English as a Global Language – Midterm 1

1. How widespread is English?

One in four of the world’s population is competent in English, and there are more non-
native than native speakers of English in the world, with a ratio of around 3:1.
2. What are some of the main reasons for the vast spread of English across the
globe?
Some of the main reasons for the vast spread of English include colonialism,
immigration, slave trading, industrialization, trade, the development of air traffic, and
most recently the internet.
3. Where does the English language originate from?
The English language began to spread around the British Isles back in the fifth century,
but it changed significantly after the Norman invasion in 1066.
4. Explain how English spread to the Americas.
The first permanent English settlement in America was Jamestown in Virginia which was
established in the early seventeenth century, followed by Plymouth in Massachusetts
which was established by a group of Puritans that had arrived on the Mayflower some
time later. Then, in the eighteenth century there was a wave of immigration from
northern Ireland, followed again by a wave of immigration in the nineteenth century on
account of various revolutions, poverty and famine that had arisen in Europe.
Although the first contact with English in Canada had occurred in the late fifteenth
century, it didn’t become of prominence until the eighteenth century when French
settlers were deported and replaced by settlers from New England, England, Ireland and
Scotland (hence Nova Scotia). A wave of immigration was also seen in 1776 when
loyalist supporters of Britain moved to Canada after the US Declaration of Independence.
On the other hand, English had reached the Caribbean mostly as a consequence of the
import of black slaves who had developed a pidgin English in order to converse with the
sailors on the ships.
5. Explain how English reached Australia and New Zealand.
English had reached Australia and New Zealand in the late eighteenth century following
James Cook’s various expeditions. Within 20 years of this, Britain established its first
penal colony at Sidney in order to relieve the pressure on overcrowded prisons in
England.
New Zealand was also visited by James Cook and soon after settled by European whalers
and traders.
6. Explain how English spread to Africa.
British influence reached South Africa following the Napoleonic Wars in the late
eighteenth century. The first settlements arose in the early nineteenth century, and the
influence of English grew quickly henceforth, with it being made the official language
already in 1822.
 On the other hand, the English began to visit West Africa already at the end of the
fifteenth century, and it quickly became prominent, gaining an official status in Sierra
Leone, Ghana, Gambia, Nigeria, Cameroon, and Liberia.
Systematic interest in East Africa had only begun in the second half of the nineteenth
century, and several modern states give English official status (Botswana, Tanzania,
Zambia, Zimbabwe, …).
7. Explain how English spread to Asia.
English had begun to infiltrate India at the very beginning of the seventeenth century,
and it soon became the medium of administration and education throughout the
subcontinent. Nowadays, English has the status of an ‘associate’ official language,
alongside Hindi as the official language.
In South-east Asia, however, British influence appeared through the voyages of English
sailors at the end of the eighteenth century, notably the journeys of Captain Cook in the
1770s. Some of the countries that recognize English as an official or important language
are Singapore, Malaysia, Hong Kong, and Papua New Guinea.
8. Explain Braj Kachru’s three circles of English and R. Phillipson’s critique.
Linguist Braj Kachru divides English into three concentric circles. The first is referred to
as the inner circle and it regards native English contexts, such as the USA, UK and
Canada. This circle can be deemed the norm-providing circle.
The second circle is referred to as the outer circle and it regards former British colonies
and countries which give English the official language status. This circle can be deemed
the norm-developing circle.
The last circle is referred to as the expanding circle and it regards all other English-
speaking contexts. It can be deemed the norm-dependent circle.
Phillipson criticizes this view because some countries in the expanding circle boast more
proficient speakers than countries in the outer circle, such is the case with India and
Norway, for example.
9. Where is Irish English (IrE) spoken and what are some of its most important
features?
Irish English is spoken in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland, and it
distinguished various dialects such as Ulster, West/Southwest Irish, Dublin dialects and
overarching Irish English.
Some of the most notable features include the demonstrative them, epistemic negative
must, the alveolar /l/, rhoticism, etc.
10.What are some of the most important features of Australian English?
Some of the most notable features of Australian English include the elision of syllables,
assimilation, weakening of consonants, flatness, and non-rhoticism.
11.How did English reach Nigeria and what are some of the most important
features of Nigerian English?
Nigeria is one of the largest English-speaking countries in the world. The origin of English
in Nigeria traces back to the trade relationship between British and Nigerian traders in
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
Nigerian English is spoken at four different levels throughout the country, ranging from
that which is spoken by people with elementary school education to that which is
described as being identical with standard British English.
Some of the most notable features of Nigerian English include neologisms, a tendency to
use plural forms of nouns which are singular, a peculiar love for titles and positions, code
switching and code mixing, etc.