National Institute of Advanced Manufacturing Technology

(Formerly National Institute of Foundry and Forge Technology)

(Deemed to be University under distinct category under MoE, Government of India)
Ranchi- 834 003, Jharkhand India

Unit 1- Introduction

Crystalline and Non crystalline solids. Classification of Engineering materials and their selections, bonding in
Solids: Ionic, Covalent and Metallic bonding.

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1. Crystalline and Non crystalline solids

1.1 Crystalline solids

In crystalline solids, constituent particles (atoms, molecules or ions) arrange in a three-dimensional periodic
manner. They bind with each other via planes or faces. The smallest repeating unit in these solids is “unit cell”.
All the unit cells in a particular solid are identical and repeating.
Crystalline solids are generally classified according the nature of the forces that hold its particles together. These
forces are primarily responsible for the physical properties exhibited by the bulk solids. The following sections
provide descriptions of the major types of crystalline solids: ionic, metallic, covalent network, and molecular.

(i) Ionic Solids

Ionic solids, such as sodium chloride and nickel oxide, are composed of positive and negative ions that are held
together by electrostatic attractions, which can be quite strong. Many ionic crystals also have high melting points.
This is due to the very strong attractions between the ions—in ionic compounds, the attractions between full
charges are (much) larger than those between the partial charges in polar molecular compounds. Although they
are hard, they also tend to be brittle, and they shatter rather than bend. Ionic solids do not conduct electricity;
however, they do conduct when molten or dissolved because their ions are free to move. Many simple compounds
formed by the reaction of a metallic element with a nonmetallic element are ionic. Examples of the Ionic solids
are such as cesium chloride(CsCl), calcium fluoride, zinc sulfide (ZnS), sodium chloride (NaCl), etc.

(ii) Metallic Solids

Metallic solids such as crystals of copper, aluminum, and iron are formed by metal atoms. The structure of metallic
crystals is often described as a uniform distribution of atomic nuclei within a “sea” of delocalized electrons.
The atoms within such a metallic solid are held together by a unique force known as metallic bonding that gives
rise to many useful and varied bulk properties. All exhibit high thermal and electrical conductivity, metallic luster,
and malleability. Many are very hard and quite strong. Because of their malleability (the ability to deform under
pressure or hammering), they do not shatter and, therefore, make useful construction materials. The melting points
of the metals vary widely. Mercury is a liquid at room temperature, and the alkali metals melt below 200 °C.
Several post-transition metals also have low melting points, whereas the transition metals melt at temperatures
above 1000 °C. These differences reflect differences in strengths of metallic bonding among the metals. Examples
of metallic solids – copper, gold, zinc etc. It is a tendency to think metallic solids as pure metals, but they can also
be the combinations of metals that are alloys like bronze which is a mixture of copper and tin. Metallic solids
because of the free electrons, are good conductors of electricity.

(iii) Covalent Network Solids

Covalent network solids include crystals of diamond, silicon, some other nonmetals, and some covalent
compounds such as silicon dioxide (sand) and silicon carbide (carborundum, the abrasive on sandpaper). Many
minerals have networks of covalent bonds. The atoms in these solids are held together by a network of covalent
bonds. To break or to melt a covalent network solid, covalent bonds must be broken. Because covalent bonds are
relatively strong, covalent network solids are typically characterized by hardness, strength, and high melting
points. For example, diamond is one of the hardest substances known and melts above 3500 °C. Examples of
covalent solids include diamond and silica (SiO2).

Sub: Materials Engineering Sub code: ESME2 Prepared by: Dr. Lokeswar Patnaik
 (iv) Molecular Solids

Molecular solids, such as ice, sucrose (table sugar), and iodine are composed of neutral molecules. The strengths
of the attractive forces between the units present in different crystals vary widely, as indicated by the melting
points of the crystals. Small symmetrical molecules (nonpolar molecules), such as H2, N2, O2, and F2, have weak
attractive forces and form molecular solids with very low melting points (below −200 °C). Substances consisting
of larger, nonpolar molecules have larger attractive forces and melt at higher temperatures. Molecular solids
composed of molecules with permanent dipole moments (polar molecules) melt at still higher temperatures.
Examples include ice (melting point, 0 °C) and table sugar (melting point, 185 °C). Molecular solids have low
melting (Tm) and boiling (Tb) points compared to metal (iron), ionic (sodium chloride), and covalent solids
(diamond). Examples of molecular solids with low melting and boiling temperatures include argon, water,
naphthalene, nicotine, and caffeine.

