Dr.

Shahid Ali

National University
of Computer & Emerging Sciences DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
 Infiltration
The process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil OR
Infiltration is the process by which precipitation water is abstracted by seeping
into the soil below the land surface. It is also taken as water lost due to
absorption of water by the ground surface.

The rate of infiltration is affected by soil characteristics including ease of entry,

storage capacity, and transmission rate through the soil.
The soil texture and structure, vegetation types and cover, water content of the soil,
soil temperature, properties of water and rainfall intensity all play a role in controlling
infiltration rate and capacity.

Infiltration is the flow of water through the

soil surface into a porous medium under
gravity action and pressure effects.
 Percolation is the vertical
water flow in soils (porous
unsaturated environment)
on the groundwater layer
under the influence of
gravity. This process
follows infiltration and has
a major influence on the
underground layer water
supply.

 The infiltration capacity is the

maximum rate at which water can
be absorbed by a given soil per
unit area under given conditions.
 Interflow
The infiltrated water may move horizontally, vertically or in both the directions. The
horizontal movement of water is called Interflow.

The interflow joins streams, lakes and rivers. In large reservoirs substantial movement of
water towards the reservoirs is observed due to interflow from the adjacent areas.
Percolation:
The vertical movement of water to deeper layers of soil is called percolation. The
percolated water moves as Groundwater flow.
Instantaneous Infiltration Rate:

Infiltration is measured in terms of depth of water lost in unit time. This is

necessary as amount of infiltration varies with time (storm interval for example). At
a particular instant, infiltrated depth of water divided by time is called
Instantaneous Infiltration Rate.

Average Infiltration Rate If total infiltrated water depth is divided by total time, it
is known as Average Infiltration Rate.
 Factors Affecting Infiltration
Infiltration capacity or amount of infiltration depends on :

 Soil type
 Surface of entry
 Fluid Characteristics

Soil Type: ( texture, structure, hydrodynamic characteristics )

Sand with high porosity will have greater infiltration than clay soil with low
porosity. The soil characteristics influence capillary forces and adsorption.
Surface of Entry: If soil pores are already filled with water, capacity of the soil to
infiltrate will greatly reduce. Also, if the surface is covered by leaves or impervious
materials like plastic, cement then seepage of water will be blocked.
Fluid Characteristics: Water with high turbidity or suspended solids will face
resistance during infiltration as the pores of the soil may be blocked by the dissolved
solids. Increase in temperature can influence viscosity of water which will again
impact on the movement of water through the surface.
 The soil coverage; Vegetation has positive influence on infiltration by
increasing the time of water penetration in soil.
 The topography and morphology of slopes.
 The flow supply (rain intensity and duration, irrigation flow).
 The initial condition of soil humidity. Soil humidity is an important factor of
infiltration regime. The infiltration regime evolves differently in time for dry or
wet soils.
 Soil compaction due to rain drop impact and other effects. The use of hard
agricultural equipment can have consequences on the surface layer of soil.
 Depletion of ground water table.
 Human Activities. Crops, construction of houses and roads, overgrazing of
pasture, play grounds.
 Climatic Condition: In sub-Zero the temperature , water crystalline.
Temperature effect the viscosity of the water, in summer less viscous , so more
infiltration than winter.
 f(t)

The infiltration regime depending on time for different types of soil [Musy,2001]
 Infiltration Capacity :
The maximum rate at which, soil at a given time can absorb water.

f = fc when i ≥ fc

f = when i < fc

where
fc = infiltration capacity (cm/hr)
i = intensity of rainfall (cm/hr)
f = rate of infiltration (cm/hr)

Infiltration rate can be measured by simultaneous measurements of rainfall and

runoff. Infiltration may be determined by using equations or infiltration indices
During a rainfall the infiltration capacity of soil decreases to a limiting value, which
represents the infiltration potential at saturation. If we compare the rain intensity and
the infiltration capacity of the soil, there are two possibilities:
 When the rain intensity is inferior to infiltration capacity, water infiltrates faster
due to the supply regime. The necessary time to equalize the infiltration capacity
is variable and depends on existing soil humidity conditions or on the shower.
The time taken is longer when the soil is dry and the water supply regime is
similar to the hydraulic conductivity at saturation ks.
 When the rain intensity is superior to the infiltration capacity of the soil the water
surplus is stocked on the surface or in ground depressions. The infiltration regime
and the infiltration capacity for net storm rain are presented in the next Figure
[Musy,2001].

