Chapter 16: Reproduction

Reproduction is the process of making more of the same kind of organism. There are two
types of reproduction that you need to be aware of: asexual reproduction and sexual
reproduction. Let’s first learn about asexual reproduction.

Asexual reproduction is a process resulting in the production of genetically identical

offspring from one parent. You should be able to identify whether the type of
reproduction is asexual based on the information provided. Remember that this type of
reproduction occurs with just one parent, and there is no mixing of genetic information, so
offspring are genetically identical to the parent and each other, essentially making them
clones.

Examples of asexual reproduction include binary fission, where a bacterial cell produces
exact genetic copies of itself, and new potato plants developing from the buds or eyes of a
potato tuber. The resulting plant is genetically identical to the parent plant.

Let's discuss the advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction for a population of
a species in the wild and for crop production.

Advantages:

1. Faster Reproduction: Asexual reproduction doesn’t require a mate, so organisms

can reproduce more quickly, leading to larger populations and, in the case of crops,
increased production and yield.

2. Consistent Offspring: It produces genetically identical offspring, which can be

advantageous in a stable environment because the offspring are well suited to the
environment in which they were born. This also ensures that crops will have the
same desirable traits and characteristics.

3. Energy Efficient: Asexual reproduction requires less energy since only one parent
is needed. Organisms do not need to waste energy searching for mates or producing
gametes. This is advantageous for organisms that live in habitats where finding a
mate is difficult. In the case of crops, there’s no need for pollination, which can be
beneficial in environments where pollinators are scarce.

Disadvantages:

1. Lack of Genetic Diversity: There is no genetic diversity in the population because

asexual reproduction produces genetically identical offspring. This can be
 problematic in a changing environment because the population may not be able to
adapt to new conditions. It also makes them vulnerable to disease because a disease
or parasite that affects one individual can quickly spread to the entire population,
causing significant damage.

Moving on to sexual reproduction, it is a process involving the fusion of the nuclei of two
gametes or sex cells to form a zygote, which is the fertilized egg cell. This results in the
production of offspring that are genetically different from each other. Fertilization is the
fusion of the nuclei of gametes. Gametes are sex cells; in animals, the sex cells are sperm
and ovum, as shown in the picture, and in plants, the sex cells are pollen and ovum. The
nuclei of gametes are haploid, and the nucleus of a zygote is diploid.

What does this mean? In human beings, a normal body cell contains 46 chromosomes, but
each gamete contains 23 chromosomes, which is half the number of chromosomes found in
other body cells. Gametes have a haploid nucleus because they only contain one copy of
each chromosome, instead of the two copies found in other body cells. When the male and
female gametes fuse, they form a diploid zygote with the full 46 chromosomes. So, the
nuclei of gametes are haploid, while the nucleus of a zygote is diploid, containing the same
number of chromosomes as a normal body cell. An easy way to remember this is that
haploid starts with H, and so does half; diploid starts with D, and so does double.

Advantages of Sexual Reproduction:

1. Increased Genetic Diversity: There is variation among offspring, making them

more adaptable to a changing environment. They are also less vulnerable to disease,
meaning they are more likely to withstand diseases.

Disadvantages of Sexual Reproduction:

1. Requires the Fusion of Two Gametes: This requires time and energy to find a
mate.

2. Slower Process: It is a slower process, reducing the speed of reproduction and

potentially leading to lower production yields.

Sexual Reproduction in Plants: In plants, flowers contain the reproductive organs, which
typically contain both male and female reproductive parts. Male gametes or sex cells are
found within pollen grains. Since pollen cannot move on its own to reach the female
reproductive organs, it relies on the help of insects or wind through a process called
pollination.
You should be able to identify in diagrams and images, and even draw, the parts of an
insect-pollinated flower. These are:

 Sepal: Protects the unopened flower.

 Petal: Brightly colored in insect-pollinated flowers to attract insects.
 Anther: Contains pollen, which is the male sex cells.
 Filament: Supports the anther. Collectively, the anther and filament are called the
stamen and make up the male reproductive part of the flower. It may be easy to
remember this part since it has the word "men" in it.
 Stigma: The sticky surface that catches pollen.
 Style: Links stigma to the ovary.
 Ovary: Produces ovum, which is the female sex cell.
 Ovules: Found inside the ovary and contain the female sex cells.
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from an anther to a stigma. This transfer
process may occur with the help of insects or wind.

