INFILTRATION

Infiltration is the process of water entry into a soil from rainfall, or irrigation. Soil water
movement (percolation) is the process of water flow from one point to another point within the
soil. Infiltration rate is the rate at which the water actually infiltrates through the soil during a
storm and it must be equal the infiltration capacities or the rainfall rate, which ever is lesser.
Infiltration capacity the maximum rate at which a soil in any given condition is capable of
absorbing water.
The rate of infiltration is primarily controlled by the rate of soil water movement below the
surface and the soil water movement continues after an infiltration event, as the infiltrated water
is redistributed.
Infiltration and percolation play a key role in surface runoff, groundwater recharge,
evapotranspiration, soil erosion, and transport of chemicals in surface and subsurface waters.

Factors that affect infiltration

Precipitation
Precipitation can impact infiltration in many ways. The amount, type and duration of
precipitation all have an impact. Rainfall leads to faster infiltration rates than any other
precipitation events, such as snow or sleet. In terms of amount, the more precipitation that
occurs, the more infiltration will occur until the ground reaches saturation, at which point the
infiltration capacity is reached. Duration of rainfall impacts the infiltration capacity as well.
Initially when the precipitation event first starts the infiltration is occurring rapidly as the soil is
unsaturated, but as time continues the infiltration rate slows as the soil becomes more saturated.
This relationship between rainfall and infiltration capacity also determines how much runoff will
occur. If rainfall occurs at a rate faster than the infiltration capacity runoff will occur.

Soil characteristics
The porosity of soils is critical in determining the infiltration capacity. Soils that have smaller
pore sizes, such as clay, have lower infiltration capacity and slower infiltration rates than soils
that have large pore size, such as sands. One exception to this rule is when clay is present in dry
conditions. In this case, the soil can develop large cracks which leads to higher infiltration
capacity.
Soil compaction also impacts infiltration capacity. Compaction of soils results in decreased
porosity within the soils, which decreases infiltration capacity. Hydrophobic soils can develop
after wildfires have happened, which can greatly diminish or completely prevent infiltration from
occurring.
Soil moisture content
Soil that is already saturated has no more capacity to hold more water, therefore infiltration
capacity has been reached and the rate cannot increase past this point. This leads to much more
surface runoff. When soil is partially saturated then infiltration can occur at a moderate rate and
fully unsaturated soils have the highest infiltration capacity.
Organic materials in soils
Organic materials in the soil (including plants and animals) all increase the infiltration
capacity. Vegetation contains roots that extend into the soil which create cracks and fissures in
the soil, allowing for more rapid infiltration and increased capacity. Vegetation can also reduce
surface compaction of the soil which again allows for increased infiltration. When no vegetation
is present infiltration rates can be very low, which can lead to excessive runoff and increased
erosion levels. Similarly to vegetation, animals that burrow in the soil also create cracks in the
soil structure.
Land cover
If land is covered by impermeable surfaces, such as pavement, infiltration cannot occur as the
water cannot infiltrate through an impermeable surface This relationship also leads to increased
runoff. Areas that are impermeable often have storm drains which drain directly into water
bodies, which means no infiltration occurs.
Vegetative cover of the land also impacts the infiltration capacity. Vegetative cover can lead
to more interception of precipitation, which can decrease intensity leading to less runoff, and
more interception. Increased abundance of vegetation also leads to higher levels of
evapotranspiration which can decrease the amount of infiltration rate. Debris from vegetation
such as leaf cover can also increase infiltration rate by protecting the soils from intense
precipitation events.
 In semi-arid savannas and grasslands, the infiltration rate of a particular soil depends on the
percentage of the ground covered by litter, and the basal cover of perennial grass tufts. On sandy
loam soils the infiltration rate under a litter cover can be nine times higher than on bare surfaces.
The low rate of infiltration on bare areas is due mostly to the presence of a soil crust or surface
seal. Infiltration through the base of a tuft is rapid and the tufts funnel water towards their own
roots.
Slope
When the slope of land is higher runoff occurs more readily which leads to lower infiltration
rates.

Infiltration calculation methods

In the following section four infiltration methods are discussed, that is the Horton
Infiltration, the F-index, the Philip infiltration and the Green -Ampt infiltration equations.

