movement advocating for
Dalit and backward caste rights.

All these various struggles were carried out while a parallel freedom movement was going on. The
Dalit movement was not directed against the British and thus did not receive any opposition from
the erstwhile state. This helped the movement further.

All these efforts fructified when India gained independence. Indians were tasked to craft their own
destiny and the Dalit movement had gained enough legitimacy till then. In fact, Ambedkar, an
outcaste some decades ago, was made the head of the drafting committee for the constitution of
independent India.

Constitution makers adopted many provisions like right equality, abolition of untouchability, access
to public places etc. to ensure that an equal society is created in independent India. Further, an
arrangement in the form of reservation was also made to uplift the Dalits and Tribals in India.

Thus, the Dalit struggle during India’s freedom movement laid the foundations for a more egalitarian
society. On 15th Aug 1947, the nation became independent not only for the elites but also for the
lowest sections of Indian society. [334 words]

Ch 2] Making of the Indian Constitution

2. Objective Resolution of the Constituent Assembly [2024/10m/150w/5b]

The Objective Resolution was a document proposed by Pt. Nehru in the Constituent Assembly in
1946. The document sought to outline the guiding principles for the Indian Constitution. Later on,
the same resolution served as the basis for Preamble to the Indian Constitution.

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The resolution declared India to be an Independent Sovereign Republic, the union of states, drawing
all its power from the people. The resolution also guaranteed to all the people of India the ideals of
justice, equality, freedom as well as protection of weaker sections.

In the end, the resolution reasserts India’s sovereign rights on land, sea, and air and talks about its
contribution to the promotion of world peace.

The resolution created lofty ideals that were placed before the constituent assembly even before the
task of framing of Constitution began. Nehru saw it as a “sort of pledge” that the constituent
assembly had to carry out. In his own words, “It seeks very feebly to tell the world of what we have
thought or dreamt of so long, and what we now hope to achieve in the near future.” [182 words]

Ch 3] Salient Features of the Indian Constitution

3. Legal remedies in Part III of the Constitution of India [2024/10m/150w/5c]

Part III of the Indian constitution deals with fundamental rights. The constitution divides
fundamental rights into five categories, which is then followed by Right to constitutional Remedies
for violation of these rights.

The Constitution gives right to individuals to directly move the Supreme Court in case of violation of
fundamental rights (Art 32). However, it also adds two exceptions in the case of armed forces or
intelligence agencies (Art 33) or when Martial law is in place (Art 34).

Over the years, the scope of Art 32 has been further expanded by the introduction of PILs that allow
individuals to approach the court for broader public interest. Further, the Court has also declared
that the right to constitutional remedies is part of the basic structure, and thus cannot be taken away.

As suggested by Ambedkar, the right to constitutional remedy is "heart and soul" of the Constitution.
It ensures that fundamental rights are not just “pious declarations” but are backed by legal remedies.
[163 words]

4. How far do you agree that the Directive Principles of State Policy are more fundamental than
the Fundamental Rights in meeting socio-economic justice as mentioned in the Preamble of the
Constitution? [2024/20m/250w/6a]

There is an interesting relationship between fundamental rights and directive principles in

the Constitution, provisions that have been written down next to one another. The fundamental
rights are justiciable and enforceable by the courts. In contrast, DPSPs are non-justiciable, meaning
they are not enforceable by any court.

There is also an ideological difference between these provisions. While the fundamental
rights belong to the school of liberalism, the directive principles, belong to the school of socialism.
Thus, DPSPs directly address issues such as promoting welfare (Art 38), equitable distribution of
resources (Art 39), and right to work and education (Art 41). While Part III seeks to protect individual
freedoms, part IV focuses on collective socio-economic welfare.

Consequently, when it comes to socio-economic justice, directive principles assume an

important position. Without socio-economic justice, rights will remain ineffective for marginalized

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sections. The right to freedom of speech is meaningless for individuals struggling with poverty or
illiteracy.

However, there is also a question of state capacity. Directive principles were not given
immediate effect, not because they were not important but because the country lacked resources. If
given the status of enforceable rights and govt. unable to enforce it, it would create a constitutional
crisis. Thus, while DPSPs may be more important from a socio-economic perspective, they cannot
be enforced on the state.

In this regard, KC Markandan suggests that this conflict between fundamental rights and
DPSPs is artificial. He argues that the constituent assembly expected that when the state chose to
implement DPSPs, the judiciary would allow the government to discharge its constitutional function,
instead of asserting its own right to enforce fundamental rights.

Markandan further suggests that in fact Part III and IV originally belonged to the same list
and based on whether these could be assured to the citizens (hence enforceable) OR were difficult
to ensure (hence impractical to be legally enforced), they were classified as fundamental rights and
directive principles respectively. [320 words]

5. Constitutional morality in the Indian Constitution [2024/10m/150w/5a]

It was Dr. Ambedkar who perhaps first used the term Constitutional Morality in the Indian context.
However, in recent cases, the Supreme Court has pronounced it repeatedly and therefore has
attracted attention.

For Ambedkar, the central elements of Constitutional Morality were freedom and self-restraint. He
asked Indians to “hold fast to constitutional methods of achieving our social and economic
objectives” and “abandon the bloody methods of revolution, including civil disobedience, non-
cooperation and satyagraha.”

The other elements of constitutional morality include respect for plurality, deference to processes,
abandonment of hero worship in politics and maintenance of an open culture of criticism.

Recently, in the historic ‘Government of NCT of Delhi vs Union of India 2018’ case, the Supreme Court
pronounced that constitutional morality is “not just the forms and procedures of the Constitution,
but provides an enabling framework that allows a society the possibilities of self-renewal”.

In another instance, in Navtej Singh Johar case, which pertained to Section 377 of IPC, 1860, the
Supreme Court said, “Constitutional morality cannot be martyred at the altar of social morality”.

Thus, Constitutional Morality has been used to suggest substantive values underlying the
Constitution. It seeks to find the spirit of the constitution beyond letters and to suggest that even the
silence of the constitution cannot be interpreted arbitrarily. [214 words]

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Ch 4] Principal Organs of the Government

6. Relevance of the Legislative Council [2024/10m/150w/5d]

Legislative Council is the upper house in the state legislature, established under Article 169. The
Council aka Vidhan Parishad, consists of members who are partly elected (indirectly) and partly
nominated.

The Constituent Assembly debates indicate that legislative councils were seen as necessary to
ensure wider representation of all sections of society, especially in larger states. The body was also
seen as a transitional provision in the Constitution.

It was envisioned that the upper house would provide a forum for academicians and intellectuals. It
will act as a chamber of wisdom and deliberation, preventing hasty decisions, akin to the Rajya
Sabha at Union level.

However, over the years, we see that the forum has more served to accommodate party functionaries
who fail to get elected. It is also an unnecessary drain on the exchequer, nor are graduates, enjoying
special reservation, a rare breed in contemporary society. Currently, only six states have such
Councils while four states have abolished them post-independence, suggesting a lack of any real
advantage.

Recently, a parliamentary committee suggested creating a national policy on having an Upper House
in State legislatures. It also favoured a review of the provision in the law for Councils to have seats
for graduates and teachers. [203 words]

Ch 5] Grassroot Democracy
7. Gram Sabha in the Panchayati Raj system is a forum which gives expression to the collective
wisdom, aspirations and the will of the people. [2024/15m/200w/8c]

In India, the Gram Sabha is the only platform of direct democracy, where every registered
voter of a village can directly participate in decision-making. It is the cornerstone of the Panchayati
Raj system and in turn of Indian democracy.

