Unbalanced Load Flow
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Real Unbalanced Power Systems
• Distribution System
– 3-phase, 2-phase, and single-phase network
components
– Unbalanced loads
• Transmission System
– Untransposed long transmission line
– Abnormal operation with one phase out of service
– Unbalanced loads (e.g., electrical railway traction
motors)
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Harmful Effects of System Unbalance
• Overheating of generators
• Nuisance tripping of protective relays
• Increased real power losses
• Transformer failure
• Radio communication interference
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Unbalance Factors/Indexes
• System unbalance is considered by power quality
standards as a disturbance
• Voltage/Current unbalance factors
• Ratio of zero/negative sequence to positive sequence
• Voltage/Current unbalance indexes
• Ratio of average values to maximum deviation of
average values
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Unbalanced Load Flow Analysis
• Current Injection (CI) method
• The most robust algorithm ever developed
• Converge in less iterations than other methods,
especially for heavily loaded systems
• Sparse matrix technique
• Unique modeling concepts
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Sequence Models of 3-Phase Machines
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Unique Concepts of 3-Phase Machines
• Swing Machine
– The specified magnitude and the phase angle of the positive
sequence voltage only at the swing machine terminal
• PV Machine
– The specified total output of 3-phase real powers and the
magnitude of the positive sequence voltage
• PQ Machine
– The specified total outputs of 3-phase real and reactive
powers
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Concepts of Load Connections
• Single-Phase Loads
• Connected in the phase connection types of AB,
BC, CA, AN, BN or CN
• Three-Phase Loads
• Connected in Delta, Wye or Wye-G
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Modeling Capabilities
• A mixture of 3-phase, 2-phase and single-phase
network components
• 3-phase machines with internal impedance being
considered
• Built-in calculator for overhead line impedances
• Mutual coupling among overhead lines
• Transformers combined with load tap changers
(LTC) and phase shifters
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Modeling Capabilities
• 2-winding and 3-winding transformers of various
winding connections
• Lumped loads consisting of constant power,
constant impedance and constant current
components
• Generator exciters with AVR or Mvar / PF
controllers
• Robust library of commonly used overhead
transmission lines and cables
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Study Case
• Same pretense as Balanced Load Flow with more
detailed modeling, calculations, and results
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Output Results
• State-of-the-art graphic display of results
• Graphical display of marginal and critical
under/over voltages
• Alert View displays
limit violations
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Reporting
• Customized output reports
using Crystal Reports®
• Individual phase and
sequence voltage, current,
and power
• Voltage drops, losses,
power flows, power
factor, voltage/current
unbalance factors, etc.
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Example 1
Example 1
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Example 2 – IEEE Four Node Test Feeder
• Characteristics of the Feeder
1. Two line segments with a 3-phase transformer bank
connected between the two segments
2. Data is specified for balanced and unbalanced loading at
the most remote node
3. Transformer is specified for different connection testing
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© 2011-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Unbalanced Load Flow
Example 3 – IEEE 13 Node Test Feeder
• Characteristics of the Feeder
1. Short and relatively highly loaded for a 4.16 kV feeder
2. Overhead lines with variety of phasing
3. Shunt capacitor banks
4. In-line transformer
5. Unbalanced loading
© 2011-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Unbalanced Load Flow
© 2011-2021 ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Unbalanced Load Flow