Horton infiltration

In general, for a given constant storm, infiltration rates tend to decrease with time. The initial
infiltration rate is the rate prevailing at the beginning of the storm and is maximum. Infiltration rates
gradually decrease in time and reach a constant value.

Horton observed the above facts and concluded that infiltration begins at some rate f o and exponentially
decreases until it reaches a constant fc. He proposed the following infiltration equation where rainfall
intensity i greater than fp at all times.
f p = f c + ( f 0 - f c ) e-kt
where:
fp = infiltration capacity in mm/hr at any time t
fo = initial infiltration capacity in mm/hr
fc = final constant infiltration capacity mm/hr at saturation, dependent on soil type and vegetation
t = time in hour from the beginning of rainfall
k = an exponential decay constant dependent on soil type and vegetation.
 The F-index method

The F-index is the simplest method and is calculated by finding infiltration as a difference between
gross rainfall and observed surface runoff. The F-index method assumes that the loss is uniformly
distributed across the rainfall pattern.

The Phillip method

Phillip proposed an equation to estimate cumulative infiltration F(t) by

F (t) = St 0.5 + Kt

Where:

S = sorpitivity which is a function of the soil suction potential (representing soil suction head
K = the hydraulic conductivity of the soil (representing gravity head)
t = time from the beginning of the rainfall.

The Green-Ampt method

The Green-Ampt model is an approximate model utilizing Darcy’s law. The model is
developed with the assumption that water is ponded on the ground surface. Consider a vertical
column of soil of unit horizontal cross-sectional area and let a control volume be defined around
the wet soil between the surface and depth L.

\
 Components of Infiltration System Design

Common infiltration practices include drywells, bioretention, permeable pavement,

infiltration trenches, infiltration basins, and subsurface infiltration galleries. Regardless of their
form, all infiltration systems have three primary components: storage, treatment, and infiltration.
1. Storage

Retention volume of a BMP is when runoff accumulates during a storm and is stored prior to
infiltration or treatment. In a landscape-based system, storage tends to be the most upstream
component in the form of depressional storage.
For example, a bioretention cell may store 6 to 12 inches of water in a surface pool that slowly
infiltrates at a rate dictated by the native soils. One method of increasing storage in a landscape-
based system is to add highly permeable, high-void soil amendments.
In subsurface systems, the storage component is often located between the treatment and
infiltration components. For example, runoff may be routed to a hydrodynamic separator or
cartridge-based media filter, then to a network of large-diameter perforated pipe from which it
percolates into the surrounding native soil. In subsurface systems, storage may be comprised
entirely of gravel, but many high-voids options are available to minimize the overall volume of
the system. For example, perforated pipes, concrete arches and vaults, and plastic chambers are
all commonly used.

2. Treatment

The treatment component should be tailored to expected pollutants onsite, the vulnerability of
the downstream waters to those pollutants, and the infiltrating surface's susceptibility to
clogging.
In a landscape-based system, the treatment component is typically comprised of plants and soil.
For example, in a bioretention system, most pollutants are removed and retained in the mulch
and upper layer of soil. Landscape-based water quality BMPs such as swales or biofiltration may
be used as treatment upstream of subsurface systems, but subsurface treatment is more
commonly provided in the form of a hydrodynamic separator or media filter.
Adequate treatment is a crucial component of all infiltration systems. Inadequate treatment will
allow pollutants to migrate to the native soils where clogging of interstitial pore space can
quickly reduce infiltration rates. In landscape-based BMPs, failure of the mulch and/or top soil
layer to infiltrate due to sediment accumulation can lead to frequent bypass or flooding even
when the native soils have ample capacity.
Ideally, treatment is provided in the form of filtration through engineered soil or filter media that
will remove particles in the 5- to 10-micron range and larger. Sometimes, this is not practical due
to site constraints or budgetary limitations. A good second option is gravity separation. There are
several commercially available hydrodynamic separators that can reliably remove particles as
fine as 50 microns without requiring the large footprint and long detention times of traditional
plug flow clarifiers or baffle boxes. For those with severe budgetary limitations, catch basin
inserts can provide some pretreatment benefits as long as utmost attention to operation and
maintenance can be assured.