Gram sabha offers a platform for open discussion on development, governance, and other
social issues. Every voter has equal rights in gram sabha irrespective of their background. It
represents an ‘ideal speech situation’ as proposed by Jurgen Habermas.

While the constitution does not outline the powers of gram sabha in detail, over period of
time, it has been awarded many important functions by state governments. It can discuss and
approve developmental plans, and carry out social audits of government schemes such as
MGNREGA, Housing schemes etc. Further, gram sabha can also discuss societal problems faced by
women, children, SC/STs etc. and seek to make solutions to them.

Unfortunately, despite high ideals, the functioning of Gram Sabha often falls short. Studies
in states like UP and Bihar show poor attendance, with women and marginalized communities often
excluded from gram sabhas. This sidelines the main stakeholders from decision-making. Illiteracy
has also ensured that villagers lack knowledge about their rights, schemes, as well as the role of gram
sabha. Gram sabha also faces issues of political interference, ineffective monitoring, etc.

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Gandhi envisioned gramsabhas as the embodiment of swaraj, where villages would govern
themselves independently. He believed that power should flow from the grassroots, making villages
self-reliant and the core units of democracy. So far, we’ve not been able to live by these ideals. Thus,
further empowerment is needed to ensure that gram sabhas are able to achieve their true purpose.
[276 words]

Ch 6] Statutory Institutions / Commissions

8. Explain the structure and functions of the National Commission for Women
[2024/15m/200w/6b]

The National Commission for Women was constituted under the ‘National Commission for Women
Act 1990’ to aid the legislative and judicial processes to empower women.

As mentioned in the act, the commission will have one chairperson, 5 members from numerous fields
and a member secretary. All the members of the commission are nominated by the president on
recommendation of the government. There also needs to be one member each from Scheduled
Caste and Tribe.

The commission is expected to review the development of women and suggest remedial actions
necessary. It enjoys the authority of the civil court and can even take up suo moto action or file a case
for violation of legal provisions meant for women's protection and development.

While the commission was created with lofty goals in mind, the reality is somewhat disheartening.
While there is a dire need for women empowerment, the commission at best is engaged only in
protection of women.

At times, the scope of NCW also gets limited to the inclination of its chairperson. e.g. In cases of public
molestation of a young girl in Guwahati, the chairperson remarked that Indian women should not
imitate the West (wearing short dresses). Remarks like these perpetuate a patriarchal mindset.

As remarked by According to Sadhana Arya, the commission is limited by design by the government
but the members have decided to limit themselves further. Thus, a comprehensive review of both
the powers and working of NCW is needed. [242 words]

Ch 7] Federalism
There was no question on this topic in 2024 Mains.

Ch 8] Planning and Economic Development

9. The legacy of the Planning Commission still has a bearing on India's development policies.
Discuss. [2024/15m/200w/6c]

Influenced by socialist policies, the Planning Commission was established in 1950 to promote a
planned economic development for independent India. It formulated Five-Year Plans to allocate
resources and set national economic targets.

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With a shift in India’s economy towards a more neoliberal outlook, the planning commission was
replaced by NITI Aayog in 2014. As remarked by the erstwhile finance minister, “it was relevant in a
command economy structure, but not any longer.”

However, after a decade of the abolition of planning commission, we see that many of the new
developmental policies still resemble those formulated under five-year plans.

Policies like Garibi hatao (poverty alleviation) continue to dominate contemporary politics. Schemes
like Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana, Swachh Bharat Mission, and PM-KISAN are no different than
those designed under Five Year Plans. Initiatives like Make in India and Digital, though adopting a
more market-driven approach, focus on industrial and technological development like the Planning
Commission.

It should also be understood that in a country like India with a large number of citizens still below
the poverty line, the role of state will always remain preponderant. While the NDA government since
2014 has championed ‘minimum government maximum governance’, the reality has not changed.

The attempt was definitely made to give a new direction to economic policy by scrapping the
Planning Commission. However, the legacy of the planning commission will continue to influence
policymaking as long socio-economic fabric of India remains the same. [240 words]

10. The blueprint of Gram Swaraj is the key to understand the Gandhian perspective on
planning. Discuss. [2024/15m/200w/7b]

The quintessence of Gandhian philosophy is that human values and not the market should govern
life. His perspective on development is distinct from mainstream concepts in that he prioritises 1)
self-development over material prosperity; 2) development of villages, and rural industries and 3)
working at the grassroots over modern machinery, technology and mills.

Thus, village development is a key necessity in Gandhian economic planning. His vision included
productive employment for India's millions with promotion of khadi and local handicrafts. He
sought to empower people by imparting basic and religious education and required skills.

Gandhi believed that human wants have to be limited, and no one should suffer from deprivation.
For that, he advocated social control of means of production. His emphasis is on collectivity and not
on individual needs and greed. Wealth has to be created collectively and enjoyed collectively.

For Gandhi rebuilding villages, in accordance with the principles of self-sufficiency and
decentralization, was important. In his words, "I would say that if the village perishes, India will
perish too”. According to him, cities have so far exploited the villages, and that has resulted in the
gap between villages and cities in education, culture, facilities, and employment. Now a new
partnership between cities and villages is needed.

Thus, Gram Swaraj remains a central idea in Gandhism and his perspective on planning cannot be
studied in isolation from it. [228 words]

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Ch 9] Caste, Religion and Ethnicity in Indian Politics

11. "Relative deprivation is a major source of ethnic conflict." Elaborate the statement with
relevant examples. [2024/15m/200w/8b]

Relative deprivation refers to the perception of inequality compared to other groups, even if
a group's absolute conditions are not dire. It arises out of a sense of competition. The feeling of being
denied access to resources, opportunities, or status vis-à-vis another group, gives rise to frustration
and resentment, fueling conflicts.

In India, this phenomenon of relative deprivation lies at the heart of many ethnic conflicts.

For example, in a recent conflict in Manipur, the trigger was the Meitei demand for Scheduled
Tribe (ST) status. This was seen by the Kuki tribe as a threat to their share of state-given socio-
economic opportunities. The conflict gave rise to violent clashes between the groups and resulted in
more than 200 deaths and 50,000 displacements.

Similarly, in Jammu and Kashmir, the conflict between Kashmiri Pandits and Muslims has
similar origins. While Pandits were numerically smaller, their socio-economic status was higher. This
created insecurity in the Muslim population, resulting in large-scale displacement of Kashmiri
Pandits.

It should also be noted that the current affirmative action policies for certain sections of
people are having a similar effect on the ‘unreserved’ section of Indian citizens. This has resulted in
more and more demands from ‘higher’ castes for their inclusion as backward, to access associated
benefits from the state.

Commenting on state of nature, Hobbes has opined that power is a zero-sum game and
consequently, the struggle for power is natural. However, state have been created to address this
exact issue. Thus, it is the responsibility of state to ensure that all classes of citizens feel that they’ve
been treated equally, otherwise, it would result in a situation of revolution, as Aristotle suggests. [276
words]

Ch 10] Party System

12. Critically assess the role of pressure groups in the decision-making process of the
government. [2024/15m/200w/7c]

A pressure group is an organized group that seeks to influence government policy or at times public
opinion without seeking to directly assume power. As defined by Gabriel Almond, “interest
articulation structures,” that convey the demands of their members to the political system.

In India, we have multiple organized and unorganized pressure groups representing the interests of
different groups. Acting as intermediaries between the public and government, these groups affect
various aspects of government policy.

Douglas Verney in his analysis, describes how business pressure groups compete with labour unions
for economic policy influence. These groups enjoy significant access to policymakers and at times
overpower grassroots or labour organizations. In India, the 2019 corporate tax cut can be cited as a
major achievement by the lobbying efforts of business pressure groups like FICCI and CII.

