EC-221

Linear Integrated
Circuits
Assignment 1

Topics:
Types of Oscillators
Comparators and Converters
Types of Voltage Regulators

Sanidhya Jamwal
23BEC088
Section B
Types of Comparators
Comparators are of two types : Inverting and Non-inverting. This section discusses about
these two types in detail.

Inverting Comparator
An inverting comparator is an op-amp based comparator for which a reference voltage is
applied to its non-inverting terminal and the input voltage is applied to its inverting terminal.
This comparator is called as inverting comparator because the input voltage, which has to be
compared is applied to the inverting terminal of op-amp.

The circuit diagram of an inverting comparator is shown in the following figure.

The operation of an inverting comparator is very simple. It produces one of the two
values, +Vsat and −Vsat at the output based on the values of its input voltage Vi and the
reference voltage Vref.
Example:
Let us draw the output wave form of an inverting comparator, when a sinusoidal input signal
and a reference voltage of zero volts are applied to its inverting and non-inverting terminals
respectively.

The operation of the inverting comparator shown above is discussed below :

• During the +ve half cycle of the sinusoidal input signal, the voltage present at the
inverting terminal of op-amp is greater than zero volts. Hence, the output value of the
inverting comparator will be equal to −Vsat during positve half cycle of input signal.
 • Similarly, during the negative half cycle of the sinusoidal input signal, the voltage
present at the inverting terminal of the op-amp is less than zero volts. Hence, the output
value of the inverting comparator will be equal to +Vsat during negative half cycle of the
sinusoidal input signal.

The following figure shows the input and output waveforms of an inverting comparator, when
the reference voltage is zero volts.

Output changes its value when the input is crossing zero volts. Hence, the above circuit is also
called as inverting zero crossing detector.

Non-Inverting Comparator
A non-inverting comparator is an op-amp based comparator for which a reference voltage is
applied to its inverting terminal and the input voltage is applied to its non-inverting terminal.
This op-amp based comparator is called as non-inverting comparator because the input
voltage, which has to be compared is applied to the non-inverting terminal of the op-amp.
The circuit diagram of a non-inverting comparator is shown in the following figure:

The operation of a non-inverting comparator is very simple. It produces one of the two
values, +Vsat and −Vsat at the output based on the values of input voltage Vt and the reference
voltage +Vref.
Example:
Let us draw the output wave form of a non-inverting comparator, when a sinusoidal input
signal and reference voltage of zero volts are applied to the non-inverting and inverting
terminals of the op-amp respectively.

The operation of a non-inverting comparator is explained below −

• During the positive half cycle of the sinusoidal input signal, the voltage present at the
non-inverting terminal of op-amp is greater than zero volts. Hence, the output value of a
non-inverting comparator will be equal to +Vsat during the positive half cycle of the
sinusoidal input signal.
• Similarly, during the negative half cycle of the sinusoidal input signal, the voltage
present at the non-inverting terminal of op-amp is less than zero volts. Hence, the
output value of non-inverting comparator will be equal to −Vsat during the negative half
cycle of the sinusoidal input signal.

The following figure shows the input and output waveforms of a non-inverting comparator,
when the reference voltage is zero volts.

The output changes its value when the input is crossing zero volts. Hence, the above circuit is
also called as non-inverting zero crossing detector.
Zero Crossing Detector
•
A voltage comparator circuit whose output changes concerning the input signal which is
crossing the zero of the reference voltage level that's why it is called a Zero Crossing Detector.
These circuits are commonly known as switching circuits the output of these circuits lies
between positive and negative saturation voltage levels. The most commonly used circuits are
the Schmitt trigger, Astable, and Monostable Multivibrators.

It is a circuit that compares the applied input voltage at one input terminal of an op-amp with a
reference voltage = 0 at another input terminal of an op-amp. Because it uses reference
voltage =0 that's why it is called Zero Crossing Detector. The output of the Zero Crossing
Detector is a square wave. So it is also known as the Square wave Generator.

