CHAPTER - I

INTRODUCTION

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 Chapter-1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Evolution of Social Security
1.3 Need for Social Security
1.4 Purpose and Contingencies of Social Security
1.5 Definition of Social Security
1.6 Levels of Social Security
1.7 Social Security in U.S.A.
1.8 Social Security in Europe
1.9 Social Security Strategy in India
1.10 Social Security in India
1.10.1 Preventive Schemes
1.10.2 Promotional Schemes:-
1.10.3 Protective Social Security Programmes
1.11 Organized and Unorganized Sector
1.12 Definition of Unorganized Sector and India's Informal Economy
1.12.1 Size of the Unorganized Sector
1.12.2 Categories of Workers among the Unorganized Workers
1.13 Estimate of organized and unorganized workers
1.14 Trends in Unorganized Labour and Their Characteristics in
India
1.15 The major characteristics of unorganized workers
1.16 Social Security Measures: The Experience
1.17 Social Security for the Unorganized Workers: The Needs
1.17.1 Food Security
1.17.2 Nutritional Security
1.17.3 Health Security
1.17.4 Housing Security

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 1.17.5 Employment Security
1.17.6 Income Security
1.17.7 Life and Accident Security
1.17.8 Old Age Security
1.18 Social Security for the Unorganized Sector
1.19 Action Programme for the Unorganized Sector
1.19.1 Protective Measure for Unorganized Workers
1.19.2 Minimum Level of Social Security
1.19.3 Package of Measures for the Marginal and Small Farmers
1.19.4 Emphasis on Accelerated Land and Water Management
1.19.5 Credit for Marginal Small Farmers
1.19.6 Farmer’s Debt Relief Commission
1.19.7 Measures to Improve Growth of Non-agriculture Sector
1.19.8 Creation of a National Fund for Unorganized Sector
1.19.9 Up-scaling of Cluster Development Through Growth Poles
1.19.10 Measures to Expand Employment and Improve
Employability Programmes
1.20 Recommendations Concerning Unorganized Sector by Major
Commission
1.21 Unorganized Sector and Aurangabad City
1.22 Rationale of Topic
1.23 Objectives of the Study
1.24 Hypotheses
1.25 Scope and Limitations
1.26 Research Methodology
1.27 Area of Study
1.28 Sources of Data
1.29 Selection of Sample
1.30 Chapter Summary

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1.1 Introduction: -
A rapidly globalizing world economy has transformed the notions
of work and the concept of a job for life is gradually disappearing.
Instead, in a restructured labour market, the terms 'contract work' and
'self-employment' is gaining currency. In such a globalizing economy,
where work is becoming flexible, there is more diversity of work states,
variable period and intensity of employment becomes crucial in this
context. The labour market scenario in India is characterized by a large
proportion of workers engaged in non-stable activities in self-
employment and casual wages work. Most of the worker engaged in the
informal economy has hardly any security of employment or social
security benefits. The growing flexibility for employers implies insecurity
for the workers. Further, the accelerated globalization over the last two
decade is modifying the role of the state through various market
mechanisms.1
The informal workers are more vulnerable because of their
irregularity of work, insecurity of continuity of economic activity
engaged in and low levels of skill. Due to the insecurity arising from not
having permanent jobs, workers are often engaged in multiple activities,
changing status of work over the course of the year or even during a
single day.2
The casual and piece-rated workers were the most vulnerable in
terms of irregularity and insecurity of work. The insecurities faced by the
self-employed were different and related to lack of access to capital,
stagnant demand and no scope for future expansion. The gender
dimension of insecurities is also clearly evident. Since, women workers
do not find work regularly, a large proportion on them is engaged in
multiple activities in a day as well as during the year. Further, the
insecurities faced by worker in the rural areas also need to be considered.

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These workers are caught in a low wage equilibrium trap which denies
them any upward mobility.3
Aurangabad city is known as city of gates. There is evidence to
believe that Aurangabad was developed as a trading hub for four
centuries ago. It lies on a major trade route that used to connect north-
west Indies sea and land ports to the Deccan Region. Recently,
Aurangabad is known for placing single largest order for Mercedes Benz
cars worth of Rs. 65 crore. The city was a major silk and cotton textile
production centre. A fine blend of silk with locally grown cotton was
developed as Himroo Textile; Paithani Silk Sarees are also made in
Aurangabad.4
After 1960, Maharashtra industrial development corporation
(MIDC) began acquiring land and setting up industrial estates.
Aurangabad is new classic example of efforts of state government
towards balanced industrialization of the state. The main office of the
Maharashtra centre for entrepreneurship developments is in Aurangabad.
Recently, Aurangabad became the third city in Maharashtra after Pune
and Nasik to the host of an auto cluster.5
On one side Aurangabad city is developing rapidly and on the other
side social security for unorganized sector is declining day by day. In
Aurangabad city, unorganized sector workers are not getting minimum
wages but there is wage differentiation among them. The skilled workers
gets minimum wage as compare to semi-skilled workers and unskilled
workers. Social security is not provided in this sector at any age. Thus,
unorganized sector workers are not getting minimum wages and social
security benefits. Moreover in this sector minimum basic facilities such
as sanitation, canteen, pure water and ventilation facilities are not
provided. A large number of workers from unorganized sector are poor,
illiterate, vulnerable and isolated.

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1.2 Evolution of Social Security :-
The concept of social security is as old as the history of man.
Stories of Bible tells that how, during the years of famine, Joseph tried to
tide over the situation by making use of surplus stocks of grain which he
had stocked during the earlier years of plenty. The oldest institution of
social security is family that includes the extended family. Industrial
revolution in the Europe has seen the growth of urban and industrial
centres that affected the rural joint families thereby disturbing the
institution of social security in the joint family system.
When individual was unable to take care of his own needs, the
society realized the importance of protecting the individual and his
family. In Great Britain the poor laws were enacted to provide minimal
food and shelter in a workhouse to the poor. Private savings,
compensation by employer's medieval guilds, mutual aid or mutual
benefit societies, private insurance and life insurance are some of the
evolutionary forms of social security efforts.6
1.3 Need for Social Security :-
Modernization and urbanization have resulted in radical socio-
economic changes and give rise to new conflict and tensions consequent
upon the erosion of age old family and fraternal security. The transition
from agricultural economy to an industrial economy brought in special
accompanied problems that called for social security.7
1.4 Purpose and Contingencies of Social Security :-
The purpose of any social security measure is to give individuals
and families the confidence that their level of living and quality of life
will not erode by social or economic eventuality ; provide medical care
and income security against the consequences of defined contingencies;
facilitate the victims physical and vocational rehabilitation; prevent or
reduce ill health and accidents in the occupations; protect against