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On similar lines, Rajni Kothari suggests that pressure groups, like those representing Dalits and
marginalized communities, often struggle against well-funded economic groups and face
considerable challenges.

Rudolph and Rudolph on the other hand suggest that pressure groups that align with political parties
to maximize their influence. However, they also warn that such affiliations lead to intense
competition among pressure groups, sometimes shifting their focus from issue-based advocacy to
partisan alignment.

In India, there are numerous pressure groups, representing at times, competing socio-economic
interests. Together these form the mosaic of Indian polity and affect policy making. [229 words]

Ch 11] Social Movement

13. Women's role in anti-arrack movement [2024/10m/150w/5e]

In the local language of Andhra Pradesh, arrack denotes a low-cost alcoholic drink. Anti-
Arrack Movement was grassroots, women-led protest that began in the early 1990s, targeting the
widespread sale and consumption of arrack in regions of Andra Pradesh.

The movement was driven by the negative effects of alcohol including domestic violence,
poverty as well as health issues. Completely disillusioned and frustrated by the situation, these
women wanted to totally ban alcohol from their villages.

The movement began in a small town in the Nellore district, where women closed down the
arrack shop in their village. The success of these women soon found its way into the media, inspiring
demonstrations in various parts of the state.

Soon women from many other villages picked up the issue and started protests with similar
agenda and means. Committees were formed in many places and campaigns were initiated all over
Andhra Pradesh. Where the vendors would not ‘cooperate’, various forms of ‘punishment’ like
picketing liquor shops, throwing out liquor packets or setting the alcohol on fire were carried out by
women protestors. In addition, men often had to swear oaths in temples to stop drinking.

After innumerable meetings and protests by women in Hyderabad, arrack was officially
banned in October 1993. Started by poor, illiterate, low-caste women, the movement has become a
symbol of the weak fighting the strong, that of women empowerment, and a true demonstration of
‘power’ as Hannah Arendt envisions. [239 words]

14. Discuss the role of environmental movements in shaping the environmental governance in
India. [2024/20m/250w/8a]

Indian environmental movements are often criticized as ‘empty-stomach’ movements,

fighting only for livelihood issues, with no original concern for the environment. However, over a
period of time, these movements have forced government intervention to a large degree, making
environment, one of the central issues in policymaking.

The origins of the environment movement in India can be traced to pre-independence

movements in colonial India. Most of the tribal uprisings were centred around the taking away of
forest rights of people by the colonial powers for their commercial purposes.

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Post-independence, the Chipko movement is a notable mention. The Garhwal Himalayan

village of peasants successfully stopped commercial tree cutting in a neighbouring forest simply by
hugging the trees. Later in 1980, the government issued a ban on felling of trees in the Himalayan
regions for fifteen years, until the green cover was fully restored.

The Silent Valley movement was another such initiative, which had huge success. The
movement aimed at the protection of Silent Valley, an evergreen sub-tropical forest in Kerala. In
1985, the region was declared as Silent Valley National Park, accruing to it, special protection.

There have also been movements against mega-projects like Tehri Dam, Vedanta Mining etc.
highlighting environmental risks and displacement. This has ensured stricter implementation of
Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) as well as rehabilitation programs.

Indian courts have also contributed to the environmental governance in India. The
introduction of PILs has opened the route for social movements to approach the topmost court.
Courts in turn have recognized the right to clean environment as one of the fundamental rights,
among other environmental judgements.

Thus, over a period of time, environmental movements have played a key role in spreading
and shaping environmental governance in India. [285 words]

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Paper II - Section A: Comparative Politics and Int.

Relations
Ch 1] Comparative Politics
1. Discuss the interpretive approach to the study of comparative politics. [2024/10m/150w/1a]

The interpretive approach in political science tries to understand the meanings that shape
actions and institutions. It tries to understand the reasons, intentions, beliefs, logical progression
etc. of individuals, that ultimately shape actions.

Since comparative politics involves the study of different political systems, coming from
different societies and cultures, the interpretative approach particularly becomes important.

Traditionally, oriental political cultures have been criticized as non-representative,

authoritarian and oppressive. The interpretive approach questions the basis of such understanding.
It acknowledges that beliefs and preferences cannot be understood externally, and even objective
social situation falls short in deciphering them.

In the interpretive approach, idealists such as Oakeshott and Collingwood acknowledge the
role of traditions in understanding political actions. On the other hand, post-modernists like
Foucault question the claims of modernism as the peak of human knowledge.

Thus, the interpretive approach contrasts with structural or institutional approaches, which
focus on objective systems and measurable factors. It goes a step further in our understanding of
political science and helps us better understand the basis of political action. [172 words]

Ch 2] State in Comparative Perspective

2. What are the distinctive features of the post-modern state in the advanced capitalist
economies? [2024/15m/200w/2b]

Post-modernism is an ideology, or more of a movement, that has emerged as a critique of

modernism. It has challenged the traditional ideas of truth and progress, and advocates for pluralism
and skepticism of grand theories. Such ideas have become a defining feature of many capitalist
economies, earning them the name of post-modern state.

The ideology of postmodernism has led to a redefinition of sovereignty in these societies. As

we witness in the case of EU, sovereignty of states is largely diluted by the supranational
organization. There is also reduced emphasis on strict territorial control, trade borders, migration,
communication etc.

On the level of society, post-modern states accommodate the recognition of diverse

identities, cultures, and rights. There is a strong emphasis on human rights, gender equality and
minority protections.

In the economic sphere, there is an evolution of knowledge economies. There is erosion or

stagnation of traditional industries and the focus is shifting to innovation, technology, and services.
Greater emphasis is on sustainability, climate change, and environmental protection.

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All above, can be said to be distinct features of post-modern states, which cannot be found
in developing parts of the world.

However, it is also noteworthy, that we’re witnessing a backlash against such post-
modernist ideas. The emergence of the right wing in Europe, the exit of Britain from the EU on issues
of open borders, and the result of recent US election, all point to the preference for protectionist
policies. Post-modernism is eroding, and right-wing politics is on the rise. [249 words]

Ch 3] Politics of Representation and Participation

3. Critically examine the role of political parties in sustaining and stabilising democracies in the
developing societies. [2024/15m/200w/3b]

Edmund Burke defines a political party as a body of men and women united on the basis of
their shared political ideas so as to promote the national interest. It seeks to gain political power
through elections and affect government policies. It acts as an intermediary between the state and
citizens.

In developing societies, democracy is often an imported idea and faces unique challenges, a
situation characterized as an ‘overdeveloped state’ by Hamza Alavi, or a ‘soft state’ by Gunnar
Myrdal. In such an environment, political parties play a crucial role.

Political parties not only mobilize voters but also do the work of voter education. For
example, in the case of India, the adoption of universal adult franchise gave voting rights to masses.
India had a huge illiterate population at independence, and Congress played a crucial role in the
transition from British rule to self-rule.

Further, parties also give hope and thus vent for grudges against government policies. The
emergence of BJP as a right-wing alternative to Congress has been instrumental in accommodating
the concerns of majority community. A similar situation in Bangladesh without a strong opposition
party has led to the direct usurpation of power and a situation of anarchy.

Political parties represent popular interest and form government. In this, they check the
arbitrary exercise of power by non-elected organs like the judiciary, military etc. The lack of strong
political parties has been a reason behind military control in states like Pakistan.