3. Infiltration

The native soil infiltration rate often drives decisions about the size and form of the
infiltration system. The lower infiltration rates are, the shallower and broader the system must
become. There are a range of methods for determining infiltration rates, from local soil maps to
detailed soil testing. The actual infiltration rate is usually converted to a design infiltration rate
by applying a safety factor that accounts for uncertainty in the known rate, assumed reduction in
performance over time, treatment effectiveness, and other factors. Safety factors commonly
range from 2-10. With a factor of safety of two, the allowable system height would be halved.
The design infiltration rate is then used to establish system dimensions and size.
Great care must be taken to ensure that the interface between the storage or treatment component
and the native soils is not fouled either by materials passing through the treatment system. In
systems where gravel or high-void subsurface structures such as perforated pipes or chambers
are used, it is also critical that native soils are prevented from migrating into the storage
component. If this happens, subsidence of soils at the surface may occur. The barrier between
subsurface storage gravel or galleries and native soils is most often a nonwoven geotextile.
During construction, compaction of native soils must be avoided to ensure that optimal
infiltration rates are preserved.

Infiltration Management
Management practices (such as providing ground cover and managing equipment traffic to
avoid compaction) impact infiltration by affecting surface crusting, compaction, and soil organic
matter. Without a protective vegetative or residue cover, bare soil is subject to direct impact and
erosive forces of raindrops that dislodge soil particles. Dislodged soil particles fill in and block
surface pores, contributing to the development of surface crusts which restrict water movement
into the soil.
Compaction can result from equipment traffic, especially on wet soils, and tillage pans.
Compacted or impervious soil layers have less pore space and restrict water movement through
the soil profile. As soil moisture levels increase, infiltration rates decrease. Soil moisture is
impacted by water uptake by plants, residue and vegetative cover, irrigation practices, and
drainage measures. Dry soils tend to have pores and cracks that allow water to enter faster than
wet soils. As soils become wet, infiltration rate slows to a steady rate based on how fast water
can move through the most restrictive layer, such as a compacted layer, or a layer of dense clay.
Soil organic matter binds soil particles together in stable aggregates, increasing porosity and
infiltration. Soils with a high content of organic matter also provide good habitat for soil biota,
such as earthworms. Soil biota increase pore space and create continuous pores linking surface
soil layers to subsurface soil layers. Long-term solutions for maintaining or improving soil
infiltration include practices that increase organic matter content and aggregation and minimize
runoff, soil disturbance, and compaction. Increases in organic matter content result in increased
aggregation and improved soil structure, which lead to improved infiltration rates.
Measures that can improve infiltration rates:

 Avoiding soil disturbance and equipment operation when soils are wet
 Using designated field roads or rows for equipment traffic
 Reducing the number of trips across the field
 Subsoiling to break up existing compacted layers
 Using continuous no-till
 Adding solid manure or other organic materials
 Using rotations with high-residue crops, such as corn and small grain, and perennial crops, such
as grass or alfalfa
 Planting cover crops and green manure crops
 Farming on the contour
 Establishing terraces or other runoff- and erosion-control structures
Glossary
Infiltration Rate – A measure of how fast water enters the soil, typically expressed in inches per hour
but recorded in minutes for each inch of water applied to the soil surface.
Restrictive Layers – Compacted layers and layers of dense clay, bedrock, or other restrictive features
than limit infiltration below the surface of the soil.
Soil Aggregates – Soil particles held together by organic matter and related substances. Well
aggregated soils have higher infiltration rates and are less prone to erosion.
Soil Porosity – Amount of pore space in the soil. Soils with higher porosity have more pore space and
higher infiltration rates than those with lower porosity.
Steady-State Infiltration – The infiltration rate is steady and does not increase or decrease as more
water is added. It typically occurs when the soil is nearly saturated.
 UNITY UNIVERSITY

DEPARTEMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING ASSIGNMENT
TITLE;- Infilitration
Group member----------------------------------------------------ID
1.Bemnet Teketel--------------------------------------------UU70645R
2.Minase Nasir------------------------------------------------UU70176R
3.Mohammed Abdulhakim--------------------------------UU70099R
4.Yeabkal Abebe----------------------------------------------UU70034R
5.Yeamlak Ameha--------------------------------------------UU73007R

Submitted to:- Mr.Daniel .G