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unemployment by maintenance and promotion of job creation and
provide benefit for the maintenance of any children.
The contingencies of social security as delineated by ILO are
medical care, sickness benefit, unemployment benefit, old age benefit,
employment injury benefit, family benefit, maternity benefit, invalidity
benefit and survivors benefit.8
1.5 Definition of Social Security :-
1) The definition of social security deserves closer attention because it
is the basis for policy choices and prescriptions. The international labour
organization (ILO) first proposed a comprehensive definition as follows.
"The protection which society provides for its members, through a
series of public measures, against the economic and social distress that
otherwise would be caused by the stoppage or substantial reduction in
earning resulting from sickness, maternity, employment injury,
unemployment, invalidity, old age and death, the provision of medical
care; and the provision of subsidies for families with children."9
2) Social security according to Lord Beveridge, "is an attack on five
giants, viz. want, disease, ignorance, squalor and idleness."10
3) Friedlander defines social security as "a programme of protection
provided by society against the contingencies of modern life-sickness,
unemployment, old-age, dependency, industrial accidents and invalidism
against which the individual cannot be expected to protect himself and his
family by his own ability or foresight."11
4) Social security is also broadly defined as "the endeavour of the
community, as a whole, to render help to the utmost extent possible to
any individual during periods of physical distress inevitable on illness or
injury and during economic distress consequent on reduction or loss of
earnings due to illness, disablement, maternity, unemployment, old age or
death of working member."12

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 Thus, social security is a dynamic concept. The content of which
changes with social, economic and political system prevailing in a given
country at a given time.
Thus, the study of various definitions of social security covers the
following :
a) Social Insurance
b) Social Assistance
c) Family Benefits
d) Health Care
e) Other Social Services, and
f) Related Social Welfare Services
The ILO has defined two broad groups according to the type of
social security by which they are covered. They are : social insurance and
social assistance. Social insurance covers workers of various categories
and social assistance covers persons with various disabilities – old ages,
sickness. The two types of target groups, then, are workers on the one
hand and persons with disability on the other.
There is, in the literature, an oscillation of all definitions of target
groups between work definitions and vulnerability definitions.
The work definition includes categories such as 'unorganized
sector workers', informal sector workers, casual workers, small farmers
etc.
The vulnerability definitions include categories such as the
deprived the poor, or particular groups such as 'the old', the disabled,
women headed households etc.13
1.6 Levels of Social Security :-
Presently, the social security framework in the country is operating
at three levels. At the first level are the universal programmes and
schemes for basic social/human development, such as the literacy

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mission, programmes for provision of schooling, health care services,
drinking water and sanitation, and technical training that should be
viewed as being foundational to any sound social and economic
development policy. These programmes address the issue of creation and
enhancement of human capabilities through the provision of entitlements
to all citizens, funded by the public exchequer. The effectiveness and
advancement of these functions of the state are often a prerequisite for the
effectiveness of specific protective social security policies and schemes
such as the one proposed here.14
At the second level are the social/human development schemes that
are intended to provide a measure of socio-economic security to the
poorer citizens, irrespective of their status as working or non-working
poor. The underlying idea here is to meet both the promotional and
protective needs of some sections of the population in their basic social
security needs. Over time, a number of programme have come to stay,
like the Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS), Development of
Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA), the Midday Meal
Scheme for School Children, Public Distribution System (PDS), housing
for the poor, the National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP) and the
recently introduced National Rural Employment Guarantee (NREG)
programme. In order to address the social security concerns of specific
groups, such as old-aged poor, widows, child labourers, and the
physically and mentally challenged, sub-targeting is often resorted to.15
The third level should according to the commission, constitute a
social security system for the unorganized/informal workers. This should
address both deficiency and adversity. The social security concerns
arising out of deficiency relate to access to credit/finance (especially for
the self-employed), loans for upgrading skills, loans for housing, and
children's education. Adversity arises out of various contingencies such as

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absence of social security cover for ill-health, accidents/death and old
age. These fall under the category of protective social security.16
1.7 Social Security in U.S.A. :-
Social security in the U.S. currently refers to the federal Old Age
Survivors and Disability Insurance (OASDI) Program.
The original social security act and the current version of the Act,
as amended encompass several social welfare or social insurance
programs. The larger and better known initiatives of the program are:
1) Federal Old Age, Survivors & Disability Insurance.
2) Unemployment Benefits.
3) Temporary Assistance for needy Families.
4) Health Insurance for Aged and Disabled (Medicare)
5) Grants to States for Medical Assistance Programs.
6) State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP)
7) Supplemental Security Income (SSI)
U.S. social security is a social insurance program funded through
dedicated payroll taxes called Federal Insurance Contributions Act
(FICA). Tax deposits are formally entrusted to Federal Old- Age and
Survivors Insurance Trust Fund or Federal Disability Insurance Trust
Fund, Federal Hospital Insurance Trust Fund or the Federal
Supplementary Medical Insurance Trust Fund. The main part of the
program is sometimes abbreviated OASDI (Old Age, Survivors and
Disability Insurance) or RSDI (Retirement, Survivor and Disability
Insurance). When initially signed into law by president Franklin D.
Roosevelt in 1935 as part of his new deal, the term social security
covered unemployment insurance as well. In 2004 the U.S. social security
system paid out almost S 500 billion in benefits. By dollars paid, the U.S.
social security program is the largest government program in the world
and the single greatest expenditure in the federal budget, with 20.9% for

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social security. Social security is currently the largest social insurance
program in the U.S, constituting 37% of government expenditure and 7%
of the GDP and is currently estimated to keep roughly 40% of all
Americans age 65 or older out of poverty.
Largely because of the rise of neoliberalism, social security
privatization become a major political issue for more than three decades
during the presidencies of Gerald Ford, Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan,
George H.W. Bush, Bill Clinton & George W. Bush. A limited form of
the social security program began as a measure to implement "social
insurance" during the great depression of the 1930s when poverty rates
among senior citizens exceeded 50 percent.17
1.8 Social Security in Europe :-
The Principle of social security, mutualised at professional or
national level, was born in Europe at the end of the 19th century as a
reaction to the appearance of significant worker poverty during the period
of industrialization. The development of social and economic risk
(accidents at work, illness, unemployment…) which could compromise
the economic security of individuals, encouraged the introduction of
public social security, which aimed to protect all individuals. The first
form of social protection was that implemented in Germany by
Chancellor Bismark in 1883. The second form of social protection was
the social security system introduced in Great Britain in 1945, influenced
by the economist Beveridge.
Social protection in European countries today is fairly generous,
expenditure on social protection representing on average 27.7 percent
GDP. The building of Europe has encouraged a convergence upward of
European system of social protection. Nevertheless it is still necessary to
talk of European system of social protection and not a system; since the

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European Union has put very little effort into their harmonization. Thus,
the importance given to the various life-risks varies according to country.
However, all European countries today are facing common
challenges (ageing of the population, increase in inequalities and
exclusion, a changing labour market, the problem of financing social
protection because of rising expenditure). Thus all countries are having to
adopt their social protection system to the changes in the socio-economic
environment of the early 21st century. Their reform are all aimed at more
or less the same objectives, i.e. a rationalization of systems, often by
controlling expenditure and a change in the method of financing with an
increasing place given to public contributions. Each country,
nevertheless, is trying to adopt its own reforms to its political, economic
and social traditions.18
1.9 Social Security Strategy in India :-
The social security strategies include the following:-
a) Social insurance with the participation of the beneficiary pooling risks and
resources.
b) Social assistance financed from general revenues and granting
benefits on the basis of means test.
c) Employers liability schemes where there is an identifiable employer
and within the economic capacity of the employer.
d) National provident funds.
e) Universal schemes for social security.19
1.10 Social Security in India :-
Article 43 of the constitution speaks of state's responsibility to
provide social security to the citizens of this country. In India, all the
above strategies are in practice. For the purpose of discussion, it may
categorize the social security schemes available in India as 1) Preventive
schemes, 2) promotional schemes and 3) protective schemes.