Thus, political parties have played and continue to play a crucial role in sustaining the
democracies of third-world countries. In this regard, we can appreciate Professor Laski, who once
said ‘The only alternative of party government is dictatorship’. [281 words]

Ch 4] Globalization
4. "Deglobalisation is displacing globalisation." Comment. [2024/20m/250w/2a]

Globalization points to the increasing interconnectedness through the exchange of goods,

services, ideas, and culture. Deglobalization, on the other hand, refers to a process of reducing global
interconnectedness. It suggests a shift toward nationalism, protectionism, and the prioritization of
domestic interests over global integration.

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From recent policies like America First, Brexit, US-China trade war, it is evident that we’re
witnessing an increasing push for deglobalization, specifically from Western countries.

Economist Dani Rodrik in his book ‘The Globalization Paradox’, argues that globalization’s
benefits have been uneven, leading to populist backlash in many countries. While the West
benefitted initially from their advanced industries, the benefits have also shifted to third-world
countries because of cheap labour. This was also one of the factors responsible for the renegotiation
of NAFTA.

Globalization has also increased the fluidity of people, leading to cultural conflicts. The
vandalism of a Hindu temple in Canada, objection to hijab in France etc. are examples illustrative of
this. We can relate the Huntington’s ‘clash of civilizations’ which in fact, predicted this. While Europe
is going for stringent immigration rules, the USA has built a steel wall to stop such influx.

So far, globalization has been largely west-led and for the benefit of the West. There is
increasing recognition of this by the global south, and we’re seeing a pushback from them as well.
Be it WTO negotiations, or climate talks, these countries are demanding ‘historic responsibility’ from
the global north. Consequently, the USA pulled out of the Paris Agreement for a brief time, while it
has ensured that WTO dispute resolution remains defunct since last 5 years.

The latest push against globalization came with the pandemic of COVID-19. There were
global supply-chain disruptions and it has pushed countries for ‘self-reliance’. India’s policy of
‘Atmanirbhar Bharat’ can be seen in this context.

Thus, deglobalization is increasingly displacing globalization. [306 words]

Ch 5] Approaches to Study International Relations

5. Explain the various facets of the idealist approach to the study of international relations.
Comment on its contemporary relevance. [2024/10m/150w/1d]

The idealist approach to international relations aka the liberal approach, believes in human
capacity for reason and morality and a peaceful world order. We can trace the beginning of a liberal
tradition in Christian roots that preached peace and humanity as fundamental values.

Immanuel Kant, believing in the good nature of humans, has suggested that perpetual peace
among nations can be achieved. Liberal institutionalism further suggests that if we build institutions
at the international level, it will check anarchy and create rule-based order, in the words of Woodrow
Wilson, ‘the institutions can convert the jungle of international politics into zoo.’

Functionalism is another school of idealism that suggests ‘peace by pieces’. There are also
other liberal theories like the interdependence school, democratic peace theory, complex
interdependence etc. which believe in a peaceful state of international relations.

In contemporary times, marked by two ongoing wars, it is easier to turn to realism to explain
the state of affairs. However, in such times idealism is not only relevant but also necessary. The
liberal international order has ensured peace in the last 8 decades. This has proven that liberalism
works even in the international sphere and thus should be pursued even more vigorously. [200
words]

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6. Explain the central tenets of the World Systems Theory. [2024/10m/150w/1b]

Influenced by the ideas of Vladimir Lenin, World-Systems Theory tries to understand the
state of international relations from a Marxist perspective. It was developed by Immanuel Wallerstein
and views the world as a single, interconnected social system driven by a capitalist mode of
production.

The systems theory suggests that capitalism has become a world system. There are three
categories of countries i.e. 1) Core 2) Peripheries and 3) Semi-peripheries. The theory describes the
current world order as a ‘multicultural territorial division of labour’. There is an exchange of goods
and services in a manner, that benefits the core and semi-peripheries at the expense of peripheral
countries.

Wallerstein further suggests that the present world system, which originated in the 17th
century, is now moving towards its end. He suggests that capitalism sees cycles of boom and burst
which reflects its contradictions and ultimately leads to collapse.

According to critics, the World Systems model proposed by Wallerstein is ‘monocausal’, an

example of economic determinism. It overemphasises economic factors. On the other end, post-
colonial scholars consider even this approach as Eurocentric. Thus, while World Systems theory does
give a good description of reality, it cannot be considered complete. [195 words]

7. 'The Gramscian theory of hegemony provides many valuable insights into the nature of
global power." Comment. [2024/20m/250w/4a]

Gramsci’s theory of hegemony was proposed while he tried to analyse the failure of Marx.
However, the hegemony theory has become a prominent idea in itself, essential to any explanation
of power, be it domestic or international.

Hegemony explains how dominance is maintained in society not just through coercion, but
by consent. Hegemony denotes ideological and cultural leadership, which ensures that the values of
the dominant group become the "common sense" of society. For Gramsci, this form of power is more
enduring than domination based on pure force.

As we see in the international scenario, powerful states, like the United States, maintain
global leadership not just through military and economic strength but also by spreading ideologies
and culture. The values of democracy, capitalism, liberal economic order, human rights etc. have
been preached in a way that it has become a global standard to judge a state's performance – be it
Western or Eastern.

Further, International organizations like the United Nations, Bretton Woods, WTO and even
private players like NGOs uphold similar values. These act like ‘intellectuals’ that assist the narrative
of the dominant class. We also witness cultural norms such as consumerism and individualism
promoted as universal through media, education, and other non-state apparatus.

However, we’re also witnessing a backlash against the hegemony West has enjoyed so far.
As countries like India, China, and Brazil are growing in their economic stature, there is resistance in
the form of counter-narrative, and counter-hegemony from these states.

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Edward Said in his book ‘Orientalism’ has exposed how the West constructs the "Orient" as
exotic, backward, and inferior to justify its dominance. He also exposes how literature, art, and
academia perpetuate stereotypes about non-Western cultures, serving Western interests. Similar
views have been expressed by post-colonial scholars like Gayatri Spivak, Homi Bhabha etc.

Thus, Gramsci’s theory of hegemony certainly provides a fresh lens to analyze power in the
international context. [313 words]

Ch 6] Key Concepts in International Relations

There was no question on this topic in 2024 Mains.

Ch 7] Changing International Political Order

8. The expansionist tendencies of the current Russian regime indicate its intentions for the
realisation of a Greater Russia on the lines of the Soviet era. Comment. [2024/10m/150w/1c]

The ongoing war between Russia and Ukraine has raised the questions about intentions of
Russia, with some holding Russia responsible, while scholars like Mearsheimer shift the entire blame
to USA.

In 2014, Russia annexed Crimea and declared its independence. Recently, in Feb 2022, Russia
announced the recognition of the independence of two more provinces of Ukraine, launching an
attack that marks the beginning of the ongoing Russia-Ukraine war.

The main cause that is advanced as a reason behind the war is the expansionist ambitions of
Russia. However, this line of argument does not hold ground. In the words of Putin himself, ‘whoever
does not miss the soviet union has no heart, but whoever wants it back has no brain’. There is also
no objective proof to demonstrate the desirability and feasibility of occupying Ukraine for Russia.

John Mearsheimer, an American scholar, suggests that the root cause of the ongoing war is
‘American-led efforts to make Ukraine a western bulwark on Russia’s borders’. The Western strategy
to integrate Ukraine into the EU, to turn it into a pro-western, liberal democracy & ultimately to
incorporate the nation into NATO.

The expansion of NATO in Ukraine and its integration with the West is seen by Russia as an
existential threat, the brightest of red lines, the West is not expected to cross.

