AMERICAN INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY BANGLADESH

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Laboratory Title: Study of Operational Amplifier and Various Types of
Detector/Comparator.
Laboratory Number: 01 Due Date:24/11/24 Semester: Fall,2024-2025
Subject Name: ANALOG ELECTRONICS LAB Section:A
Course Instructor: MD. MAHMUDUL HASAN Degree Program: BSc EEE

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Group Name (if applicable):02

No. Student Name Student Number Student Date
Signature
1 MD.SAMIUZZAMAN SURAT 22-47442-2 SURAT 24/11/24
2 MD FAZLA RABBI 22-47443-2 RABBI 24/11/24
3 Md.Mahedi Hasan 22-47444-2 MAHEDI 24/11/24
4 Sadman Sazid Orka 22-47387-2 ORKA 24/11/24
5 Protik Podder 22-47525-2 PROTIK 24/11/24
6

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 Abstract:
The experiment is to design the various type of comparator or level detector using
operation amplifier IC. There’re various type of design might possible by combination
of inputs sources, resistor, capacitor. The output signal are observed using
oscilloscope.

Introduction:
An op-amp operates on analog input. It can be used to amplify or attenuate this input,
and to carry out mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, integration, and
differentiation. Because of their wide range of uses, op-amps are encountered in most
electric circuits. An operational amplifier can, if necessary, be forced to act as a
comparator. The smallest difference between the input voltages will be amplified
enormously, causing the output to swing to nearly the supply voltage.

Theory and Methodology:

A zero crossing detector is a comparator with the reference level set at zero. It is used
for detecting the zero crossings of AC signals. It can be made from an operational
amplifier with an input voltage at its positive input (see circuit diagram) or negative
input.
In a non-inverting zero crossing detector when the input voltage is positive, the output
voltage is a positive value, when the input voltage is negative, the output voltage is a
negative value. In the inverting positive level detector when the input voltage is
positive, the output voltage is a negative value and when the input voltage is negative,
the output voltage is a positive value.

Fig. 1(a): Inverting Zero Crossing

Detector
 Fig. 1(b): Non- inverting Zero Crossing Detector
A positive level detector is a comparator with the reference level set at some constant
positive voltage. It is used for detecting the positive level crossing of AC signals. In a
non-inverting positive level detector when the input voltage is positive, the output
voltage is a positive value, when the input voltage is negative, the output voltage is a
negative value. In the inverting zero crossing detector when the input voltage is
positive, the output voltage is a negative value and when the input voltage is negative,
the output voltage is a positive value.

Fig. 2(a): Inverting positive level detector Fig. 2(b): Non- inverting positive level detector

A negative level detector is a comparator with the reference level set at some constant
negative voltage. It is used for detecting the negative level crossing of AC signals. In a
non-inverting negative level detector when the input voltage is positive, the output
voltage is a positive value, when the input voltage is negative, the output voltage is a
negative value. In the inverting negative level detector when the input voltage is
positive, the output voltage is a negative value and when the input voltage is negative,
the output voltage is a positive value.

Fig. 3(a): Inverting negative level detector Fig. 3(b): Non- inverting negative level detector
Apparatus:
1. IC-μA741-(quantity: 1)
2. Resistor 100K, 10K- (quantity: 2, 1)
3. Bread Broad-(quantity: 1)
4. DC power supply- ± 30 V (quantity: 1)
5. Function Generator- 25Vp-p, 1 MHz (quantity: 1)
6. Oscilloscope- 20MHz/100MHz, 2 Ch, 400 Vp-p (quantity: 1)
7. Connecting wires-(quantity: 10)

Precautions:
Biasing of the op-amps should be done carefully and oscilloscopes should be properly
calibrated using the information provided at the calibration port before obtaining the
wave shapes using the experimental set up.

Experimental Procedure:
 Implement the circuit as shown in the figure.
 Use sinusoidal signal of 1 kHz as input signal. Adjust the amplitude of input
signal to 10Vp-p.
 Observe both input and output signals simultaneously on the oscilloscope.
 Draw the wave shapes on graph paper properly identifying the cross over
points.
 Repeat steps 1 to 4 for all the figures shown above in the theory section.

Simulation and Measurement:

Simulation(1): Inverting zero crossing detector.

Simulation(2): Non-inverting zero crossing detector.

Simulation(3): Inverting positive level detector.

Simulation(4): Non-inverting positive level detector.

Simulation(5): Inverting negative level detector.

Simulation(6): Non-inverting negative level detector.

Hardware picture:
Reports:
1.Write down the applications of op-amp which are used in your daily
life.

Answer:

Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are versatile components found in many electronic

devices we use daily. Here are some common applications:

Audio Equipment:

 Amplifiers: Op-amps amplify audio signals from sources like microphones,

guitars, or turntables.
 Equalizers: They adjust the frequency response of audio signals.
 Mixers: They combine multiple audio signals into a single output.

Computers and Electronics:

 Voltage regulators: Op-amps maintain stable voltage levels in power supplies.

 Analog-to-digital converters (ADCs): They convert analog signals (like audio
or video) into digital format.
 Digital-to-analog converters (DACs): They convert digital signals back into
analog form for output to speakers or other devices.

Medical Equipment:

 Heart rate monitors: Op-amps amplify weak electrical signals from the heart.
 Blood pressure monitors: They amplify and process signals from pressure
sensors.
 Electroencephalograms (EEGs): They amplify brainwave signals.

Automotive Systems:

 Anti-lock braking systems (ABS): Op-amps control braking pressure.