Infiltration regime and net storm rain

The spatial and temporal variability of water quantity existing in soil is described
by infiltration curves or hydric profile. These represent the vertical water
distribution in soil at different periods t. In a homogeneous (uniform) soil when
the soil surface is flooded, the hydric profile has three zones: a saturation zone, a
transition zone and a humidity zone.

Characteristics of the hydric profile during infiltration

 Models Used to Estimate Infiltration Rates
Infiltration processes can be estimated by means of different models:
 Models based on empirical relations involving 2, 3 or 4 parameters
 Physically based models

 The formula of the Institute of Soil and Water Management of the EPFL is:

𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑓𝑐 +a𝑒 −𝑏𝑡
 Horton’s Formula

This equation assumes an infinite water supply at the surface i.e., it assumes
saturation conditions at the soil surface.
For measuring the infiltration capacity the following expression are used:

Where
k = Decay constant ~ T-1
fc = Final equilibrium infiltration capacity
f0 = Initial infiltration capacity when t = 0
f(t) = Infiltration capacity at any time t from start of the rainfall
td = Duration of rainfall
 fc

The area under the curve gives total amount of infiltration.

Usage of Horton’s Equation requires three parameters, the initial Infiltration rate, the final infiltration
rate and value of constant.

Integration of above Equation gives total infiltration as given by equation below

Total Infiltration F = [ (fo-fc) / k ]+ fct

 Physically Based Models
 Kostiakov Model
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑓𝑜𝑡 −α
α = parameter depending on soil conditions

 Dvorak-Mezence Model
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑓0 + (𝑓1 − 𝑓𝑐)𝑡 −𝑏
f1 - infiltration capacity at time t=1 min [cm/s]
t - time [s]
b - constant

 Philip Model

𝑓 𝑡 = 12𝑠𝑡 −0.5 +A
s - sorptivity [cms-0.5]
A - gravity component depending on hydraulic conductivity
at saturation [cm/s]
Philip proposed a method of resolving the vertical infiltration for certain initial and
boundary conditions. This model has introduced the notion of "sorption" that
represents the soil capacity to absorb water when the flow is produced only under
gradient pressure [Musy, 1998].

For horizontal infiltration the gravity gradient is not involved. Infiltration will have
the following expression:
𝑓 𝑡 = 12𝑠𝑡 −0.5
 Green&Ampt Model

ℎ0 − ℎ𝑓
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑘𝑠 1+
𝑧𝑓(𝑡)
ks - hydraulic conductivity at saturation [mm/h]
h0 - surface pressure load [mm]
hf - pressure load at the humidity front [mm]
zf - humidity front depths [mm]

 Dooge Model

𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑎 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐹𝑡
a - constant
Fmax - maximal retention capacity
Ft - water quantity retained on soil at time t
Measurement of Infiltration
1. Flooding type Infiltrometer
2. Rainfall Simulator
 Mûntz Infiltrometre
This method is based on the principle of constant charge. A graduated cylinder
is set into the ground and maintains a constant water level (about 30 mm).
Water level variations during a time interval determine the infiltration rate.
 Infiltrometre with double cylinders
 Two cylinders are set into the ground. Measurement is based on the principle
of variable charge and allows assessment of vertical water infiltration

 Guelph Infiltrometre
This instrument is made of two concentric tubes. The inner tube allows air circulation and the outer tube
allows water supply. Water introduced with a constant charge (3-25cm) passes through a small cylinder
(~10 cm) fixed in soil. This method allows determination of hydraulic conductivity and sorptivity.
 Infiltrometre with aspersion.
This instrument uses the principle of rainfall simulation. Infiltration is indirectly
measured through the estimation of the groundwater table level
 Measurement of infiltration

Infiltration Indices
Although rate of infiltration varies with time, for practical purposes, it is assumed
constant. The average value of infiltration is called infiltration index.

i. Ф - Index
ii. W- Index

The indices are mathematically expressed as;

where
P=total storm precipitation (cm)
R=total surface runoff (cm)
Ia=Initial losses (cm)
te= elapsed time period (in hours)

The w-index is more accurate than the Φ- index because it subtracts initial losses
 Ф - Index
It is mean infiltration rate for a particular storm. Ф (pronounced ‘Phi’) index can be
found if rainfall occurrence with respect to time is known. It is assumed that total
depth of rain minus Ф gives depth of runoff. Ф value is found by trial and error
procedure. A value for Ф is assumed and subtracted from total rainfall for each time
interval. The sum of values after subtraction should be equal to total direct runoff.
That value of Ф which gives this value is taken as Ф index.
 W- Index
W index gives the average rate of infiltration. It can be found by subtracting the sum of
total direct runoff, interception and depression storage from the total rainfall.