(v) Difference between ionic, covalent and metallic bonds

IONIC BOND COVALENT BOND METALLIC BOND

Occurs during the transfer of electrons Occurs when 2 atoms share their The attraction of metal
valence electrons cations/atoms and delocalized
electrons
Binding energy is higher than the Binding energy is higher than the Binding energy is less than
metallic bond metallic bond covalent and ionic bond
Low conductivity Very low conductivity Has high electrical conductivity
Non-directional bond Directional bond Non-directional bond
Present only in one state: solid-state Present only in all 3 states: solid, Present only in one state: solid-
liquid, gases state
Unmoldable Unmoldable Mouldable
Higher melting point Lower melting point High melting point
Non-ductile Non-ductile Ductile
Higher boiling point Lower boiling point High boiling point

1.2 Non- crystalline solids

Non- crystalline solids are “amorphous solids”. Unlike crystalline solids, they do not have a definite geometrical
shape. The atoms in solids pack closely together than in liquids and gases. However, in non-crystalline solids,
particles have a little freedom to move since they are not arranged rigidly as in other solids. These solids form
after sudden cooling of a liquid. The most common examples are plastic and glass.

Sub: Materials Engineering Sub code: ESME2 Prepared by: Dr. Lokeswar Patnaik
 1.3 Polycrystalline solids

Polycrystalline materials are solids that consist of many small crystals (the “grains”). The grains are separated by
grain boundaries and normally have random crystallographic orientations. The size of the grains may vary from
nanometers to millimeters. Most inorganic solids are polycrystalline, including all common metals, many
ceramics, rocks, and ice.

2. Classification of Engineering materials and their selections

Engineering materials refer to a group of materials used in the construction of man-made structures and
components. The main function of engineering materials is to withstand the applied load without failure (breaking
and excessive deflection).

Engineering materials are generally divided into two parts namely Metals & Non-Metals. Metals include Ferrous,
Non-Ferrous, etc and Non-Metals include Glass, Rubber, Plastic, etc. However, there are many other engineering
materials which are Ceramics, Polymers, Semiconductors, Composite, Biomaterials, and Advance Materials.

Sub: Materials Engineering Sub code: ESME2 Prepared by: Dr. Lokeswar Patnaik
 A) Metals

Metals have a large number of delocalized electrons. These electrons are not attached to any specific atom. Metals
are very good conductors of electricity and heat. They are opaque to visible light. The polished metal surface has
a glossy appearance.
In addition, metals are fairly strong yet malleable. This allows them to be widely used in structural applications.
Metals are classified into ferrous metals (carbon steel, alloy steel, stainless steel, tool/mild steel, etc.) and non
ferrous metals (Al, Mg, Cu, Ni, Ti, refractory metals, Be, Zr, superalloys, etc). Alloy elements together have
created a wide variety of metallic materials that can be engineered for specific properties.

(i) Ferrous Metals

Iron and Carbon are the main constituents of Ferrous metals. Due to the presence of Iron, ferrous metals they
possess magnetic properties. For example, Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, Steel, etc.

(ii) Non-Ferrous Metals

Non-Ferrous metals do not have Iron content. They are non-magnetic and rust-resistant. For example, Aluminum,
Copper, Lead, Brass, Bronze, Gold, Zinc, etc.

(iii) Alloys
Alloys are a combination of two or more alloying elements. For example, Brass is an alloy of Copper and Zinc.
Bronze is an alloy of Copper and Tin.

Uses & Applications of Alloys

 For making Needles & Surgical Blades due to the toughness property and ability to sterilize at elevated
temperature.
 Metals like Gold, Silver in Jewellery making.
 Used in Machines & Automobiles and other construction work.