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1.10.1 Preventive Schemes :-
Preventive schemes are the schemes aimed at risk prevention. In
the strategy of social management of risks, preventive approach tries to
prevent poverty and helps people under below poverty line to come above
poverty line. Preventive health care, vaccinations against diseases forms
part of the preventive strategies. Majority of the schemes are of social
assistance in nature.20
1.10.2 Promotional Schemes :-
Promotional social security schemes are mainly of means tested
social assistance type, where to guarantee minimum standards of living to
vulnerable groups of population, the governments at the state and center
draft schemes financed from the general revenues of the government.
These are the strategies of risk mitigation. These guarantee:
a) Food and nutritional security by ensuring per capita availability of
food grains, access to food, developing agriculture sector, targeted
public distribution system etc.
b) Employment security by ensuring employment by generating
employment, redeploying the surplus manpower in any sector,
creating rural employment opportunities, encouraging
technological up gradation.
c) Health security by ensuring availability of medical facilities,
maintaining standards of sanitation and drinking water, eradication
and control of communicable diseases, timely vaccination of
children and child bearing women, health insurance, old age homes
and social insurance for the elderly.
d) Education security by ensuring opening of schools, encouraging
children to attend classes, making education compulsory upto
certain age, opening adult learning centers or formulating schemes
like sakshara, running schemes like mid day meals etc.

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e) Women security : by empowering women, encouraging women
literacy, banning dowry, designing widow pension schemes.
f) Assistance to the disabled by undertaking programmes to promote
health and education among the disabled persons providing
rehabilitation services and reservations in services so as to enable
them to participate in social and economic activity.
All the above form part of promotional social security schemes
where state governments are more involved than the central government.
Examples of schemes in the promotional social security area include:
a) Food for Work
b) Jawahar Rojgar Yojana
c) Antyodaya
d) Rural Landless Labourers Employment Guarantee Schemes.
e) Programmes of Integrated Rural Development Project
f) Drought Prone Area Programmes
g) Sakshara
h) Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS)
i) Public Distribution System.
j) Reservations for the Disabled in Services
k) Special Educational Institutions for the Disabled Persons etc.21
1.10.3 Protective Social Security Programmes :-
The protective social security programmes help the poor in
removing/ reducing contingent poverty. In India, the protective social
security programmes have been designed to address the contingent
poverty or the contingencies defined by the ILO. These programmes take
care of old-age income needs (old age pension), survival benefits
(provident funds), medical needs of insured families (medical insurance),
widow and children/ dependant pension), maternity benefits,
compensation for loss of employment and work injury benefits.

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 The benefits are extended only to working population majority of
whom are in the organized sector through legislations like:
a) Employees State Insurance Act 1948.
b) Workmen's Compensation Act 1923.
c) Employees Provident Fund and Miscellaneous Provisions Act
1952.
d) Payment of Gratuity Act 1972.
e) Maternity Benefits Act 1976.22
1.11 Organized and Unorganized Sector :-
The term organized and unorganized sector in India are used
interchangeably with formal and informal sector at the international level
as recommended by the international labour organization (ILO). There
has been a lack of clarity and uniformity in the use of the term.
The organized sector includes primarily those establishments
which are covered by the factories act, 1948, the shops and commercial
establishments act of state government, the industrial employment
standing order act, 1946 etc. This sector already has a structure through
which social security benefits are extended to workers covered under
these legislations.
The unorganized sector on the other hand, is characterized by the
lack of labour law coverage, seasonal and temporary nature of
occupations, high labour mobility, dispersed functioning of operations,
casualization of labour, lack of organizational support, low bargaining
power etc. all of which make it vulnerable to socio-economic hardships.
The nature of work in the unorganized sector varies between regions and
also between the rural areas and the urban areas, which may include the
remote rural areas as well as sometimes the most inhospitable urban
concentrations'. In the rural areas it comprises of landless agricultural
labourers, small and marginal farmers, share croppers, persons engaged in

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animal husbandry, fishing, horticulture, bee-keeping, toddy tapping,
forest workers, rural artisans, etc. where as in the urban areas, it
comprises mainly of manual labourers in construction, carpentry, trade,
transport, communication etc. and also includes street vendors, hawkers,
head load workers, cobblers, tin smiths, garment makers, etc.
1.12 Definition of Unorganized Sector and India's Informal
Economy:-
The National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganized
Sector (NCEUS) set up by the Government of India considered various
aspects of the matter and defined the unorganized sector in the following
manner.
"The unorganized sector consists of all unincorporated private
enterprises owned by individuals or households engaged in the sale and
production of goods and services operated on a proprietary or partnership
basis and with less than ten total workers."23
The central statistical organization defines unorganized or informal
sector consisting of enterprises which producing for the market do not
have more than 20 employees (without power) or 10 employees (with
power).24
NCEUS defined unorganized or informal employment as follows.
"Unorganized workers consists of those working in the
unorganized enterprises or households, excluding regular workers with
social security benefits, and the workers in the formal sector without any
employment/ social security benefits provided by the employers."
This definition excludes casual or contract workers and thus
captures unorganized sector employment in a more realistic manner.25
1.12.1 Size of the Unorganized Sector :-
NCEUS prepared estimates of employment in the unorganized
sector. As on January 2005, the total employment (principal and

16
subsidiary) in the Indian economy was 458 million, of which the
unorganized sector accounted for 395 million, that is, 86 per cent of the
total workers in 2004-05.
However, a distinction has been made by the NCEUS in organized/
unorganized sector employment and organized/unorganized worker. The
unorganized sector refers to enterprises, which employ less than ten
workers. But the unorganized workers refer to workers who are employed
whether in the organized or unorganized sector but are not covered for
social security benefits.
Table No. 1.1
Sector-wise Total Employment (in million)
Sector/Year Informal/ Formal/ Total
Unorg. Organized
Workers Workers
1999-2000
Informal/unorganized sector 341.3 (99.6) 1.4 (0.4) 342.7 (100)
Formal/organized sector 20.5 (37.5) 33.6 (62.2) 54.1 (100)
Total 361.8 (91.2) 35.0 (8.8) 396.8(100)
2004-05
Informal/unorganized sector 393.5 (99.6) 1.4 (0.4) 394.9 (100)
Formal/organized sector 29.1 (46.6) 33.5 (53.4) 62.6 (100)
Total 422.6 (92.4) 34.9 (7.6) 457.5 (100)
st th
Source: NSS 61 Round (2004-2005), and NSS 55 Round (1999-2000),
Employment-Unemployment Survey : Computed by NCEUS. 26
Note : Figures in Brackets are Percentages;

From the data given in table 1, it is evident that out of the 62.6
million employed in organized sector; 29.1 million are unorganized
workers applying the criterion of social security benefits. Similarly out of
395 million workers employed in the unorganized sector, 1.4 million
workers avail of social security benefits and are, therefore, classified as