F = Total Infiltration
T = Duration of Storm
P = Depth of Precipitation
R = Runoff Depth
I = Interception and depression storage, then
F=P-R-I
And ‘W’ index = F / T = ( P – R – I ) / T
For I = 0, ‘W’ Index = Ф Index
 Example Problem
A storm occurred and lasted for 2 hours giving a total rainfall of 50 mm. If initial
infiltration rate is 15 mm/h and final infiltration rate is 8 mm/h, find the total
infiltration depth if value of ‘k’ is 1 h-1. If other losses are negligible, find the
effective depth of rainfall.

Solution
fo = 15 mm/h
fc = 8 mm/h
k = 1 h-1
Using Equation Horton’s Equation
Total infiltration = [ ( 15 – 8 ) / 1 ] + [ 8 x 2 ] = 7+16 = 23 mm
Effective rainfall = 50 – 23 = 27 mm
Example Problem

A 12-hour storm rainfall with the following depths in cm occurred over a basin:

2.0, 2.5, 7.6, 3.8, 10.6, 5.0, 7.0, 10.0, 6.4, 3.8, 1.4 and 1.4. The surface runoff
resulting from the above storm is equivalent to 25.5 cm of depth over the basin.
Determine the average infiltration index (Φ-index) for the basin.

Total rainfall in 12 hours = 61.5 cm

Total runoff in 12 hours = 25.5 cm

Total infiltration in 12 hours = 36 cm

Average infiltration = 3.0 cm/hr
Average rate of infiltration during the central 8 hours

8 Φ +2.0+2.5+1.4+1.4 = 36
Φ = 3.6cm/hr
Example
A flood was measured from a catchment of 375 square kilometers. The direct
runoff from this flood was found to be 3.58 cm. The time distribution of the
rainfall is given below in Table. Find the Ф index for this storm. Also find total
infiltrated volume of water.

Table : Time Distribution of the Rainfall

Hour (Time) 9-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 13-14 14-15 Total

Rainfall (cm) 1.02 1.50 3.68 1.60 2.60 1.50 11.90

Solution
The first step is to assume a value of ‘f’ in cm and calculate rainfall excess for each hour of
rainfall. This rainfall excess is summed up to give total depth for the storm. Next another
value of ‘f’ is assumed and total depth of rainfall excess determined. This procedure is
repeated till a sufficient set of ‘f’ and rainfall excess is determined. Now, plot ‘f’ values
against rainfall excess (direct runoff). The value of ‘f’ corresponding to known depth of
runoff is Ф index read from the plot.
Calculations on the basis of above procedure are given in Table. The ‘f’ vs ‘Rainfall Excess’
plot is shown in figure. The value of Ф comes out to be 1.45 cm.
Rainfall (cm) ‘Ф’ values (cm)
1.40 1.50 1.75
(1) (2)=(1)-1.40 (3)=(1)-1.50 (4)=(1)-1.75
1.02 - - -
1.50 0.10 - -
3.68 2.28 2.18 1.93
1.60 0.20 0.10 -
2.60 1.20 1.10 0.85
1.50 0.10 - -
Total 3.88 3.38 2.78
 F Index Determination

10

9 F = 1.45 cm
Rainfall Excess/Runoff (cm)

- 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50

f values (cm)

Volume of infiltration = 1.45x10-2 x 375 x 106 = 5.44x106 m³

 Watershed Leakage

 A basin is separated from the adjoining basin by a ridge line which represents the
line of the highest contour of the area.
 Surface water flow during any storm is considered to be generated entirely from the
precipitation falling over the basin area.
 However , there are instances when infiltrated water from storms may not recharge
ground water or join the stream as interflow but finds its way to the adjacent basin
or to the sea, if there is a hydraulic conduit through sub-surface.
 Water balance studies carried out basin –wise may give serious errors if there is any
substantial flow of water to another basin by major faults, fissures and other
geological formations.
 For small basins, this type of loss should be properly accounted for, while
balancing water for such basins.
Double-ring infiltrometer
The double-ring infiltrometer provides a cheap and simple on-site technique to determine
the infiltration characteristics of the topsoil. Once the topsoil has become saturated, the
measurement values are equal to the saturated hydraulic conductivity. The relatively large
sample size ensures good representatively of the average soil characteristics.