To quote Mearsheimer again, “The tragic truth is that if the West had not pursued NATO
expansion into Ukraine, it is unlikely there would be a war in Ukraine today and Crimea would still
be part of Ukraine… History will judge the United States and its allies with abundant harshness for
its remarkably foolish policy on Ukraine.” [276 words]

9. The changing global order and ongoing regional conflicts, with the global powers taking
sides, have jeopardised the progress made towards disarmament in the past. Comment.
[2024/10m/150w/1e]

Disarmament denotes the reduction or elimination of a country's military forces and

weapons. It’s usually done to reduce the likelihood of conflicts and wars as well as to save the
resources spent on arms.

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Second World War vividly demonstrated the social and economic perils of conflict, along
with the existential threat that nuclear weapons posed. Coupled with tensions of the Cold War,
multiple initiatives like NPT, CTBT, START treaties etc. were taken in this period to check the arms
race.

However, multiple things have changed in the past few decades. We’re witnessing the rise of
an assertive China, the weakening of Russia, the rise of non-state actors, and nuclear proliferation
even amongst non-NPT states.

We’re seeing increasing defence expenditure by emerging powers like China and India. An
insecure neighbourhood and Iran’s nuclear capability have made Saudi Arabia one of the largest
importer of arms in recent years. Even the USA’s defence budget is at an all-time high and Trump is
also pushing NATO members to increase their defence expenditure. There are two ongoing wars at
the global level, and this has again created an insecure environment, further pushing the arms race.

As realist scholar Kenneth Waltz suggests, ‘arms race are driven by the security dilemma: one
state’s defensive buildup is perceived as a threat by others, prompting reciprocal actions.’ Thus, it
appears that the arms race will be a permanent feature of international relations, and any progress
otherwise, should be seen as temporary. [243 words]

10. Do you agree with the view that the USA uses NATO as a traditional tool of strategy to
perpetuate its hegemony in the world? [2024/15m/200w/3c]

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is a military alliance established in 1949 after
the end of 2nd World War between the USA and other North Atlantic countries. The treaty is based on
the principle of collective defence, and an attack on one member is considered an attack on all.

The primary aim of NATO was to deter aggression in Europe and on USA, particularly from
the Soviet bloc. However, over the years, with the weakening of USSR and rise of other players, the
objectives of NATO, seem to have changed.

NATO creates a security umbrella for member states. With the might of US military, it
naturally creates dependence of member countries on the USA for their security. This allows America
to wield significant political influence over these countries.

Being a NATO country leads to huge improvements in investor confidence resulting in

significant gains in foreign direct investment. For member countries, this makes NATO important not
only for security purposes but also for economic growth, increasing their dependence on the USA.

Further, the preponderance of the USA in NATO allows it to carry out unilateral actions
whenever required. The 2011 Libya intervention for regime change, and the ongoing support to
Ukraine in war against Russia, both carried out in the name of NATO, are vivid examples of it.

Thus, over the years, NATO has evolved from a tool of collective security to an important
instrument for the USA to maintain its hegemony in the global order. This has ensured that the
American hegemony is not easy to get away with and the Chinese have much more work to do if it
really wants to shift the pivot of global power to Asia-Pacific. [282 words]

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Ch 7] Evolution of International Economic System

11. The return of trade barriers and economic sanctions has diminished the spirit of GATT. In
this context, discuss the factors contributing to the decline of WTO in recent times.
[2024/15m/200w/4b]

After World War II, GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) was created in 1947 to
create a stable global trading system and to reduce tariffs and trade barriers. In 1995, WTO replaced
GATT which included new areas of trade like agriculture, services, intellectual rights etc.

The aim of WTO is to establish free trade. Based on Ricardo’s theory of comparative
advantage, it seeks to create a win-win situation for all. Each country will have the entire world as a
market. It will result in more economic activities, higher GDP, and more resources to tackle
developmental issues. On this logic, the idea of WTO was sold to developing countries.

Over the period, developing countries realized the one-sided nature of the WTO agreement.
While developing countries dumped their products in the third world countries, third world produces
were discouraged in the name of non-tariff barriers like quality control. This led to a backlash against
WTO, most explicitly visible in the stalled Doha round of talks.

Further, as China has benefitted disproportionately from WTO, we witnessed a US-China

trade war in 2018–2020, which continues in the form of multiple tariffs. There are also sanctions
against Russia, and Iran, purely out of geopolitical purposes and which undermine interests of
countries trading with them.

We’re also seeing the paralysis of the WTO dispute mechanism as the Appellate Body has
been non-functional since 2019 due to US opposition to judge appointments.

Thus, there is a decline in the institution that once championed the cause of free global trade.
Trade is the most important part of the modern state and thus the restoration of WTO is essential in
the current order of things. [278 words]

Ch 9] United Nations
There was no question on this topic in 2024 Mains.

Ch 10] Regionalization of World Politics

12. What were the limitations of NAFTA? How did its replacement by the United States Mexico-
Canada Agreement counter them? Explain. [2024/15m/200w/2c]

NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) was signed in 1994 between the United
States, Canada, and Mexico. This agreement eliminated most tariffs on products traded between
these economies.

On the eve of inking NAFTA, it was envisioned that it would create jobs in Mexico, and the
country would ‘export products, not people’. However, the deal was blamed for job losses and wage
stagnation in the USA. Companies also moved production to Mexico to take advantage of low wage
losses, widening trade deficit. .

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In the words of US President Trump, NAFTA was “the worst trade deal in the history of the
country”. Thus, in the wave of America First, the deal was renegotiated into the United States–
Mexico–Canada Agreement (USMCA).

The new agreement introduced labour reforms, instituting minimum wage rules. It has
provisions for environmental protection, wider than those in NAFTA. The new deal changed the rules
of origin for auto components and also introduced protection mechanisms for digital trade, IP and
data protection. Further, unlike previous agreement, USMCA requires renewal consideration every
six years, with a 16-year sunset clause.

The evolution from NAFTA to the USMCA reflects a broader trend towards regionalization in
global trade. We are witnessing a greater focus on strengthening ties with geographic neighbours
rather than pursuing purely global trade agreements. [216 words]

13. Do you agree with the view that the EU has thus far proved to be the most successful
experiment in the regional integration processes? Account for its successes and also some of
the recent challenges that it is faced with. [2024/15m/200w/4c]

Starting with the history of two bloody wars, just 20 years apart, Europe has come a long way.
It has been successful in creating an integrated economic and political bloc and has witnessed peace
unlike centuries before.

Interestingly, the success of EU lies partly in its experiences with the war itself. World wars,
the doctrine of Balance of Power dictated the relations in Europe. After the war, clinging to the liberal
doctrine of functionalism or ‘peace by pieces’, an attempt was made to increase economic
interdependence in the form of European Coal and Steel Community.

The economic benefits were also coupled with the USA’s policy to contain the expansion of
communism. EU was formed to maintain the liberal international economic order, and the USA acted
as the biggest push factor for the organization. Over time, the bloc expanded to include several
countries as well as evolved as a single market and a monetary union. The organization was also
awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2012, recognizing its contribution to establishing peace in Europe.

However, apart from its achievements, EU also faces challenges in the era of deglobalization.
With the rise of right-wing politics, we’re witnessing a backlash against liberal policies like human
rights, immigration etc. The event of Brexit also impacts the soft power of EU as well as its security.

Further, the push from the USA to include Ukraine in NATO has created geopolitical tensions
with Russia. The Union also faces a challenge from China, which seeks to woo the East European
countries to its side with economic aid.