Types of Zero Crossing Detector

• Inverting Zero Crossing Detector
• Non-Inverting Zero Crossing Detector

Inverting Zero Crossing Detector

In the inverting zero crossing detector the input voltage is applied at the negative terminal of
the op-amp and reference voltage = 0 is applied at the positive node of the op-amp. In the
inverting zero crossing detector output of the given circuit goes into negative saturation when
the applied input voltage is positive and output goes to positive when input voltage is negative,
the circuit diagram of inverting zero crossing detector is given below.

Protection diode: These are simple diode which is used to prevent the op-amp from the high
input gain, because here we use direct input voltage.
Working of Inverting Zero Crossing Detector
As per definition it detects the point where the input signal is Zero because it's reference
voltage is 0. Before start the working of Zero Crossing Detector we have to let the output
voltage is +Vsat.
As per circuit reference voltage is 0 which is applied at the non-inverting terminal of op-amp
which is compared with Vin which is applied at the Inverting terminal of op-amp. Now when
positive half of the sinusoidal wave appears at the input and op-amp comparator compares its
peak level with the reference voltage.

Vo = Vref - Vi
Because the reference voltage is 0, so
= 0 - Vi
as we have already mentioned that starting output voltage is (+Vsat), so
Vo = 0 - (+Vsat)
Vo = (-Vsat).
Now when the negative half of the sinusoidal wave appears at the input and op-amp compares
its peak level with the reference voltage.
So,
Vo = Vref - Vi
Vo = 0 - (- Vsat)
We get
Vo = (+Vsat)
Here we can clearly see that how a Inverting Zero Crossing Detector detects the changes in
the level of applied input sinusoidal signal.

Input and Output Waveform

In the beginning we have already mentioned that Inverting Zero Crossing Detector is also
known as a Square Wave generator. Same as the output of the Window Comparator is nothing
but a Square Wave.
Now Let us see how a Zero Crossing Detector generate the Square Wave or Output
waveform. In the working part we have derived that Vo for the positive half of the sinusoidal
signal is (-Vsat). because of this we get negative output for the positive half of the applied
signal. while Vo for the negative half of the applied input signal is (+Vsat). because of this we
get positive output for the negative half of the applied signal.
So after observation of output waveform of Inverting Zero Crossing Detector we can say that
output is reflection of applied input sinusoidal signal.
Non-Inverting Zero Crossing Detector
In non - inverting Zero Crossing Detector the input voltage Vin is applied at the positive node of
the op-amp and the reference voltage that is zero is applied at the negative node of the op-
amp. In the non-inverting zero crossing detector output of the given circuit goes into positive
saturation when the applied input voltage is positive and output goes to negative when input
voltage is negative, the circuit diagram of non-inverting zero crossing detector is given below.

Working of Non-Inverting Zero Crossing Detector

As per definition it detects the point where the input signal is 0 because it's reference voltage is
0. Before start the working of Non-Inverting Zero Crossing Detector we have to let the output
voltage is +Vsat.
Now see the circuit to understand the working.
As per circuit reference voltage is 0 which is applied at the inverting terminal of op-amp which
is compared with Vin which is applied at the non - Inverting terminal of op-amp.
Now when positive half of the sinusoidal wave appears at the input and op-amp comparator
compares its peak level with the reference voltage.
Vo = Vi -Vref
because the reference voltage is 0, so
Vo = Vin - 0
as we have already mentioned that starting output voltage is (+V sat), so
Vo = (+Vsat) - 0
Vo = (+Vsat).
Now when the negative half of the sinusoidal wave appears at the input and op-amp compares
its peak level with the reference voltage.So,
Vo = Vref - Vi
Vo = 0 - (+ Vsat)
Vo = (-Vsat)
Here we can clearly see that how a NON - INVERTING Zero Crossing Detector detects the
changes in the level of applied input sinusoidal signal.

Input and Output Waveform

In the beginning we have already mentioned that Zero Crossing Detector is also known as a
Square Wave generator. Same as the output of the Window Comparator is nothing but a
Square Wave.
In the working part we have derived that Vo for the positive half of the sinusoidal signal is (+V
sat). because of this we get Positive output for the positive half of the applied signal. while Vo
for the negative half of the applied input signal is (-V sat). because of this we get negative
output for the negative half of the applied signal.
Limiters

A limiter is defined as a device which limits some part of a waveform from exceeding a
specified value. Limiting circuits are used primarily for wave shaping and circuit-protection
applications.
By using a diode, a resistor, and sometimes a DC bias voltage, you can build a limiter that will
eliminate the positive or negative alternations of an input waveform. Such a circuit can also
limit a portion of the alternations to a specific voltage level. In this section you will be
introduced to five types of limiters: series-positive, series-negative, parallel-positive, parallel-
negative, and dual-diode limiters.
The diode in these circuits is the voltage-limiting component. Its polarity and location, with
respect to ground, are the factors that determine circuit action. In series limiters, the diode is in
series with the output. In parallel limiters, the diode is in parallel with the output.