17
organized workers. After applying the two criterions out of a total
employment of 457.5 million workers only 34.9 million are entitled for
social security benefits, that is, 7.6 percent of the total workers in 2004-
05 and the remaining 422.6 million (92.4 percent) are treated as
unorganized workers. Comparing this, with 1999-00, it is revealed that
though during 1999-00 and 2004-05, total employment in the economy
increased form 397 million to 458 million, that is, an increase by 61
million during the five year period, the number of organized workers
remain stagnant at 35 million and the entire increase of employment was
in the category of unorganized workers. NCEUS, therefore, sums up the
situation as under.
"What this means in simple term is that the entire increase in the
employment in the organized sector over this period has been informal in
nature, that is, without any job or social security. This constitutes what
can be termed as informalization of the formal sector, where any
employment increase consists of regular workers without social security
benefits and casual or contract workers again without the benefits that
should accrue to formal workers."
1.12.2 Categories of Workers Among the Unorganized Workers :-
i) Wage Workers :-
Wage workers, are persons employed for remuneration among the
unorganized workers, directly by employers or through agencies or
contractors. Wage workers, include casual and temporary workers or
those employed by households including domestic workers. Wage
workers also include regular workers in the unorganized sector.27
ii) Self-employed in the Unorganized Sector :-
There are workers who operate farm or non-farm enterprises or
engage in a profession or trade, either on own account, individually or
with partners, or as home-based workers. Own account workers include

18
unpaid family workers also. Both the categories of workers face different
kinds of vulnerabilities or risks and thus are referred to as weaker sections
of the society. They suffer from two types of vulnerabilities-job
insecurity, or social insecurity or both. Regular workers in the
unorganized sector are those working for others and getting in return
salary or wages on a regular basis. These workers suffer from social
insecurity due to sickness or injury or old age and are not entitled to any
social security against these vulnerabilities. They enjoy, however, job
security. As against them, temporary, casual or contract workers suffer
from job insecurity as well as social insecurity.28
iii) Home Workers as a Distinct Category :-
The International Labour Organization (ILO) in 1996 defined a
home worker who carried out work for remuneration in the premises of
his/her choice, other than the work place of the employer, resulting in a
product or service as specified by the employer, irrespective of who
provided equipment, materials or inputs used. These workers, therefore,
work under the 'putting out system'. Mostly, home workers have to
purchase, repair and maintain their own tools or machines, and bear the
costs of some inputs (for example, garment workers often have to buy
their own thread), transportation to and from the contractor to obtain
work and then handover the finished product, and also provide space
within their homes to carry out the tasks of production.29

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 Table No. 1.2
Number and Proportion of Workers in the Unorganized Non-
agricultural Sector (1999-2000).
Worker Number (million) Percentage
Male Female Total Male Female Total
Self-employed
a) Independent workers 49.5 11.2 60.7 93.6 70.0 88.0
b) Home Workers 3.4 4.8 8.2 6.4 30.0 12.0
All Self-employed (a+b) 52.9 16.0 68.9 100.0 100.0 100.0
All unorganized non- 87.9 22.5 110.4
agricultural workers
Source : NCEUS (2007, P. 241, Appendix A 1.4)30

According to NSS (1999-00), home workers constituted 8.2 million

workers out of a total of 69 million self-employed workers, among them,
4.8 million (58.5 percent) were women. Available studies show that in the
manufacturing sector in India, product outsourcing from large firms to
small firms is on the increase. Home workers constituted about 12 percent
of all self-employed workers in 1999-00, but they have grown in numbers
as a consequence of greater resort to outsourcing. But no later estimate is
yet available.
Out of a total of 110 million unorganized non-agricultural workers,
about 69 million, that is, 62 percent are self-employed. Among the self-
employed, 88 percent are independent workers and 12 percent are home-
based workers.

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 Table No. 1.3
Size and Distribution of the Organized and Unorganized Sector
Workers by Industry and Status 2004-05
Status Agriculture Non-agriculture All
Orgd. Unorg. Total Orgd. Unorg. Total Orgd. Unorg. Total
SE 2.3 163.9 166.2 2.9 89.2 92.1 5.2 253.1 258.2
RW 1.3 1.5 2.8 41.9 24.8 66.7 43.2 26.4 69.5
CW 2.5 87.4 89.9 11.7 28.1 39.8 14.2 115.5 129.7
Total 6.1 252.8 258.9 56.5 142.1 198.5 62.6 394.9 457.5
SE 38.1 64.8 64.2 5.1 62.8 46.4 8.3 64.1 56.5
RW 20.1 0.6 1.1 74.3 17.4 3.6 69.0 6.7 15.2
CW 41.8 34.6 34.7 20.7 19.8 20.0 22.7 29.2 28.3
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Percentage 2.4 97.6 100.0 28.4 71.6 100.0 13.7 86.3 100.0
of Total
Source : NSS 61st Round (2004-2005), and NSS 55th Round (1999-2000),
Employment-Unemployment Survey : Computed by NCEUS.31
Note : SE = Self Employed, RW= Regular Worker, CW= Casual Worker.

Data given in table 3 reveals that out of 458 million workers, the
proportion of self-employed workers is 56.5 percent (258 million) and
casual workers are 28.3 percent (130 million). Taken together, these two
categories, which are the most vulnerable among workers constituted
about 85 percent. The remaining 69 million workers were regular workers
(15 percent). However, the proportion of self-employed in the
unorganized sector was 64 percent (253 million) out of a total of 395
million workers and that of casual workers was 29 percent (116 million).
Taken together, these two most vulnerable groups accounted for 93
percent among the unorganized sector. Regular workers accounted for
only seven percent. This provides a vivid overview of the pathetic state of

21
unorganized workers in which 93 percent workers suffered from job as
well social insecurity. Among the organized workers, the situation was
relatively better where 69 percent were regular workers and barely 31
percent were self-employed and casual workers.
The situation in the agricultural sector was appalling where 99
percent of the workers were both self-employed or casual workers and
only one percent regular workers.
The unorganized sector in agriculture accounted for 99.4 percent of
self-employed and casual workers devoid of security whatsoever.
However, in the non-agricultural sector, this proportion was as high as 83
percent.
The overall scenario that emerges is : in the economy, the
unorganized sector workers constituting 86 percent of the total workforce
suffer from very insecure working conditions. It is this group that
deserves maximum support for improving their living conditions.
1.13 Estimate of organized and unorganized workers :-
Out of a total of 458 million workers, agricultural workers
constituted 259 million (56.6 percent of the total) and non-agricultural
workers were about 199 million (43.4 percent of the total). Out of 458
million workers, males constituted 310 million (67.7 percent of the total)
and females accounted for 148 million (32.3 percent of the total).