In an overall assessment, the EU still fares well. In the words of Irish leader John Bruton, “The
European Union is the world's most successful invention for advancing peace.” We need similar
inventions in Asia as well. [297 words]

Ch 11] Contemporary Global Concerns

14. Discuss the major recent social movements related to the physical rights of women in
various countries of the world. [2024/20m/250w/3a]

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Patriarchy has been a universal phenomenon and has dominated human society since
antiquity. At its worst, it results in physical harm to the feminine gender, and at times even justifies
it as natural. As Rawls suggests, ‘natural principles are neither just nor unjust, it is the responsibility
of humans to create a just society for everyone.’

Recently, voicing against sexual harassment in workplace, the #MeToo movement quickly
became a global phenomenon. The movement, largely digital, encouraged women to speak out
about their experiences of such oppression. It led to high-profile investigations as well as some
convictions of powerful men. It spurred legal and workplace reforms in many countries and
increased awareness of gender-based violence.

We’ve also witnessed a strong movement for the reproductive rights of women. Starting in
Argentina and spreading across Latin America, the Marea Verde (Green Wave) movement has
achieved significant victories for reproductive rights. In 2020, after years of advocacy, Argentina
legalized abortion up to 14 weeks, setting a precedent in Latin America. This was followed by the
decriminalisation of abortion by the Mexican Supreme Court.

In the Middle East, against the compulsory wearing of hijab, there have also been such
attempts. However, in a highly patriarchal society like Iran and Afghanistan, these movements are
not gaining traction. The recent voluntary stripping by a college girl in Iran is a case in point, but such
efforts are scanty and weak.

The evolving international nature of such feminine movements illustrates the growing
solidarity among women worldwide. However, grassroots activism must be complemented by
empowering women through education, technology, and representation. This will ensure that these
movements translate into lasting change. [272 words]

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Paper II - Section B: India and the World

Ch 1] Indian Foreign Policy
1. Would you concur with the view that of late, India's foreign policy has been in a transition
mode from Nehruvianism to Neoliberalism? Support your answer with the help of suitable
examples [2024/20m/250w/6a]

Post-independence, in a world that was characterised by a bipolar world order, India’s

response was to adopt the policy of non-alignment. This was coupled with solidarity with former
colonies, emphasis on strategic autonomy, a tilt towards socialism, principles of Panchsheel, and an
overall idealism in foreign policy. Since Nehru spearheaded it, it was called as Nehruvianism of Indian
Foreign Policy.

However, of late, we are witnessing multiple changes that do not align with the ideals that
Nehru sought. Post 1991, the collapse of the USSR and the foreign currency crisis forced India to
change its approach to foreign policy. It marked more closeness of India with the USA and Europe,
shifting from non-alignment to a multipolar alignment.

India’s economic policy also changed marked by LPG reforms. Socialism had limited India’s
growth while ASEAN countries as well as China were much ahead in the race. India adopted policies
more business friendly policies, marking a shift towards neoliberalism.

Post-2008 crisis, Indian foreign policy has responded vigorously, with non-alignment
dropped altogether. The 2014 elections furthered the process with people choosing right-wing,
neoliberal government at the centre. Since then, the government has vigorously sold the idea of India
abroad, and has taken multiple initiatives like improving Ease of Doing Business ranking, GIFT city
etc. to attract foreign investors.

Today, Indian diplomacy is primarily focused on the USA, China, other P-5 member
countries, and our neighbourhood. Look East has been expanded to Act East. Africa has loomed into
focus and Latin America does not look so distant anymore. Economic diplomacy has taken the pole
position in India’s foreign policy above that of political and security issues. The changes undoubtedly
mark a shift from Nehruvianism to Neoliberalism. [281 words]

Ch 1] India and the Non Alignment Movement

2. "India has of late, chosen to debunk non alignment in its pursuit of multi-alignment."
Comment. [2024/15m/200w/8c]

Non-alignment is often termed as ‘Indian exceptionalism’. It has been India’s ‘grand strategy’
to protect its national interest. According to Martand Jha, Non-alignment remained a highly
ambiguous term as the Indian elites never attempted to explain the substance of the policy of non-
alignment.

However, in the recent past, India has been more vocal about its approach to international
affairs, with ‘multi-alignment’ figuring prominently in the speeches of Indian leaders.

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Former Foreign Secretary Vijay Gokhale has stated that India is ideologically non-aligned,
but can seek ‘issue-based alignment’. That gives it the capacity to be flexible and maintain decisional
autonomy. He adds that hedging is a delicate exercise, whether it is the non-alignment and strategic
autonomy of earlier periods or multiple engagements of the future. But there is no getting away from
it in a multipolar world.

Similarly, India’s External Affairs S. Jaishankar also describes the present foreign policy of
India as an ‘issue-based alliance’, building strong partnerships with like-minded states on specific
subjects. India, he says will have to “nimbly expand the space to pursue its interests and not be
caught flatfooted by dogma”.

However, it also appears that multi-alignment has not found universal favour. For the West,
it conveys an impression of opportunism. But India has chosen to pursue it nonetheless. To quote S.
Jaishankar again, “The nation will have to position itself by optimizing ties with all major players and
this will include - cultivating America, steadying Russia, managing China, enthusing Japan and
attending to Europe”. [247 words]

Ch 3] India and South Asia

3. Discuss the future of SAARC in the light of India's increased focus on other regional groupings
like ASEAN and BIMSTEC. [2024/20m/250w/7a]

Often cited as one of the negative examples of regional cooperation, SAARC was founded in
Dhaka in 1985 with the signing of the SAARC Charter. However, we’re seeing a more explicit leaning
of India towards BIMSTEC as well as ASEAN, and the future of SAARC appears bleak.

In the words of S Jaishankar, “I think there is today an appetite to grow under BIMSTEC… we
do not have the kind of issues in BIMSTEC which we do have in SAARC. There is a will to cooperate,
there is a desire to take it forward.”

To begin with, SAARC was not formed for the purpose of cooperation. The Indian neighbours
envisioned SAARC as a coalition to balance India. Further, the absence of external push factors like
the USA in EU and ASEAN is also quoted as a reason why SAARC failed.

A huge asymmetry exists in South Asia. The other associations, particularly EU and ASEAN
are associations of equals, however, that is not the case with SAARC. Also, for nations like Pakistan
and Bangladesh, their own national identity remains in crisis and it is difficult for them to accept the
transfer of their sovereignty.

Scholars across the gamut have declared that SAARC is dead. According to Santosh Poudel,
a Nepali scholar, “India-Pakistan rivalry and India’s isolation of Pakistan contributed to the death of
the SAARC.” Dr Sanjay Baru, in his book ‘India and the World’, suggests that historically, three factors
have shaped the formation of regional organizations i.e. market-driven economy, movement of
people across borders and, political factors. In the case of SAARC, all are missing. Instead of a trade
deficit, there is a trust deficit.

Thus, India has rightly embraced the idea of BIMSTEC and ASEAN and decided to move on
from SAARC. [293 words]

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4. Discuss the implications of the scrapping of the Free Movement Regime with Myanmar by the
Indian Government on the complex ethno-political dynamics of the north eastern region.
[2024/15m/200w/8b]

Post-independence, the border divided people of the same ethnicity— specifically the
Nagas, and the Kuki-Chin-Mizo communities — across India and Myanmar. In 2018, as a part of ‘Act
East Policy’, the Free Movement Regime (FMR) was signed between India and Myanmar which
allowed people living on either side of the border to travel up to 16 km inside each other’s country
without a visa.

However, in Feb 2024, MHA decided that the FMR between India and Myanmar be scrapped.
This was done to ensure internal security and to maintain the demographic structure of North
Eastern States.

As mentioned, communities like the Nagas, Kukis, and Mizos share strong kinship ties across
the border. The end of FMR could strain these social and cultural connections, leading to resentment.
This is particularly important since these regions are already volatile and natives are against state
intervention in their personal lives. The scrapping of FMR will also impact border trade. It could
further push smuggling and insurgency activities underground, complicating surveillance efforts.