Structural Adaptations of Insect-Pollinated Flowers:

1. Petals: Large and bright to attract insects.

2. Pollen: Moderate amount, as insects are more efficient in pollination.
3. Pollen Grains: Large, heavy, sticky, and spiky so they are more likely to stick to the
insect’s body.
4. Scent and Nectar: Present to attract insects.
5. Stigma: Sticky, so pollen can get stuck onto it when an insect brushes past, and the
stigma is inside the flower.
6. Anther: Inside the flower and is firmly attached to brush against insects.
Structural Adaptations of Wind-Pollinated Flowers:

1. Petals: Small and dull.

2. Pollen: Present in large amounts to increase the chance of successful pollination.
3. Pollen Grains: Smooth, small, and light so that they are easily blown by the wind.
4. Scent and Nectar: Absent in wind-pollinated flowers.
5. Stigma: Feathery to catch drifting pollen grains and is outside the flower.
6. Anther: Outside the flower, swinging loosely to release pollen grains easily.
Self-Pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma
of the same flower or a different flower on the same plant.

Cross-Pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma
of a flower on a different plant of the same species.
Effects of Self-Pollination and Cross-Pollination:

 Self-Pollination: Results in a reduction of genetic variation. This can be a

disadvantage if environmental conditions change because reduced genetic variation
may limit the ability of offspring to adapt to changing environmental conditions.

 Cross-Pollination: Increases genetic variation but is reliant on the presence of

pollinators, which can be a problem if they are missing. This is a concern as the loss
of pollinators, like bees, can have a significant impact on food crops. However, wind-
pollinated plants are not affected.

Fertilization occurs when a pollen nucleus fuses with a nucleus in an ovule. Here’s how
fertilization takes place:

1. The pollen grain lands on the stigma.

2. A pollen tube begins to grow down the style until it enters the ovule through the
micropyle.
3. The pollen nucleus from the pollen grain moves down the pollen tube.
4. The polar nucleus fuses with the ovum nucleus. This is fertilization, and a zygote
has been formed.
5. The zygote will start to divide and eventually form a seed within the ovule.
6. The ovary wall eventually develops into a fruit.

Germination: The beginning of seed growth is referred to as germination. For successful

germination, three factors are essential:

1. Water: Causes the seed to expand and activates the enzymes within the embryo to
initiate growth.
2. Oxygen: Needed for respiration to release energy for growth.
3. Suitable Temperature: Needed to increase the rate of germination, as enzyme-
catalyzed reactions are temperature dependent up to an optimum.
The process of human reproduction involves the fusion of the male gamete, which is the
sperm, with the female gamete, which is the egg. Let's first learn the parts of the male
reproductive system. These are the testes, the scrotum, the sperm duct, the prostate
gland, the urethra, and the penis.

**Functions of These Structures:**

- **Testes:** This part produces sperm, which is the male gamete, and testosterone,
which is a hormone.
- **Scrotum:** This holds the testes outside of the body to keep them cooler than the
body temperature, which is ideal for sperm production.
- **Sperm Duct:** This is a tube that carries sperm from the testes to the urethra.
- **Prostate Gland:** This secretes a nutritive fluid that combines with sperm to form
semen.
- **Urethra:** This is the tube that allows for the excretion of urine and semen from the
body, but never at the same time.
- **Penis:** This passes urine out of the body from the bladder and allows semen to pass
into the vagina of a woman during sexual intercourse.

Next, let's learn the parts of the female reproductive system. These are the ovaries, the
oviducts, the uterus, the cervix, and the vagina.

**Functions of These Structures:**

- **Ovaries:** These are where egg cells (the female gametes) are developed.
- **Oviducts:** This is the place where fertilization takes place; it connects the ovary to
the uterus and is lined with ciliated cells to push the released ovum down.
- **Uterus:** This is the place where the fetus develops.
- **Cervix:** This is a ring of muscle that keeps the fetus in place during pregnancy.
- **Vagina:** This is the entry point for the penis.

**Fertilization** is the fusion of the nuclei from a male gamete (the sperm) and a female
gamete (the egg cell). This happens in the oviducts. Gametes have adaptations to increase
the chances of fertilization and successful development of an embryo.