Series Limiters
The diode will conduct when the anode voltage is positive with respect to the cathode voltage.
The diode will not conduct when the anode is negative in respect to the cathode. Keeping
these two simple facts in mind as you study limiters will help you understand their operation.
The knowledge of voltage divider action will also help you understand limiters.

In a series limiter, a diode is connected in series with the output, as shown in view (A) of the
figure below. The input signal is applied across the diode and resistor and the output is taken
across the resistor. The series-limiter circuit can limit either the positive or negative alternation,
depending on the polarity of the diode connection with respect to ground. The circuit shown in
figure below, view (A), is a series-positive limiter. Reversing D1 would change the circuit to
a series-negative limiter.
Series-Positive Limiter
Let's look at the series-positive limiter and its outputs in the figure above. Diode D1 is in series
with the output and the output is taken across resistor R1. The input must be negative with
respect to the anode of the diode to make the diode conduct. When the positive alternation of
the input signal (t0 to t1) is applied to the circuit, the cathode is positive with respect to the
anode. The diode is reverse biased and will not conduct. Since no current can flow, no output
is developed across the resistor during the positive alternation of the input signal.

During the negative half cycle of the input signal (t1 to t2), the cathode is negative with respect
to the anode. This causes D1 to be forward biased. Current flows through R1 and an output is
developed. The output during each negative alternation of the input is approximately the same
as the input because most of the voltage is developed across the resistor. The actual amount
of voltage developed across the diode will depend on the type of diode used. For the
remainder of this section, we will use only idealized waveforms and disregard this small
voltage across the diode.

Series-Positive Limiter with Bias

In the series-positive limiter (figure above, view (A)), the reference point at the bottom of
resistor R1 is ground, or 0 volts. By placing a DC potential in the figure below (view (A)), you
can change the reference point. The reference point changes by the amount of DC potential
that is supplied by the battery. The battery can either aid (positive bias) or oppose (negative
bias) the flow of current in the series-limiter circuit.

Let's look at a series-positive limiter with positive bias as shown in the figure above, views (A)
and (B). The diode will conduct until the input signal exceeds +5 at t1 on the positive alternation
of the input signal. When the positive alternation exceeds +5 volts, the diode becomes reverse
biased and limits the positive alternation of the output signal to +5 volts. This is because there
is no current flow through resistor R1 and battery voltage is felt at output. The diode will remain
reverse biased until the positive alternation of the input signal decreases to just under +5 volts
at t2. At this time, the diode again becomes forward biased and conducts. The diode will
remain forward biased from t2 to t3. During this period the negative alternation of the input is
passed through the diode without being limited. From t3 to t4 the diode is again reverse biased
and the output is again limited.
Now let's look at a series-positive limiter with negative bias as shown in the figure below, view
(A). The diode is negatively biased with -5 volts from the battery. In view (B), compare the
output to the input signal applied. From t0 to t1 the diode is reverse biased and limiting takes
place. The output is at -5 volts (battery voltage) during this period. As the negative alternation
increases toward -10 volts (t1), the cathode of the diode becomes more negative than the
anode and is forward biased. From t1 to t2 the input signal is passed to the output. The diode
remains forward biased until the negative alternation has decreased to −5 volts at t2. At t2 the
cathode of the diode becomes more positive than the anode, and the diode is again reverse
biased and remains so until t3.