B) Ceramics

Ceramics are compounds of metallic and non-metallic elements. They are mainly oxides, nitrides, and carbides.
A wide range of materials that fall into this category includes ceramics composed of clay minerals, cement, and
glass. These materials typically insulate the passage of electricity and heat. They are highly tolerant to high
temperatures and harsh environments than metals or polymers. Ceramics are hard but very brittle. Examples:
MgO, SiC, BaTiO3, silica, glass, concrete, cement, ferrite, garnet, Al2O3, granite, calcite, magnesite, etc. Ceramics.

Uses & Applications of Ceramics

 In the making of Ceramic Tiles and Bricks.
 Silicon Carbide, Alumina, and Silica are used in making tools.

Sub: Materials Engineering Sub code: ESME2 Prepared by: Dr. Lokeswar Patnaik
  In the making of Insulations and Optical Instruments.

C) Polymers

Polymers are large molecules made up of repeating small simple chemical units. In some cases, the iterations are
linear, like a chain made up of links. In other cases, the chains are branched or linked to form a 3D network. The
repeating units of the polymer are usually the same or nearly the same as monomers or starting materials from
which, the polymer is formed. Polymers include familiar plastic and rubber materials. Many of them are
chemically organic compounds. They are based on carbon, hydrogen, and other non-metallic elements. They have
a very large molecular structure. These materials typically have low-density and are very flexible. PVC, PTFE,
polyethylene, terylene, nylon, rubber, etc. are polymers.

Polymers are generally divided into three types:

 Thermoplastic Polymer
 Thermosetting Polymer
 Elastomers

(i) Thermoplastic Polymers

The classification of thermoplastics or thermosets is based on their thermal behavior. When heat is applied to
thermoplastics, they soften and melt. When cooled, it returns to its original solid state. Thermoplastics can be
repeatedly heated and cooled without undergoing a chemical change (unless the temperature is hot enough to
break molecular bonds). Therefore, it is very suitable for injection molding. Eg. Polystyrene, Teflon, Acrylic,
Nylon

(ii) Thermosetting Polymers

Thermosets are typically heated during initial processing and then permanently hardened. Thermosets do not melt
when reheated. However, if the heat applied becomes extreme, the thermoset will degrade due to the breaking of
molecular bonds. Thermosets are typically harder and stronger than thermoplastics. They are also typically more
dimensionally stable than thermoplastics, retaining their original dimensions better when exposed to changes in
temperature and humidity. Eg. Vulcanized rubber, Bakelite, Polyurethane, Epoxy resin, Vinyl ester resin.

(iii) Elastomers
Elastomers are highly elastic polymers with rubber-like mechanical properties. Elastomers are widely used in
seals, adhesives, hoses, belts, and other flexible parts. The strength and stiffness of rubber can be increased through
a process called vulcanization. Vulcanization is the addition of sulfur and subjecting the material to high
temperature and pressure. This process forms crosslinks between polymer chains.

Uses & Applications of Elastomers

 Natural rubber: These are used in the automotive industry and in the manufacture of medical tubes, balloons,
adhesives.
 Polyurethanes: These are used in the textile industry for manufacturing elastic clothing like lycra.
 Polybutadiene: These are used for providing wear resistance in wheels of vehicles.
 Silicone: These are used in the manufacture of medical prostheses and lubricants as they have excellent
chemical and thermal resistance.
 Neoprene: These are used in the manufacture of wet-suits and in industrial belts.

D) Composites

Many composite materials have been developed that consist of multiple types of materials. Glass fibers are a well-
known example of glass fibers embedded in polymeric materials. Composite materials are designed to have the
best combination of properties from each constituent material. Fiberglass gets its strength from glass and its
flexibility from polymer. Many recent materials developments involve composite materials.
Following are the types of Composite Materials:

(i) Fibrous Composites

A fiber composite is a material in which the fibers of the material are embedded in a matrix. The fibers carry most
of the stress and the matrix holds them in place. It serves to transfer stress between them. The fibers can be short

Sub: Materials Engineering Sub code: ESME2 Prepared by: Dr. Lokeswar Patnaik
 and randomly oriented or long and continuous. Classic examples of fiber-reinforced composites include fiberglass
and wood

(ii) Particulate Composites

Particulate composites are made by adding particles of the material to a matrix (filler). Particles typically occupy
less than 15% of the total volume of the material. Particles are added to remedy some deficiencies of the matrix
material.
Examples of well-known particulate composites are concrete and particle board. There are two subclasses of
particulates: flake and filled/skeletal: Flake. A flake composite is generally composed of flakes with large ratios
of platform area to thickness, suspended in a matrix material (particle board, for example).