**Adaptive Features of Sperm:**

- **Flagellum (Tail):** This allows the sperm to swim towards the egg cell.
- **Mitochondria:** These provide energy for movement.
- **Acrosome (Head Region):** This contains enzymes to break down the egg cell's
protective layer.

**Adaptive Features of Egg Cells:**

- **Energy Stores:** The cytoplasm contains a store of energy to support early
development after fertilization.
- **Jelly Coat:** This changes at fertilization to prevent multiple sperm from entering the
egg.

**Comparison of Male and Female Gametes:**

- **Sperm:** Very small, with a head region and a flagellum (tail); it can move.
- **Egg Cell:** Large, round with a jelly coating; it cannot move on its own.
- **Sperm Production:** Sperm is produced every day in millions, while each ovary contains
thousands of immature eggs, with only one released each month.

Before moving on to pregnancy, let's take a quick look at what happens first. Sperm enters
the oviduct, and if an egg is present, it can get fertilized. So where did this egg come
from? It was released from the ovary and was moved through the oviduct with the help of
cilia. Fertilization takes place, which is the fusion of the nucleus of a sperm and the
nucleus of an egg cell. Once the egg cell is fertilized by the sperm in the oviduct, a zygote
is formed. It travels towards the uterus. In early development, the zygote forms an
embryo, which is a ball of cells that implants into the lining of the uterus. Here, the
embryo continues to grow and develop. The embryo grows into a fetus, and it takes around
nine months for the fetus to be fully developed. During this time, the fetus receives its
nutrition from the mother.

**Structures Involved in Fetal Development:**

- **Placenta:** This develops during pregnancy and attaches to the uterine wall. It acts as
an interface between the mother's blood supply and the developing fetus. It provides
oxygen and nutrients to the fetus. The movement of all molecules across the placenta
occurs by diffusion due to the difference in concentration gradients. Dissolved nutrients
like glucose, amino acids, and fats diffuse across the placenta from the mother's blood. It
also removes waste products from the fetus. Dissolved waste substances like carbon
dioxide and urea are removed from the fetus's blood so that they do not build up to
dangerous levels, and they diffuse across the placenta into the mother's blood to be
excreted. It also produces hormones that help maintain the pregnancy, such as estrogen
and progesterone. It is important to note that some pathogens and toxins can pass across
the placenta and affect the fetus. Some pathogens, such as the rubella virus, for example,
may pass through the placenta. Pregnant women are advised not to smoke during pregnancy
as toxins like nicotine can pass across the placenta.
- **Umbilical Cord:** This connects the developing fetus to the placenta. It provides the
fetus with oxygen and nutrients from the mother's blood via the placenta and removes
waste products from the fetus, returning them to the mother's blood via the placenta.
- **Amniotic Sac:** This surrounds and protects the developing fetus. It contains amniotic
fluid, which cushions and supports the fetus. It helps regulate the temperature around the
fetus. Amniotic fluid cushions and protects the developing fetus, helps the fetus move and
develop properly, and helps regulate the temperature around the fetus.

Now we shall move on to sexual hormones. In humans, puberty is the period when the body
undergoes changes as a child progresses into adulthood. There are two main hormones
responsible for the development and regulation of secondary sexual characteristics during
puberty. In males, the hormone responsible is testosterone. In females, it is estrogen.

**Effects of Testosterone in Males:**

- Growth of penis and testicles
- Growth of facial and body hair
- Muscle development
- Voice deepens
- Testes start to produce sperm

**Effects of Estrogen in Females:**

- Breasts develop
- Body hair grows
- The menstrual cycle begins
- Hips get wider

Now let's learn about the menstrual cycle. Ovaries release an ovum (egg) every 28 days.
The uterus lining thickens in preparation for embryo implantation. If the ovum is not
fertilized, the uterus lining breaks down. The unfertilized egg cell, together with the old
uterus lining, is passed out of the vagina. This is known as menstruation or a period.

**Changes in the Uterine Lining During the Menstrual Cycle:**

- Menstruation lasts around five to seven days and marks the beginning of a new menstrual
cycle.
- After menstruation, the lining of the uterus starts to thicken in preparation for possible
implantation.
- The uterine lining continues to build up and is maintained.
- If the egg is not fertilized, the uterine lining starts to break down, resulting in
menstruation or a period.