Series-Negative Limiter
In view A of the figure below, the series-negative limiter limits the negative portion of the
waveform, as shown in view B. Let's consider the input signal and determine how the output is
produced. During t0 to t1 (view B), the anode is more positive than the cathode and the diode
conducts. Current flows through the resistor and the diode, and a positive voltage is developed
at the output. The voltage across the resistor is essentially the same as the voltage applied to
the circuit.
During t1 to t2 the anode is negative with respect to the cathode and the diode does not
conduct. This portion of the output is limited because no current flows through the resistor.
As you can see, the only difference between series-positive and series-negative limiters is that
the diode is reversed in the negative limiters.

Series-Negative Limiter with Bias

View A of the figure below shows a series-negative limiter with negative bias. The diode is
forward biased and conducts with no input signal. In view B it will continue to conduct as the
input signal swings first positive and then negative (but only to −5 volts) from t0 through t1.
At t1 the input becomes negative with respect to the −5 volt battery bias. The diode becomes
reverse biased and is cutoff until t2 when the anode again becomes positive with respect to the
battery voltage (−5 volts) on the cathode. No voltage is developed in the output by R1 (no
current flow) and the output is held at −5 volts from t1 to t2. With negative bias applied to a
series-negative limiter, only a portion of the negative signal is limited.

Now let's look at a series-negative limiter with positive bias, as shown in the figure below, view
A. Here we will remove all of the negative alternation and part of the positive alternation of the
input signal. We have given a full explanation of the series-positive limiter, series-positive
limiter with bias, series-negative limiter, and series-negative limiter with negative bias;
therefore, you should have little difficulty understanding what is happening in the circuit in the
figure.

The series-negative limiter with positive bias is different in only one aspect from the series-
positive limiter with bias discussed earlier. The difference is that the diode is reversed and the
output is of the opposite polarity.
Clippers
A clipper is an electronic circuit that produces an output by removing a part of the input above
or below a reference value. That means, the output of a clipper will be same as that of the
input for other than the clipped part. Due to this, the peak to peak amplitude of the output of a
clipper will be always less than that of the input. The main advantage of clippers is that they
eliminate the unwanted noise present in the amplitude of an ac signal.

Positive Clipper
A positive clipper is a clipper that clips only the positive portion(s) of the input signal.
The circuit diagram of positive clipper is shown in the following figure –

In the circuit shown above, a sinusoidal voltage signal Vt is applied to the non-inverting
terminal of the op-amp. The value of the reference voltage Vref can be chosen by varying the
resistor R2
The operation of the circuit shown above is explained below −
• If the value of the input voltage Vi is less than the value of the reference voltage Vref,
then the diode D1 conducts. The circuit behaves as a voltage follower. Therefore, the
output voltage V0 of the circuit will be same as that of the input voltage Vi , for Vi < Vref.
• If the value of the input voltage Vi is greater than the value of reference voltage Vref,
then the diode D1 will be off. Now, the op-amp operates in an open loop since the
feedback path was open. Therefore, the output voltage V0 of the above circuit will be
equal to the value of the reference voltage Vref , for Vi > Vref.
Negative Clipper
A negative clipper is a clipper that clips only the negative portion(s) of the input signal. You
can obtain the circuit of the negative clipper just by reversing the diode and taking the reverse
polarity of the reference voltage, in the circuit that you have seen for a positive clipper.
The circuit diagram of a negative clipper is shown in the following figure –

In the above circuit, a sinusoidal voltage signal Vi is applied to the non-inverting terminal of the
op-amp. The value of the reference voltage Vref can be chosen by varying the resistor R2.
The operation of a negative clipper circuit is explained below:
If the value of the input voltage Vt is greater than the value of reference voltage Vref, then the
diode D1 conducts. Then, the above circuit behaves as a voltage follower. Therefore, the
output voltage V0 of the above circuit will be same as that of the input voltage Vi for Vi> Vref
If the value of the input voltage Vi is less than the value of reference voltage , then the diode
D1 will be off. Now, the op-amp operates in an open loop since the feedback path is open.
Therefore, the output voltage V0 of the above circuit will be equal to the value of reference
voltage , Vref for Vi< Vref

The input wave form and the corresponding output wave form of a negative clipper, for a
negative reference voltage Vref, are shown in the following figure:
Clampers
A clamper is an electronic circuit that produces an output, which is similar to the input but with
a shift in the DC level. In other words, the output of a clamper is an exact replica of the input.
Hence, the peak to peak amplitude of the output of a clamper will be always equal to that of
the input.
Clampers are used to introduce or restore the DC level of input signal at the output.
This section discusses about these two types of clampers in detail.
Positive Clamper
A positive clamper is a clamper circuit that produces an output in such a way that the input
signal gets shifted vertically by a positive DC value.