22
 Table 1.4
Distribution of Organized and Unorganized Workers (2004-05)
Worker Total (million) Percentage of Total
Total Workers 457.5 100.0
a) Agriculture 258.9 56.6
b) Non-agriculture 198.5 43.4
Organized Workers 34.9 7.6
a) Agriculture 2.9 0.6
b) Non-agriculture 32.0 7.0
Unorganized Workers 422.6 92.4
a) Agriculture 256.0 56.0
b) Non-agriculture 166.5 36.4
Source : www.org.un.in32

Data provided in table 4 reveals that unorganized workers

constituted 92.4 percent of the total workforce, accounting for about 423
million workers. As against them, the organized sector workers
constituted 7.6 percent of the total workforce and were only of the order
of 35 million. This indicates that the development process pursued in
India during the last six decades has not been able to reduce the share of
unorganized workers in the economy.
Among the 423 million workers in the unorganized sector,
agricultural workers constituted 256 million (56.0 percent) and non-
agricultural workers were of the order of 167 million (36.4 percent).
Among 35 million organized workers, merely three million were
agricultural workers and 32 million were non-agricultural workers.
We can compare characteristics of the formal and informal sectors
which is shown as below.

23
 Table No. 1.5
Comparison of Characteristics of the Formal and Informal Sectors
Particulars Formal Sector Informal Sector
1) Job Security High Low
2) Working Hours Fixed/Regulated Not fixed/regulated
3) Wages Regulated/minimum Not regulated/no
Wages minimum wages
4) Social Security including Most Provided None or little
medical allowance & sick
leave
5) Labour laws including Protective No or little legal
right to freedom of protection
association and collective
bargaining
6) Employee-employer's Issue of Without
relation with employment Appointment Letter Appointment Letter
control
7) Safe work environments Safe and Secure Vulnerable to
working conditions dangerous &
hazardous work
8) Unionization and Better Homogeneous, Heterogeneous,
Networked Highly Organized & Unorganized.
Scattered
Source : Ahn (2007)33

Labour protection for the working people in India is available

under various laws enacted by the parliament as well as the state
legislatures. The preamble of the constitution of India guarantees its
citizens justice- social, economic and political, liberty of thought,

24
expression, belief, faith and worship; equality of status and opportunities
and fraternity, dignity of individual and dignity of nation.
Part IV of the constitution of India relating to directive principles
of state policy, inter-alia, call for provisions for right to work and
education, public assistance in cases of unemployment and of social
security, just and humane conditions of work; maternity relief; living
wage and working conditions capable of ensuring decent standard of life
(Articles 41 to 43), workers participation and management.34
Part III of the constitution of India prohibits the forced labour &
employment of children in factories or mines or in hazardous occupations
(Article 23 & 24). Fundamental right to freedom of association and
formation of unions is also guaranteed under Article 19.
There are several ILO conventions on social security like
convention No. 102 on social security (minimum standard) adopted in
1952 includes measures on medical care & benefit for sickness,
unemployment, old age, employment injury, maternity and survivor
benefits. Government of India has not ratified the convention No. 118
regarding equality of treatment (social security convention) 1962 which
enjoins upon the member states to grant equality of treatment to the
nationals of any other member under its legislation with its own national,
both as regards the coverage and right to benefits in respect of every
branch of social security as specified in convention no. 102. However,
government of India ratified this convention as early as in the year 1964.
Most of the laws relating to social security in India are generally
conforming to the conventions and recommendations of ILO, although
many of the conventions are yet to be ratified by India.35
The organized sector workers which constitute about 7 percent of
the total workforce of about 400 million in the country are covered under
various legislations providing social security to these workers. The major

25
legislations providing social security to these workers are the employee's
state insurance act, 1948 and the employee's provident fund and
miscellaneous provisions act, 1952 etc. These two legislations provide for
medical and health insurance and provident fund and pension to the
worker respectively.
The workforce in the unorganized sector comprising about 37 crore
or 93 percent of the total workforce do not get adequate labour protection
in terms of job security, wages, working conditions, social security and
welfare due to various factors such as : casual and seasonal employment,
scattered work place, poor working conditions, lack of employer-
employee relationship : irregular and often long working house; limited
access to credit, lack of legal protection, social security and government
support.36
In the context of preparation of the eleventh five year plan, the
planning commission had set up a working group on social security under
the chairmanship of secretary, ministry of labour and employment,
government of India.
1.14 Trends in Unorganized Labour and Their Characteristics in India :-
Indian economy is characterized by the existence of high level of
informal or unorganized labour employment. The workers in the
organized sector constitute about 7 percent of the country's total
workforce and the rest (93 percent) comprises of subsistence farmers,
agricultural workers, fisher folk, dairy workers and those working in the
traditional manufacturing like handlooms are grouped under unorganized
sector.
The term 'unorganized labour' has been defined as those workers
who have not been able to organize themselves to pursuit of their
common interests due to certain constraints like casual nature of

26
employment, ignorance and illiteracy, small and scattered size of
establishments, etc.37
Ministry of labour has categorized the unorganized labour force
under four groups in terms of occupation, nature of employment,
specially distressed categories and service categories. In terms of
occupation, it included small and marginal farmers, landless agricultural
labourers, share croppers, fishermen and those engaged in animal
husbandry, beedi rolling, labeling and packing, building and construction
workers, leather workers, weavers, artisans, salt workers, workers in brick
kilns and stone quarries, workers in saw mills, oil mills etc.
In terms of nature of employment, they are attached agricultural
labourers, bonded labourers, migrant workers, contract and casual
labourers. Toddy tappers, scavengers, carriers of head loads, drivers of
animal driven vehicles, loaders and unloader, being to the specially
distressed category while midwives, domestic workers, fishermen and
women, barbers, vegetable and fruit vendors, newspaper vendors etc.
come under the service category. In addition to the above categories,
there exists a large section of unorganized labour force such as cobblers,
hamals, handicraft artisans, handloom weavers, lady tailors, physically
handicapped self-employed persons, rickshaw pullers/auto drivers,
sericulture workers, carpenters, leather and tannay workers, power loom
workers and urban poor.38
The extent of unorganized workers is significantly high among
agricultural workers, building and other construction workers, and among
home based workers. But, the availability of statistical information on its
intensity and accuracy very significantly.
Agricultural workers constitute the largest segment of workers in
the unorganized sector : According to the NSSO estimates for the year
2004-05, 52 percent of the total workers are found in agriculture

27
(economic survey : 2007-08). Many small and marginal farmers, because
of their small and uneconomical holdings and low yield, also work on the
land of other and hence qualify as agricultural labourers. Further a
significant number, are engaged in rearing livestock, foresting fishery,
orchard and allied activities.
Construction workers constitute the second largest category of
workers in the unorganized sector. According to the NSSO estimates,
about 5.57 percentages of workers are engaged in building and other
construction works in 2004-05 (economic survey 2007-08). The
construction industry covers a vast field of activity in the civil,
mechanical, electrical and public health area processes. A large number
of multinational, national and local companies employ lakhs of such
workers. Moreover, a large number of self employed individuals are
engaged in actual construction works and allied activities like white
washing, painting, plumbing and fixing of mechanical or electrical
fixtures etc.
Home based workers are those who are engaged in the production
of goods or services for an employed or contractor in an arrangement
whereby the work is carried out at the place of the workers own choice,
often the worker's own home. In India, there is no authentic data on home
based workers. Official data sources such as census of India do not
recognize these workers as an independent category but have included
them in the broad category of those working in house-hold industries.
Home based workers are mainly engaged in beedi rolling, garment
making, agarbati making, gem cutting, preparation of food items like
papad, pickle etc., handloom, lace and chicken work etc. The beedi
rolling industry, which is generally family based, employs about 45 lakh
workers out of which 90 percent are home based workers.39