**Changes in the Ovaries During the Menstrual Cycle:**

- Follicles in the ovary begin to grow and mature.

- One follicle becomes dominant and continues to grow.
- The dominant follicle ruptures and releases an egg around day 14.
- The remaining cells form the corpus luteum.
- If the egg is not fertilized, the corpus luteum degenerates and leads to menstruation.

The menstrual cycle and pregnancy are controlled by four main hormones: estrogen,
progesterone, FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone), and LH (luteinizing hormone).

- **Estrogen:** Produced by the ovaries during the menstrual cycle and by the placenta
during pregnancy. It stimulates the growth of the uterus lining, making it thicker, and
causes the follicle containing the egg to mature in preparation for ovulation. It also
stimulates LH production and decreases FSH production.
- **Progesterone:** Produced by the ovaries during the menstrual cycle and by the
placenta during pregnancy. It helps maintain the thick uterus lining during the menstrual
cycle and during pregnancy. It decreases FSH production. If the egg is not fertilized, the
progesterone level drops, causing the uterine lining to break down, which is menstruation
or a period.
- **FSH (Follicle-Stimulating Hormone):** Produced in the pituitary gland. It causes a
single follicle, which contains an egg cell in the ovary, to develop and mature. It also
stimulates the ovaries to start releasing estrogen.
- **LH (Luteinizing Hormone):** Produced in the pituitary gland. When estrogen levels
have reached their peak, it stimulates the pituitary gland to release LH. It triggers
ovulation (i.e., it causes an egg to be released) and stimulates progesterone production in
the ovaries.

**Estrogen and Progesterone Levels During the Menstrual Cycle:**

- In the first few days during menstruation, there will be low levels of estrogen and
progesterone.
- Afterwards, the levels of estrogen start to increase, leading to the thickening of the
uterus lining. Progesterone levels remain low during this time.
- On day 14, ovulation takes place, causing a sharp increase in estrogen levels and a smaller
increase in progesterone levels.
- After that, the ruptured follicle transforms into the corpus luteum, which produces high
levels of progesterone to prepare the uterus for potential pregnancy. Estrogen levels also
continue to increase.
- If pregnancy does not occur, the corpus luteum breaks down, causing a drop in estrogen
and progesterone levels, and leading to menstruation.

**FSH and LH

Levels During the Menstrual Cycle:**

- During menstruation, there are low levels of both FSH and LH.
- On day 14, a surge in LH triggers ovulation. The LH levels decrease after ovulation, while
FSH levels remain fairly stable.

**Summary of Hormonal Control:**

- The pituitary gland produces FSH, which stimulates the development of a follicle in the
ovary.
- The follicle produces estrogen, which causes the growth and repair of the uterine lining
and inhibits FSH production.
- High estrogen levels stimulate the release of LH from the pituitary gland, leading to
ovulation.
- The follicle becomes the corpus luteum, which produces progesterone to maintain the
uterine lining.
- If the ovum is not fertilized, the corpus luteum breaks down, leading to decreased
progesterone levels and menstruation.
- If pregnancy occurs, the corpus luteum continues to produce progesterone until the
placenta takes over this role.

**Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs):**

An STI is an infection transmitted through sexual contact. HIV (Human Immunodeficiency

Virus) is a pathogen causing an STI. HIV is present in bodily fluids such as blood and
semen and can be transmitted through sexual intercourse. HIV attacks and weakens the
immune system by reducing the number of functioning lymphocytes, making the body more
vulnerable to other infections. An HIV infection may lead to AIDS (Acquired
Immunodeficiency Syndrome), which makes individuals highly vulnerable to other
pathogens, potentially resulting in death.

**Methods of Transmission of HIV:**

- Unprotected sexual intercourse

- Sharing needles with an infected person
- Blood transfusions with infected blood
- From mother to fetus through the placenta
- From mother to baby via breastfeeding

**Control of STI Spread:**

- Limit the number of sexual partners

- Use condoms
- Get tested if unprotected sex or sex with multiple partners has occurred
- Raise awareness through education programs
- Practice abstinence if infected with an STI
- Use sterilized needles instead of sharing