In the above circuit, a sinusoidal voltage signal, Vi is applied to the inverting terminal of op-
amp through a network that consists of a capacitor C1 and a resistor R1. That means, AC
voltage signal is applied to the inverting terminal of the op-amp.
The DC reference voltage Vref is applied to the non-inverting terminal of the op-amp. The
value of reference voltage Vref can be chosen by varying the resistor R2. In this case, we will
get a reference voltage Vref of a positive value.

The above circuit produces an output, which is the combination (resultant sum) of the
sinusoidal voltage signal Vi and the reference voltage Vref. That means, the clamper circuit
produces an output in such a way that the sinusoidal voltage signal Vi gets shifted vertically
upwards by the value of reference voltage Vref.
Negative Clamper
A negative clamper is a clamper circuit that produces an output in such a way that the input
signal gets shifted vertically by a negative DC value.
The circuit diagram of negative clamper is shown in the following figure:

In the above circuit, a sinusoidal voltage signal Vi is applied to the inverting terminal of the
op-amp through a network that consists of a capacitor C1 and resistor R1. That means, AC
voltage signal is applied to the inverting terminal of the op-amp.

The DC reference voltage Vref is applied to the non-inverting terminal of the op-amp.The
value of reference voltage Vref can be chosen by varying the resistor R2R2. In this case,we will
get reference voltage Vref of a negative value.
The above circuit produces an output, which is the combination (resultant sum) of sinusoidal
voltage signal Vi and reference voltage Vref. That means, the clamper circuit produces an
output in such a way that the sinusoidal voltage signal Vi gets shifted vertically downwards by
the value of reference voltage Vref.
The input wave form and the corresponding output wave form of a negative clamper are shown
in the following figure:

We can observe from the output that the negative clamper shifts the applied input
waveform vertically downward at the output. The amount of shifting will depend on the value
of DC reference voltage.
Sample and Hold Circuit
•
Sample and Hold Circuit is a circuit that used in signal processing and data procurement system.
The main function of this system is to transmit the signal and sample the input value and hold or
freeze this processed value for some time. This circuit permits the circuit to catch and manage
the instantaneous data or value of the signal and this is useful in many fields. It consists of
switches, capacitors, operational amplifier (op-amp) and control signal (sample-and-sold
control).
The Sample and Hold circuit is a circuit used in electronics to generate or produce the samples
of voltage given to input, and after processing it, holds this voltage for a specific or unique time.
The time in which the circuit samples and holds voltage and produces the incoming signal is
known as sampling time. Same as the time period of this circuit which holds the processed value
is known as holding time. Basically it creates the sample of voltages as the input term and after
that holds these samples for a definite period of time. We can say that the capacitor is the main
working operator of the sample and holds the circuit as it charges to its peak value and then the
switch is opened.

Working of Sample and Hold Circuit

The main components in a sample and hold circuit is an N-Channel E-MOSFET, a capacitor to
store, hold and release the electric charge and a high operational amplifier. The N-channel E-
MOSFET will be used as changing component. The incoming voltage is entering the terminal
and control voltage will be entering through gate terminal, After that, when the positive beat of
voltage is applied, the E-MOSFET will be changed to ON means open. After that, it acts as a
shut or close switch. In actuality, when the voltage is zero then the MOSFET will be changed
to switch OFF state and acts about as the open switch.
At that point, when the MOSFET acts about as a close switch, after that point, the simple
signal is applied to it through the terminal will be fed to the capacitor. The capacitor will then, at
that point, charge to its maximum value. Then, when the MOSFET switch is ON, after that
point, the capacitor quits charging. Because of the great amplifier attached to the finish of the
circuit, the capacitor will face great impedance because of this it can't get released or
discharge. The capacitor holds the voltage for some specific period of time. This time period is
also known as holding time period and the time in which the samples of voltage produce is
called sampling time period
The processed voltage by amplifier during the holding period. Hence, holding period holds
significance for OP-AMPs.
Input and Output Waveforms