(iii) Laminated Composites

Laminated composites are made by combining layers of composite materials. The layers usually have different
fiber orientations or are different materials themselves. Sandwich materials are common, where a lightweight
material (such as foam or honeycomb) is placed between layers of strong, rigid material.
Typical fibers used include cellulose, graphite, glass, boron, and silicon carbide, and some matrix materials are
epoxies, polyimides, aluminium, titanium, and alumina. Layers of different materials may be used, resulting in a
hybrid laminate.

Uses & Applications of Composites

 Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastics are used in Automotive Parts and in GRP Piping systems.
 Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastics are used in Chassis of Vehicle.
 Bumper systems of Automobiles are also made up of Composite materials.

E) Semiconductors

Semiconductors have electrical properties intermediate between those of conductors and insulators. Moreover,
the electrical properties of these materials are highly sensitive to the presence of trace concentrations of impurities.
Semiconductors have enabled the emergence of integrated circuits and have completely revolutionized the
electronics and computer industry over the past few decades. Semiconductor materials include Si, Ge, CdS, CdSe,
and GaAs.

Uses & Applications of Semiconductors

 Semiconductors are widely used in the Mother Board of Electronic devices.
 They are widely used in mobile phones, gaming consoles, integrated circuits etc.

F) Biomaterials

Biomaterials are used for components that are implanted in the human body to replace diseased or damaged body
parts. These materials must not produce toxic substances and must be compatible with body tissue (ie, not cause
adverse biological reactions). All the materials mentioned above (metals, ceramics, polymers, composites, and
semiconductors) can be used as biomaterials.

Uses & Applications of Biomaterials

 Used in implantation of Damaged Body parts or damaged Tissues.
 They are generally used in hearing aids.
 Implantable Blood sugar monitor

G) Advanced Engineering Materials

Materials used in high-tech (or hi-tech) applications are called as advanced materials. Advanced technology means
devices or products that operate or function according to relatively complex and sophisticated principles.
Examples include electronic devices (VCRs, CD players, etc.), computers, fiber optic systems, spacecraft, aircraft,
and military missiles. These advanced materials are typically either conventional materials with improved
properties or newly developed high-performance materials. Additionally, they can be made of all sorts of materials
(metals, ceramics, polymers, etc.) and are usually relatively expensive.
These materials are used in thermal protection systems for lasers, integrated circuits, magnetic information
storage, liquid crystal displays (LCDs), optical fibers, and space shutter orbiters. This category includes materials

Sub: Materials Engineering Sub code: ESME2 Prepared by: Dr. Lokeswar Patnaik
 such as process electricals, ferroelectrics, high-temperature superconductors, super refractory materials, magnetic
alloys, and shape memory alloys.

2.1 Material Selection for Engineering Purposes

Choosing the right material for engineering purposes is one of the most difficult problems for designers. The best
materials are those that serve their intended purpose at the lowest cost. The choice of material for a particular
application is determined by the working conditions to which it will be exposed, ease of manufacture, and cost
considerations. Pure metal has very few applications in engineering, firstly because it is difficult to manufacture
in its pure state, and secondly, it generally has low strength in its pure state. Alloys consist of a base metal (usually
a content of 50% or more) and one or more alloying elements. Typical properties related to working conditions
are toughness, elasticity, toughness, and hardness, and typical properties related to the manufacturing process are
ductility, deformability, and plasticity. Various properties can be determined by test methods. Tensile strength is
a tensile test, ductility is a bending test, wear resistance is a hardness test, toughness is an impact test, and fatigue
and creep tests determine other special properties such as fatigue and creep. Materials can be manipulated in
several ways. The choice depends on the material, the desired properties, the shape to be manufactured, the
accuracy required, the quantity to be manufactured, and the cost aspect.

Sub: Materials Engineering Sub code: ESME2 Prepared by: Dr. Lokeswar Patnaik