28
 So, the unorganized sector workers can be categorized broadly into
four categories which can be shown briefly as follows:
1) Occupation :-
Small and marginal farmers, landless agricultural labours, share
croppers, fishermen, those engaged in animal husbandry, in beedi rolling,
beedi labelling and beedi packing, workers in building and construction
etc.
2) Nature of Employment :-
Attached agricultural labourers, bonded labourers, migrant
workers, contract and casual labourers come under this category.
3) Specially distressed Category :-
Toddy tappers, scavengers, carriers of head loads, drivers of animal
driven vehicles, loaders and unloaders belong to this category.
4) Service Categories :-
Midwives, domestic workers, fishermen and women, barbers,
vegetable and fruit vendors, newspapers vendors etc. come under this
category.
The government has enacted certain legislations for the protection
of these workers. Some of the legislations applicable to the workers in the
unorganized sector include the workmen compensation Act, 1923; the
minimum wage act, 1948; the maternity benefit Act, 1970; the bonded
labour system (Abolition) Act 1976; the contract labour (Abolition and
Prohibition) act, 1970; the interstate migrant workmen (RECS) Act,
1979; the building and other construction workers (RECS) Act, 1996; and
the building and other construction workers welfare act, 1996.
1.15 The major characteristics of unorganized workers could be
listed as below :-
a) The unorganized labour is overwhelming in terms of its number
range and therefore, they are omnipresent throughout India.

29
b) As the unorganized sector suffers from cydes of excessive
seasonality of employment, majority of the unorganized workers
does not have stable and durable avenues of employment. Even
those who appear to be visibly employed are not gainfully and
substantially employed, indicating the existence of disguised
unemployment.
c) The workplace is scattered and fragmented. The workers do the
same king of job (s) in different habitations and may not work and
live together in compact geographical areas.
d) There is no formal employer-employee relationship between small
and marginal farmers, share croppers and agricultural labourers as
they work together in situations which may be marginally
favourable to one category but may be broadly described as
identical.
e) In rural areas, the unorganized labour force is highly stratified on
caste and community considerations. In urban areas while such
considerations are much less, it cannot be said that it is altogether
absent as the bulk of the unorganized workers in urban areas are
basically migrant workers from rural areas.
f) Workers in the unorganized sector are usually subject to a lot of
fads, taboos, and outmoded social customs like child-marriage,
excessive spending on ceremonial festivities etc. which lead to
indebtedness and bandage.
g) The unorganized workers are subject to exploitation significantly
by the rest of the society. The unorganized workers receive poor
working conditions, especially wages much below that in the
formal sector, even for closely comparable jobs i.e., where labour
productivity are no different. The work status is of inferior quality

30
 of work and inferior terms of employment, both remuneration and
employment.
h) Primitive protection technologies and feudal production relations
are rampant in the unorganized sector and they do not permit or
encourage the workmen to imbibe and assimilate higher
technologies and better production relations. Large scale ignorance
and illiteracy and limited exposure to the goings on in the outside
world are also responsible for such poor absorption.
i) The unorganized workers do not receive sufficient attention from
the trade unions.40
In general, unorganized workers are observed to be large in
number, suffering from cycles of excessive seasonality of employment,
scattered and fragmented work place, poor in working conditions, and
lack of attention from the trade unions.
1.16 Social Security Measures : The Experience :-
India has a long tradition of social security and social assistance
directed particularly towards the more vulnerable sections of society. The
institution of self sufficient village communities, the system of common
property resources, the system of joint families and the practice of
making endowments for religious and charitable provided the required
social security and assistance to the needy and poor of the nation. In fact,
the cast and religion based institutions also played significant role in
providing the needed support to the weaker sections of the selected castes
and group of people. These informal arrangements of social security
measures underwent steady and inevitable erosion in the wake of
industrialization and urbanization.
During the British rule the policy was to provide assistance only to
the employees of the company or the government, basically to promote
the commitment and loyalty of the workforce and as a part of non-union

31
strategy. Only during the post-independent period, the welfare dimension
gained relevance and importance. However, even after independence, the
state was concerned more with the problems of industrial (organized)
workforce and neglected the rural labour force on social security matters
to a greater extent, till recent past.41
It is rightly true that when independent India's constitution was
drafted, social security was specially included in list III to schedule VII of
the constitution and it was made as the concurrent responsibility of the
central and state governments. A number of directive principles of state
policy relating to aspects of social security were incorporated in the
Indian constitution. The initiatives in the form of acts such as, the
workmen's compensation Act (1923), the industrial dispute act (1947),
the employees state insurance act (1948), the minimum wage act (1948),
the coal mines provident funds and miscellaneous provisions act (1948),
the employees provident fund and miscellaneous provisions act (1952),
the Assam Tea Plantations Provident Funds/Scheme Act (1955), The
Maternity Benefit Act (1961), The Seamen's Provident Fund Act (1966),
The Contract Labour Act (1970), The Payment of Gratuity Act (1972),
The Building and Construction Workers Act (1996), etc. reveals the
attention given to the organized workers to attain different kinds of social
security and welfare benefits. Needless to state that the benefit arising
through these initiatives are meant for -
a) Employees of the central and state government's local bodies,
including universities and aided educational institutions.
b) Public sector establishments, under both centre and state, including
mines, railways, ports and docks, air corporations, banks, insurance
companies, electricity boards, road transport undertakings
manufacturing units, trading concerns, service industries, etc.

32
c) Employees in organized private sector establishments in industries
as in cotton textiles, jute, silk and art silk, cement, engineering,
chemical, electronics, transport, construction, services and so on.
Though it has been argued that the above Acts are directly and
indirectly applicable to the workers in the unorganized sector also, their
contribution is negligible to the unorganized workers.
Although not much has been done in providing social security
cover to the rural poor and the unorganized labour force, the country has
made some beginning in that direction. Both the central and state
governments have formulated certain specific schemes to support
unorganized workers. The old age pension scheme (OAPS) was
introduced in all the states and union territories. Kerala was the first state
to experiment with the pension scheme for the agricultural workers in the
year 1982, followed by Tamilandu (1982). Andhra Pradesh (1983)
introduced the OAPS to the landless agricultural workers. The
government of Karnataka introduces the Asha Kiran Scheme (1983) to
provide relief against death or loss of limbs due to accident to agricultural
labourers and other labourers (aged 16-65) such as fishermen, beedi
workers, washerman, cobblers, masions, goldsmiths, drivers of animal
drawn vehicles, rickshaw pullers, etc.
The government of Maharashtra introduced a pension scheme in
1980 to support the physically handicapped and economically weaker
sections of the society. In addition to pension schemes, there were
initiatives to provide death and retirement benefits for the artisans and
skilled workers and insurance benefits to the unorganized sectors initiated
in state level.
In order to evolve comprehensive legislation for workers in the
unorganized sectors, various commissions and study groups were
appointed. The first National Commission on Labour (1969) defined the