Along with scrapping the border, the govt. has also announced the construction of a fence
along the 1600 km India-Myanmar border. In a difficult terrain of the Eastern Himalayas, this could
prove a costly affair for the Indian government.

It has been almost 8 decades since Indian independence, and unfortunately, the North-East
still remains restless and uncertain. Sanjay Hazarika suggests that India has ‘treated it as a frontier
rather than as an integral part of the Indian Union.’ Thus, more needs to be done. [250 words]

5. Bhutan has historically been an ally of India, but the China-Bhutan border related issues have
become a security issue for India. Discuss. [2024/10m/150w/5b]

India-Bhutan relations occupy a special place amongst India’s relations with all of its
neighbours. From the moment the Himalayan nation and New Delhi established diplomatic relations
in 1968, there has been a friendly and cooperative relationship between the two countries.

Bhutan is located in the centre of the 4,200 km long disputed boundary between China and
India. Also, the disputed Chumbi Valley is close to the Siliguri Corridor, a 20 km wide stretch of Land
that connects mainland India with its North East. With China claiming some northern and western
parts of Bhutan as its own, it has created a serious security challenge for Bhutan as well as India.

In July 2017, a dispute emerged between China and India over the Doklam Plateau, which
lies at the triangle where India, Bhutan and the Chinese border meet. After 2 months of standoff, both
China and India decided to withdraw their forces.

As suggested by Professor S D Muni, “Eventually full diplomatic relations will develop

between Bhutan and China... India, trying to prevent it will only strengthen the perspective of a big-
bullying brother. Hence, instead of trying to prevent it, India should see that as long as our security
and strategic concerns are taken care of by Bhutan, it does not oppose the normalization of China-
Bhutan ties.” [215 words]

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6. Despite deep ties, India's relations with Sri Lanka have seen strains due to China's growing
influence in Sri Lanka through investments and economic dominance. Analyse.
[2024/10m/150w/5e]

The Chinese have been proven to be a big headache for Indian policymakers, especially when
it comes to dealing with smaller neighbouring countries. While India and Sri Lanka have deep
historical ties that go back millennia, Chinese diplomacy has disturbed the camaraderie.

For example, Hambantota Port, which opened in 2010, is Sri Lanka’s second largest port after
Colombo. However, it was built with Chinese assistance, was later seen as economically unviable,
and then handed over to the Chinese company through a 99-year agreement. Additionally, the
Colombo Port City project has also been given to the Chinese company, creating similar concerns.

Such unhealthy Debt dependence of Sri Lanka on China raises concerns about a potential
"debt-trap diplomacy," affecting Sri Lanka's sovereignty as well as India’s security interests. As
suggested by Prof. S D Muni, ‘China has perfected the art of buying elites in smaller countries.’

India needs to ensure that Sri Lanka does not become the next victim of Chinese diplomacy.
India’s help to Sri Lanka in the recent economic crisis is a welcome step in this direction. However,
India needs to create more economic interdependence between the two countries, which will
increase the Lankan stakes in India, ensuring that it always keeps Indian interests in mind. [206
words]

Ch 4] India and the Global South

7. "Nothing is going to move within the WTO negotiations unless India is on board." Discuss the
main reasons behind India's increased clout in the WTO. [2024/10m/150w/5c]

A careful observation of WTO functioning of last few years does indicate a significant shift in
favour of India. Several reasons can be attributed to this:

For more than the last three decades, India has witnessed significant economic growth. India
is the world's fifth-largest economy and a significant player in global trade, especially in IT services,
pharmaceuticals, and textiles. Additionally, a large, young domestic market gives India it leverage to
negotiate trade terms favourable to its interests.

Further, India often champions the concerns of third-world countries. This approach has
played a pivotal role in rallying support among developing countries to India, portraying it as the
leader of the Global South. India’s stand on agricultural subsidies and affordable medicines are
examples of this approach.

However, it is also true that despite India’s increased stature, WTO remains largely controlled
by the West. The USA has been unilaterally successful in ensuring that the dispute mechanism of
WTO remains defunct since last 5 years. The trade terms still remain in favour of the West, and the
global south, led by India needs to remain vigilant to ensure that WTO remains a fair organization.
[189 words]

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8. Discuss the potential role that India could play as the leader of the Global South in realising
the goal of establishing a new international economic order in the 21st century.
[2024/15m/200w/6c]

The New International Economic Order (NIEO) is a movement by developing and third-world
countries to end economic colonialism that the present global economic order perpetuates.
Through NIEO, Global South seeks to create a fairer and more inclusive global order.

The main demands of NIEO include sovereign equality of all states, with non-interference in
their internal affairs. a just relationship between the price of raw materials and other goods, reform
of the Bretton Woods institutions as well as that of WTO and both financial and technology transfer
for industrialization of developing nations. There is also a call for the promotion of cooperation
among the countries of the South, to ensure greater individual and collective autonomy and a better
bargaining power vis-à-vis the Global North.

In all of this, as a leader of NAM, India can play a key role in establishing NIEO. NAM remains
an important forum representative of the third world, and NIEO has been long on the agenda of NAM
as well. With India’s growing economic size, it enjoys a significant bargaining power in trade
negotiations, and the same can be utilized to push forward to demand for fairer trade terms.

Further, India is also party to multilateral alignments like G20, BRICS, IBSA, Russia-India-China
(RIC) etc. aimed at creating a multipolar world order, and these platforms can also serve as a
platform to voice NIEO.

Apart from these, India is also evolving as a technological giant. Through its own technology-
sharing initiatives, and expertise in the knowledge economy, India can contribute its share to an
inclusive world order.

It should also be noted that India is already spearheading the efforts for NIEO. Through
knowledge-sharing platforms like ITEC, RIS, ISA, CDRI etc. and initiatives like Vaccine Maitri, India has
shown to the world its willingness to live by the values of global citizenship. As remarked by Amb.
Ruchira Kamboj, “As far as India is concerned, our engagement with the Global South is not just a
matter of policy, it is ingrained in the very fabric of our culture and philosophy.” [340 words]

Ch 5] India and the Global Centres of Power

9. "India and USA have become such strong strategic partners that they need not become
formal allies." Comment. [2024/15m/200w/7c]

India US used to be known as ‘estranged democracies’ (Dennis Kux). However, as held by PM

Modi, the India-US relationship has overcome the “hesitations of history”. Or in the words of Indian
foreign minister S Jaishankar, “India and the US earlier used to deal with each other, and now they
work with each other.”

In an emerging multipolar world, the USA needs India to create a stable balance of power in
the Indo-Pacific and to face the Chinese onslaught. The QUAD initiative underscores this effort. There
is also a strong interest by the Americans in the Indian businesses and consumers.

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From India’s side, it also needs a partner like the USA to balance the Chinese threat on its
borders. There is a 4.5 million strong Indian diaspora in the USA, their trade hovers around $120bn
in goods and $60bn in services, and the USA is also a source of huge FDI for India.

These converging interests have ensured that India and the USA cooperate in every possible
sector. In 2008, the USA went a mile ahead and allowed an NSG waiver to India through Indo US
Nuclear Deal. Later in 2016, India was granted the status of ‘Major Defence Partner’ (MDP) by the US
and in 2018 India was placed in the STA-1 list of USA making defence exports to India easier.

The U.S. has four “foundational” agreements that it signs with its defence partners. India has
signed all the four agreements. Additionally, India US also have a long history of cooperation in space
technology, led by ISRO and NASA.