 Engine control units (ECUs): They process sensor inputs to optimize engine
performance.
 Audio systems: They amplify and process audio signals for car speakers.
2. Write down the application of a zero crossing detector.

Answer: Zero crossing detector circuits can be used to check the condition of an
operational amplifier. And also used as a frequency counter and for switching
purposes power electronics circuits.

ZCD as Phasemeter
A ZCD can be used to measure the phase angle between two voltages. A sequence of
pulses in the +ve and -ve cycles are acquired to measure the voltage between the time
interval of the pulse of sine wave voltage and second sine wave. This interval of time
is related to the phase difference between the two i/p sine wave voltages. The use of
phase meter ranges from 0° to 360°.

ZCD as Time Marker Generator

For an i/p sine wave, the o/p of the zero-crossing detector being a square wave, further
it will pass through an RC series circuit. This is shown in the following figure.

741 IC-based Zero Crossing Detector

If the RC time constant is very small compared to the period ‘T’ of the i/p sine wave,
then the voltage across R of the RC circuit n/w called Vr will be a series of +ve and –
ve pulses. If the voltage ‘Vr’ is applied to a clipper circuit using a diode D, the load
voltage VLwill have only +ve pulses and will clip away the –ve pulses. Therefore, a
zero-crossing detector (ZCD) whose i/p is a sine wave has been changed into a
sequence of positive pulses at ‘T’ interval by adding a network RC and a clipping
circuit.
3. How do you use the comparator in Analog to Digital Converter?
Answer: comparators in Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADCs)

A comparator is a fundamental building block in many electronic circuits, and ADCs

are no exception. Its primary function is to compare two analog input voltages and
produce a digital output indicating which input is larger.

How Comparators Work in ADCs:

In an ADC, comparators are used to determine the magnitude of an analog input signal
relative to a set of reference voltages. This process is crucial for converting the
continuous analog signal into discrete digital values.

Here's a simplified breakdown of how comparators are used in ADCs:

1. Reference Voltage Generation:

 A voltage divider network or a digital-to-analog converter (DAC)
generates a set of reference voltages.
 These reference voltages are evenly spaced across the ADC's input voltage
range.

2. Comparator Array:
 An array of comparators is connected to the analog input signal and the
reference voltages.
 Each comparator compares the input signal to a specific reference voltage.

3. Output Encoding:
 The outputs of the comparators are combined to produce a digital code
representing the analog input value.
 The digital code is typically a binary number, where each bit corresponds
to the output of a comparator.

Types of ADCs Using Comparators:

Several ADC architectures utilize comparators, including:

 Flash ADC:
 Employs a large number of comparators, each comparing the input signal
to a different reference voltage.
 This architecture offers high-speed conversion but requires a large
number of comparators, making it expensive for high-resolution ADCs.

 Successive Approximation ADC:

 Uses a successive approximation register (SAR) to systematically test
different digital codes.
 A comparator compares the analog input to the DAC output
corresponding to the current digital code.
 The SAR adjusts the digital code iteratively until the comparator's output
indicates a match.

 Sigma-Delta ADC:
 Over-samples the analog input signal at a high rate and quantizes it to a
single bit.
 The quantized signal is integrated and then differentiated to remove low-
frequency noise.
 A digital filter is used to extract the original signal from the oversampled
and quantized data.


4. What are the applications of a voltage level detector?
Answer: Voltage level detectors have a wide range of applications in various
electronic systems and circuits. Here are some common applications:

Power Management and Monitoring:

 Battery Monitoring: Detecting low battery voltage to trigger a warning

or initiate power-saving measures.
 Power Supply Monitoring: Monitoring the input voltage to ensure it's
within safe operating limits.
 Overvoltage/Undervoltage Protection: Activating protection circuits to
prevent damage from excessive voltage fluctuations.

Microcontroller and Digital Systems:

  Power-On Reset (POR): Ensuring proper system initialization after
power-up.
 Brownout Protection: Preventing system malfunction during low-voltage
conditions.
 Clock Synchronization: Detecting clock edges for precise timing.

Signal Processing and Communication:

 Threshold Detection: Identifying signal peaks or valleys for data recovery.

 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Control: Regulating output voltage or
current.
 Timing and Synchronization: Generating timing signals for various
operations

Discussion and Conclusion:

The zero crossing level detector are designed by shorted one input pin and other pin is
connected with a function generator. There was a current control resistor connected
with it. By interchanging those pin connection the inverting and non-inverting are
defined. Positive level detector was almost similar to zero crossing. In this design we
have to supply positive dc voltage through the opposite pin of function generator. For
the negative level detector negative dc voltage was connected. The output graph
showing the results.

The level detector are a comparator. Zero crossing level detector detects each time an
ac pulse changes polarity. In many case comparator are used as analog to digital
converters. Comparators are often used, for example, to check whether an input has
reached some predetermined value. In most cases a comparator is implemented using
a dedicated comparator IC, but op-amps may be used as an alternative.

References:
 741 IC Op-amp comparator circuit diagram,schematic, design,working.
2015. 741 IC Op-amp comparator circuit diagram,schematic, design,working.
[ONLINE] Available at: http://www.circuitstoday.com/op-amp-comparator.
[Accessed 18 February 2015].

 Robert F. Coughlin, Frederick F. Driscoll, “Operational amplifiers and linear

integrated circuits”, Prentice-Hall, 1982, 2nd Edition, The University of
Michigan, 10 Dec 2007 ISBN: 0136377858, 9780136377856