33
unorganized workers and recommended the minimum wages Act to cover
unorganized workers too. In 1984, the Economic Administration Reforms
Commission constituted a 6 member working group on social security.
The working group could not carry out detailed investigation. In August
1987, government of India appointed a National Commission on Rural
Labour to examine the national and regional problems pertaining rural
labour in India. The commission submitted its report in july 1991 and
recommended old age pension, life insurance, maternity benefit,
disability benefits and minimum health care and sickness benefits to all
rural workers. Second National Labour Commission constituted in 1999
submitted its report in 2002 and recommended an umbrella type
legislation and drafted an indicative bill also to provide protection to the
workers in the unorganized sector. Based on the commission's
recommendations, the government launched the 'unorganized sector
workers' social security scheme, 2004 on pilot basis in 50 districts. The
scheme provided three benefits such as, old age pension, medical
insurance and accidental insurance. However, the scheme was not found
viable as it had no statutory backing, it was voluntary in nature and the
contribution from the employers was not forthcoming. Moreover, given
the size of the unorganized sector the magnitude of the problem is huge
and the resource requirements are quite large.42
The National Common Minimum Programme (NCMP) of the
present government highlights the commitment of the government
towards the welfare and well being of all workers, particularly in the
unorganized sector. The government constituted a National Commission
for the Enterprises in the Unorganized sector (NCEUS) under
chairmanship of Dr. Arjun Sen Gupta to examine the problems of
exterprises in the unorganized sector and make recommendations for
expanding their coverage. The commission presented its report on the

34
social security for the unorganized sector workers in May 2006. Based on
the committee's recommendations the government is in the process of
enactment of legislation (bill) and formulation of social security schemes.
Poverty Alleviation Programmes (PAP) and Employment oriented
programmes initiated in India and primarily focused on developing rural
labour and unorganized workers. These programmes improve the access
of the poor to developmental programmes, use surplus labour for
community assets formation and strengthen the position of the poor by
providing assts and income. The first PAPs introduced were Small
Farmers Development Agency (SFDA) and marginal farmers and
Agricultural Labour Agency (MFAL). In 1980, Integrated Rural
Development Programme (IRDP) was launched with the aim of helping
the poor families to cross poverty line and enabling them to achieve
sustain poverty eradication productive assets and inputs were provided
through financial assistance by government subsidy and term credit from
financial institutions. The programme covered small and marginal
farmers, agricultural labourers and rural artisans. In 1979, Training for
Rural Youth for self-employment was introduced to provide technical and
entrepreneurial skills to rural youth from families below poverty line to
enable than to take up income generating activities.43
To develop women and children in rural areas with a cooperation
of UNICEF a special programme named Development of Women and
Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) was started during 1982-83. As an
effort towards employment security National Rural Employment
Programme (NERP) was launched during the sixth plan (1982-85). In
1983, Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP) was
introduced to ensure employment generation of hundred days in a year in
the rural landless households. By replacing the NREP and RLEGP
Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY) was launched in 1989. In the same year

35
Nehru Rozgar Yojana (NRY) also got launched with a target towards
persons living below the poverty line in urban areas. There are several
other programme such as Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP),
Desert Development Programme (DDP), Hill Area Development
Programme (HADP) and North-East Council (NEC) were also launched
with similar objectives of developing weaker sections of selected areas.
In addition to the central assisted programmes, state-level
initiatives for poverty alleviation and employment generaton were
initiated towards unorganized workers. For instance in Tamil Nadu old
age pension is available to (a) aged poor who are 65 year and above (b)
destitute and physically handicapped,( c) destitute widow, (d) destitute
agricultural labourers and (e) destitute /deserted wives. Under the
Annapurna Scheme, food grains are distributed to the destitute/ senior
citizens covered under the National Old Age Pension scheme. The
beneficiaries are given 10 Kgs of rice per month at free of cost. The state
of Goa has enacted the Goa Employment (Conditions of Service) and
Retirement Benefit Act, 2005. According to this act the employers is
required to issue social security cards to the workers engaged by him in
both the organized and unorganized sectors. West Bengal Government
introduced a State Assisted Scheme of Provident Fund for unorganized
workers in 2001. Tripura Government also introduced the similar
Provident Fund Programme in 2001. In the State of Punjab, in addition to
old age pension scheme, financial assistance to women and destitute
women, dependent children and disabled persons are also made available.
Similar such state level initiatives are carried out in Kerala, Bihar, Uttar
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Gujarat and other states.44
The involvement of Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs) in
the social security of unorganized workers could not be ignored. A large
number of voluntary and people's organizations are directly involved in

36
providing protective social secuirty to workers and their families in the
unorganized sector. The services provided by the NGO's include access to
micro-credit, housing, preventive health care and employment. The
NGO's support to unorganized workers is carried out in two ways. Firstly,
the NGO's use their own funds and the aids obtained from other agencies
(domestic and international donors) and implement several projects and
schemes to the targeted people who are basically weaker and vulnerable
sections of the community. Secondly, they serve as an intermediary
between the formal provider (say, government) and the community, and
help in routing the services to the needy. In both the ways, it is expected
that the services are reaching to the community with no delay, less cost
and to the right ones. It is estimated that the NGO's could cover only 3 to
4 percent of the total workforce in the unorganized sector.45
1.17 Social Security for the Unorganized Workers : The Needs :-
There are some list of major security needs of the unorganized
workers which are as follows :
1.17.1 Food Security :-
Food security is considered as an important component of social
security. The rural workers and weaker sections of the community are
badly affected during times of drought, flood and famine, and due to
similar natural calamities. The DPAP largely confines itself in the
provision of employment through rural works programme. What is
required is to provide security for food in times of difficulty and during
normal times. The Public Distribution System (PDS) implemented in
Indian states stand as a model attempt in this direction. It is through the
PDS that the government endeavors to protect the real purchasing power
of the poorer sections by providing them an uninterrupted supply of food
grains at prices far below market prices. It is to be noted that the PDS was

37
introduced only to the urban areas initially, but sine 1970s rural areas are
also covered.46
1.17.2 Nutritional Security :-
It is not just 'food', but the nutrition is very important. The weaker
sections of the community and the unorganized workers are not conscious
about the nutrient intake. Particularly, the children and women, pregnant
women and aged do not receive adequate nutrient requirements. Lack of
nutrient leads to poor growth, poor health and sickness, poor performance
and shorter life. There are certain initiatives by the states, local bodies
and NGO's to create awareness on health and nutrition and to ensure
adequate nutrient intake for the targeted groups, particularly to children
and women.47
1.17.3 Health Security :-
Health security can be described as ensuring low exposure to risk
and providing access to health care service along with the ability to pay
for medical care an medicine. Such health security should be made
available to all citizens. Several studies that examined rural health
conditions and health care needs highlight that the inadequate and poor
rural health infrastructure, growing health care needs and health care
expenses. Establishing hospitals with required infrastructure in all the
villages is a question of feasibility, viability and availability of inputs and
resources. However, it is a matter of concern to consider the needs of the
70 percent of the people living in villages. The poor do not treat for
common illness and sometimes to major diseases that are unidentified by
them, causing higher level of untreated morbidity. Similarly, the cost and
burden of treatments are ever increasing and leading to difficulty for the
poor and weaker sections of the community.48