Thus, because of their converging interests, India and the USA have developed strong ties,
stronger than formal alliances. And as rightly said, “these countries have become such strategic
partners that they need not become formal allies.” [296 words]

10. Does the idea of the 21st century as 'Asian century' continue to remain feasible given the
growing friction between India and China? [2024/15m/200w/6b]

As remarked by a notable journalist, “In the nineteenth century, the world was Europeanized.
In the twentieth century, it was Americanized. Now, it is being Asianized.”

The idea of the 'Asian Century' argues that the 21st-century international order is going to be
defined by Asia's pre-eminence. This includes the existing dominance of China, the rise of India and
that of ASEAN. Further, Asia hosts around 60% of the global population and is fast emerging as a
technological and industrial power.

However, this idea of the Asian century is at times questioned on the backdrop of India-China
tensions. There was a war between the two in 1962, and the border issue still remains unresolved.
Additionally, both countries recently witnessed clashes (Galwan clash, 2020) which resulted in
casualties from both sides.

On the other hand, we also see multiple areas where India and China relations are
flourishing. India-China trade stands at $118 bn, as good as India-US trade of $120 bn. Both countries
have had experiences of colonialism and are championing a multipolar world order. Both India and
China share common concerns about climate change, and with the West paying only a lip service,
they are bound to play a leadership role in this area.

It should also be noted that while India has gone closer to the USA in the past few decades,
it has always maintained its strategic autonomy, keeping the options open. As suggested by Retd.
Amb. Nalin Surie, ‘“There can be no 21st Century of Asia without serious and positive collaboration
between our two countries (India-China). Our civilizational contact of the past has been fruitful and
benefited both sides. There is no reason that this should not happen in the coming decades.” [254
words]

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Ch 6] India and the UN System

11. "India must strive to become a semi permanent member of the UNSC, rather than a
permanent member without the right to veto." [2024/10m/150w/5a]

It has been decades since India has been asserting itself for its inclusion into the coveted
permanent membership of the UNSC. However, the archaic, rigid structure of the UN and strong
opposition from India’s two neighbours have ensured that India’s dream never becomes a reality.

At the outset, it should be acknowledged that India deserves a permanent seat at the high
table of diplomacy and the current arrangement does not reflect changed reality. However, it’s also
true that reforms in UNSC are next to impossible.

While there is no set formula for a semi-permanent membership, the main demand includes
a guaranteed, longer/permanent presence in the UNSC without veto power. Compared with
permanent membership, this idea appears less hostile to countries like China and Pakistan, and
partnering with G4, India could possibly garner support for it.

This would also be a step ahead of the current membership which changes every 2 years.
Ensuring a more permanent voice in the UNSC, it will increase India’s contribution to global affairs
and its soft power.

We should learn from the wisdom of Aristotle who gave the ideal of ‘golden mean’,
commenting that ‘one should not sacrifice good for the sake of best’. A semi-permanent membership
is that ‘golden mean’ for India and it should actively pursue it. [213 words]

Ch 7] India and the Nuclear Question

12. Critically examine India's persistent refusal to sign the nuclear non-proliferation treaty
(NPT) despite being recognized as a de facto nuclear power. [2024/15m/200w/7b]

The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) 1968, is an international treaty aimed at

preventing the spread of nuclear weapons and promoting peaceful use of nuclear energy. Proposed
as a treaty to ensure peace, it only serves the interests of few powers and India has rightly opposed
it since its inception.

At the outset, NPT is discriminatory. It gives the right to P5 nations to keep their nuclear
weapons, while new nations cannot acquire them. There is no rationale behind such a provision, and
citing it as discriminatory, India has refused to join it. For India, the treaty creates a nuclear apartheid,
nuclear ‘haves’ and ‘have-nots’ and does not check vertical proliferation.

Surrounded by two hostile neighbours, both of whom India has experienced wars and has
ongoing border issues, India needed nuclear weapons for its security purposes. Thus, refusing NPT,
India developed its own nuclear weapons. India’s efforts were not proven futile when later it was
realized that Pakistan had also developed nuclear capability.

Apart from opposition to NPT, with the signing of Indo US Nuclear Deal, India has been given
an NSG waiver, allowing it to access civilian nuclear technology and fuel from other countries. This
has further made the logic of NPT obsolete for India.

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In the international arena, marked by anarchy, each nation has to look for its own. Nations
naturally seek to maximize their power in such scenarios as explained by Realists, and India is no
exception to it. [241 words]

Ch 8] Recent Developments in Indian Foreign Policy

13. Discuss the rationale behind replacing the "Asia-Pacific" strategy with the new term "Indo-
Pacific" strategy. [2024/10m/150w/5d]

“Language is therefore not simply a means of communication, it is a political weapon; it is

shaped and honed to convey political intent.”

The term ‘Asia-Pacific’ emerged in the 1960s and was later institutionalised through the
formation of the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) in the 80s. In 2017, the National Security
Strategy of the USA replaced the erstwhile ‘Asia-Pacific’ with ‘Indo-Pacific.’ Indo-Pacific, the
document explains, ‘stretches from our US’ Pacific coastline to the Indian Ocean’.

At first, Indo-Pacific denotes the acknowledgement of India as a global power, critical for
world affairs. It also indicates the primacy of the Chinese threat to the USA, its desire to contain
China and the important role India has in it. The new term reduces China's centrality and
emphasizes the importance of alternative partners like India, Australia, and ASEAN.

Incidentally, the changed stance was further reinforced with the 2020 Covid pandemic. The
West realized the need for supply chain diversification and now India is increasingly seen as an
investment destination. The establishment of Apple Co.’s manufacturing plants in India or Tesla’s
desire to enter India is indicative of this.

Thus, the new term recognizes India's growing influence, and its strategic location in the
Indian Ocean and puts India at the forefront of a new regional order. [212 words]

14. Critically examine the continuity and change in India's Palestine policy in the wake of the
ongoing Israel-Hamas War. [2024/20m/250w/8a]

The Palestine-Israel conflict is a long-standing geopolitical issue. The

conflict centres on competing claims to historic land. The situation
has evolved over decades, with ongoing war adding complexity to an
already volatile landscape.

The recent 2023 conflict began with a significant attack by Hamas

(Palestinian terrorist group) on Israeli territory, leading to a severe
military response from Israel. This cycle of violence resulted in
substantial casualties and destruction on both sides of the border.

In this, India's stance on the Israel-Palestine issue has evolved

significantly over the decades.

Post-independence, India opposed the partition of Palestine in 1947

at the United Nations. As Gandhi wrote in ‘Harijan’, “The cry for a

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national home for the Jews does not make much appeal to me… Palestine belongs to the Arabs in
the same sense that England belongs to the English.”

In 1950 India officially recognized Israel but did not establish full diplomatic relations. India followed
the non-aligned path and forged ties with many Arab states. Things changed after the Cold War,
when the demise of the USSR made India look elsewhere for arms import. Thus, India opened an
embassy in Tel Aviv in 1992, signifying a formally established, full diplomatic relationship. Since then,
the India-Israel relationship has grown at an astonishing pace.

However, as iterated again and again, ‘India’s support for Palestine is an integral part of India’s
Foreign Policy.’ India has always been active in supporting Palestinian rights across various
multilateral forums. India supports the two-state solution to the Israeli-Palestinian issue. Indian
Prime Minister visited the West Bank in 2018, the first visit by an Indian Prime Minister to the
Palestinian territories.

The conflicted region forms part of India’s extended neighbourhood. The peace in the region is
crucial for India’s security as well, and it should be reiterated that India supports a peaceful solution
to the cindering conflict. [306 words]

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