Connection in Sample and Hold Circuit

To sample the input signal, the switch connects the capacitor to the output of a buffer amplifier.
The connection tells about the control voltage and input voltage and how both of them applied
on the OP-AMPs. In this circuit the capacitor is made up of Polyethylene and Teflon. In above
diagram, the frequency of analog input signal and control signal is noted and it is very
important to balance the power of this circuit to noted the frequency. The control voltage's
frequency should be higher than input voltage's frequency that's why the simple signal can be
sampled two times in a whole cycle. During the sample phase, the input signal is connected to
the capacitor through a switch. The capacitor charges or discharges to the input signal voltage.
And in the hold phase, the switch is opened, disconnecting the input signal from the capacitor.
Functional Diagram
The main function of a sample-and-hold (S/H) circuit is to take samples of its input signal and
hold these samples in its output for some period of time. Typically, the samples are taken at
uniform time intervals; thus, the sampling rate (or clock rate) of the circuit can be determined.

Performance Parameters of Sample and Hold Circuit

• Aperture Time (TAP): It can be described as the expected or required time used by
the capacitor to switch its position from sampling to holding. It is known as aperture
time or opening time.
• Acquisition Time (TAC): It can be described as expected or required time used by
the capacitor to get the charge of the incoming voltage applied to the sample and
hold circuit. It is known as acquisition time or securing time.
• Voltage Droop: The capacitor in this circuit have a drop down voltage because of
spillage of charge by a capacitor. But in realty, we want a capacitor with zero linkage
but it is impossible.
• Hold Mode Settling Time: After the commands of the hold applied, the simple or
analog incoming voltage within a specific error and takes some time for completion.
This required time is known as Hold Mode settling time.
Voltage Regulators
There are three types of voltage regulators −
• Fixed voltage regulator
• Adjustable voltage regulator
• Switching Regulator
Fixed voltage regulator
A fixed voltage regulator produces a fixed DC output voltage, which is either
positive or negative. In other words, some fixed voltage regulators produce
positive fixed DC voltage values, while others produce negative fixed DC voltage
values.
78xx voltage regulator ICs produce positive fixed DC voltage values, whereas,
79xx voltage regulator ICs produce negative fixed DC voltage values.
The following points are to be noted while working with 78xx and 79xx voltage
regulator ICs −
• xx corresponds to a two-digit number and represents the amount
(magnitude) of voltage that voltage regulator IC produces.
• Both 78xx and 79xx voltage regulator ICs have 3 pins each and the third
pin is used for collecting the output from them.
• The purpose of the first and second pins of these two types of ICs is
different −
o The first and second pins of 78xx voltage regulator ICs are used for
connecting the input and ground respectively.
o The first and second pins of 79xx voltage regulator ICs are used for
connecting the ground and input respectively.
Examples
• 7805 voltage regulator IC produces a DC voltage of +5 volts.
• 7905 voltage regulator IC produces a DC voltage of -5 volts.
The following figure shows how to produce a fixed positive voltage at the
output by using a fixed positive voltage regulator with necessary connections.
In the above figure that shows a fixed positive voltage regulator, the input
capacitor Ci is used to prevent unwanted oscillations and the output capacitor,
C0 acts as a line filter to improve transient response.
Note − an get a fixed negative voltage at the output by using a fixed negative
voltage regulator with suitable connections.

Adjustable voltage regulator

An adjustable voltage regulator produces a DC output voltage, which can be
adjusted to any other value of certain voltage range. Hence, adjustable voltage
regulator is also called as a variable voltage regulator.
The DC output voltage value of an adjustable voltage regulator can be either
positive or negative.
LM317 voltage regulator IC
LM317 voltage regulator IC can be used for producing a desired positive fixed
DC voltage value of the available voltage range.
LM317 voltage regulator IC has 3 pins. The first pin is used for adjusting the
output voltage, second pin is used for collecting the output and third pin is used
for connecting the input.
The adjustable pin (terminal) is provided with a variable resistor which lets the
output to vary between a wide range.

The above figure shows an unregulated power supply driving a LM 317 voltage
regulator IC, which is commonly used. This IC can supply a load current of 1.5A
over an adjustable output range of 1.25 V to 37 V.