A double-ring infiltrometer consists of two concentric rings, with diameters varying from
20-80 cm and larger. The infiltrometer is placed into the soil approximately to half of its
height. Both rings are gently filled with water during which no side effects may occur, such
as "collapsing" of the topsoil. The inner ring is used for measurements, while the water
percolating from the outer ring avoids lateral flow effects to the surrounding dry soil. In this
way, flow from the inner ring remains vertical (see figure below).

The infiltration rate of the water into the soil can be calculated by keeping track of the
lowering of the water table inside the inner ring. The flux or infiltration rate follows
directly from the lowering of the water table [L] divided by the time [T].
One way to keep track of the infiltration rate is to use a Mariotte bottle. Once
filled with water, a Mariotte bottle is attached to the inner ring in order to keep
the head constant. The amount of water added to the inner ring is read from a
volume-scale from which the flux is determined, i.e.

V
v  With Mariotte bottle Double-ring infiltrometer
At

v = Flux or infiltration rate [LT-1]

ΔV = Volume of added water [L3]
A = Area of the inner ring [L2]
Δt = Period of time [T]
Another way to measure the infiltration rate is to keep track of the lowering of the
water table in the inner ring. In both cases the conductivity follows from Darcy's law
dz
saying: K  v
dH
v = Flux or infiltration rate [LT-1]
K = Hydraulic conductivity [LT-1]
Z = Gravity head [L]
H = Hydraulic head [L]

Initially, water will rapidly infiltrate due to absorption forces of the dry soil. With
time, however, steady state flow is reached in which the flux is constant and
infiltration is entirely due to gravity, i.e. dz/dH=1.

Limitations
True vertical flow conditions are difficult to verify.
It can take a long time, up to days, before steady state flow is reached
 Instantaneous infiltration rate can be estimated by the equation, f = 0.5A / t0.5
+ B, where ‘A’ and ‘B’ are constants and ‘t’ is the time elapsed from the
beginning of the storm. Find total infiltration during 10 hours if A = 10
mm/h1/2 and B = 5 mm/h.

 For a 3-hours duration 225 mm of total rainfall was observed over a 3,200 square
kilometers catchment area. The infiltration capacity curve for this area can be given
by Horton’s Equation (Equations 4.6 and 4.7) in which fo = 10 mm/h and fc = 0.5
mm/h.Evaporation and other losses during the storm period were observed to be 50
mm. Find excess rainfall over the catchment. And also estimate:
1. Direct runoff volume in m³ and Hectare-m from excess rainfall.
2. Total runoff in Hectare-m.

 An infiltration capacity curve prepared for a catchment indicated an initial

capacity of 2.5 cm/h and attains a constant value of 0.5 cm/h after 10 hours of
rainfall. With the Horton’s constant, k = 6 day-1, determine the total infiltration
loss.
 A storm with 10 cm precipitation produced a direct runoff as 5.8 cm. Given the
time distribution of the storm in Table, estimate the Ф index.

Hour (Time) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Incremental Rainfall (cm) 0.4 0.9 1.5 2.3 1.8 1.6 1.0 0.5
 In a project related to rainfall-runoff studies, f-curve was plotted to establish
an equation of the form of Horton’s Equation. If F = 8.50 square units on the
graph with each square representing 1 cm/h on the vertical and 2 minutes on
the abscissa and fo = 4.5 cm/h fc = 1.2 cm/h. Determine the Horton’s
equation and calculate f for t = 10 minutes.
 In a storm, total rainfall is 2.29 cm and the total infiltration loss is 0.88 cm,
calculate the rainfall excess. Neglect evaporation during the period.

 Determine the runoff from a catchment of area 2.3 km² over which 7.5 cm
of rainfall occurred during 1 day storm. An infiltration curve prepared
indicated an initial infiltration capacity of 0.6 cm/h and attained a constant
value of 0.15 cm/h after 12 hours of rainfall with the Horton’s constant k
= 3 h-1. A class A Pan installed in the catchment indicated a decrease of 2.5
cm in water level on that day. All other losses were found to be negligible.