38
1.17.4 Housing Security :-
Housing is one of the basic needs of every individual and family.
The housing needs of the unorganized workers and the poor are ever
increasing in the context of the decay of joint family system, migration
and urbanization. In urban areas, though housing is a major issue, the
organized workers are supported by providing House Rent Allowances
(HRA) or by providing houses through housing boards and by providing
accommodation in the quarters. There are several financing companies
and commercial banks offering loans to organized workers to construct or
purchase houses. These facilities are normally not available and could not
be enjoyed by the unorganized workers. Moreover, the housing
conditions of the rural poor are 'really poor' and there is scope for
reconditioning, modification and reconstruction, in many. The rural
housing programme implemented in Tamilnadu namely Samathavapuram
and construction of houses under slum clearance board stand as examples
for steps towards housing security.49
1.17.5 Employment Security :-
Unorganized workers are greatly affected by the seasonal nature of
the employment opportunities. The problem of under-employment and
unemployment persist to a large extent among unorganized sectors. There
are several schemes such as Swarnajayanti Gram Swaeozgar Yojana
(SGSY), Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY), Sampoorna
Gramin Rozgar Yojana (JAY), Integrated Wastelands (IWDP), Drought
Prone Areas Programme (DPAP) and Desert Development Programme
(DDP) initiated to generate employment opportunities in rural India.
Further, the government has recently enacted the National Rural
Employment Guarantee Act to provide 100 days guaranteed employment
to rural households. Though these initiatives have contributed in reducing

39
the rural unemployment problem, the problem of employment insecurity
needs to be address in a under context and solved at.50
1.17.6 Income Security :-
Though income and number of days of employment are positively
related, this relationship holds good mainly for organized workers. As far
as unorganized workers are concerned, their income is highly influenced
by nature of job, nature and type of products produced quantum of value
addition, market value, competition, etc. To protect from the crop loss,
crop insurance scheme is available. But for various other self-employed
enterprises and other jobs, there is no security available to realize income
for the efforts.51
1.17.7 Life and Accident Security :-
The death of a worker in a family is a great loss to the entire family
and it adds burden too. The death of a worker raises the question of
survival of the family left behind due to the permanent loss of income to
the family. Similarly, an accident is a major problem for an informal
worker since it leads to loss of income and cost of treatment. If the
accident leads to permanent or partial disability, the financial loss will be
severe and unimaginable. By covering the unorganized workers under the
insurance schemes of individual, family and group could alone provide
security for life and accident.52
1.17.8 Old Age Security :-
The workers of the unorganized sector face the problem of
insecurity when they reach to the life stage of aged when they could not
work for themselves. The question of dependency is a major threat to the
old age unorganized workers in the context of disappearing joint family
system.53

40
1.18 Social Security for the Unorganized Sector :-
In India the term social security is generally used in its broadest
sense, it may consist of all types of measures preventive, promotional and
protective as the case may be. The measures may be statutory, public or
private. The term encompasses social insurance, social assistance, social
protection, social safety net and other steps involved.
There are number of models of providing social security to the
workers in the unorganized sector.
These may be classified as under:
a) Centrally funded social assistance programmes.
b) Social insurance scheme
c) Social assistance through welfare funds of central and state
governments, and
d) Public initiatives
The centrally funded social assistance programmes include the
employment oriented poverty alleviation programmes such as
Swarnjayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana, Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana,
Employment Assurance Scheme, National Social Assistance Programme
(NSAP) comprising old age pension, family benefit and maternity
benefits to address the social security needs of the people below poverty
line.54
The social insurance schemes include several schemes launched by
the central and the state governments for the benefit of weaker sections
through the life insurance corporation of India and general insurance
corporation of India. There are schemes for the employees of shops and
commercial establishments and other weaker sections. 'Janshree Bima
Yojana' is a group insurance scheme and covers natural/accidental death,
partial or total permanent disability due to accident and the people below
poverty line and marginally above are eligible to join the scheme.

41
Another group insurance scheme for the agriculture landless labour,
'Krishi Shramik Samajik Suraksha Yojana 2001' launched in July, 2001
provides for pension and insurance besides providing money back. The
contribution of the beneficiary is Rs. 1 per day while the government
contributes Rs. 2/- per day.
Several public institutions and agencies are also imparting various
kinds of social security benefits to the selected groups of workers. Among
these Self-employed Women's Association (SEWA) has made significant
achievement in promoting social security through the formation of
cooperatives.
Welfare funds represent one of the models developed in India for
providing social protection to workers in the unorganized sector. The
government of India has set up five welfare funds. Central funds are
administered through the ministry of labour for the beedi and workers in
certain other occupations for whom no direct employers relationship
exists and is implemented without any contribution from the government.
The scheme of welfare fund is outside the framework of specific
employer and employee relationship in as much as the resources are
raised by the government on non-contributory basis and the delivery of
welfare services is effected without linkage to individual worker's
contribution. These funds are constituted from the cess collected from the
employers and manufacturers/ producers of particular commodity/
industry concerned.55
The government has also enacted a central legislation for the
building and other construction workers towards creation of welfare
funds at the level of states. There are around 20 million construction
workers in the country. A small cess is collected on the basis of the cost
of a construction project which makes the corpus of the welfare fund for
the construction workers. All facilities as enumerated above are provided

42
to this section of the unorganized sector workers. Presently three states in
the country namely, Kerala, Tamilnadu and Delhi have started
implementing schemes under this act. However, other states are in the
process of adopting.
Moreover, the welfare fund model has successfully been
implemented by various states for various categories of workers. The
state of Tamilnadu is running 11 welfare boards for workers like
construction workers, truck drivers, footwear workers, handloom and silk
weaving workers. Similarly, state of Kerala are also running several
welfare funds for agricultural workers, cashew workers, coir workers,
fisherman, toddy-tappers etc. the model is so popular that some of the
other states like Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh are in
the process of bringing out their own legislation for creation of welfare
funds in the unorganized sector workers for providing them social
security.56
1.19 Action Programme for the Unorganized Sector :-
The National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganized
Sector (NCEUS) was the first initiative taken by the central government
to study in depth the problems of the unorganized sector and recommend
measures to improve the state of affairs in this sector which provides
employment to 93 percent of workforce. The commission has
recommended the following action programme for the unorganized
sector.
1.19.1 Protective Measure for Unorganized Workers :-
Two sets of measures are recommended in this regard. I) Ensuring
minimum condition of work which includes the following. a) Eight-hour
working day with half-hour break, b) one paid day of rest per week, c)
National Minimum Wage for all workers in the unorganized sector, not
covered by the minimum wage act 1948, d) piece rate wage to equal time

43
rate wage; e) women work to be paid at par with men; f) deduction in
wage rate to attract fines, g) right of unorganized workers to organize; h)
safety equipment and compensation for accident; i) protection from
sexual harassments; and j) provision of child-care and basic amenities at
the workplace.57
1.19.2 Minimum Level of Social Security :-
NCEUS recommends two comprehensive bills separately for
agricultural and non-agricultural workers providing the following
benefits; a) life insurance Rs. 30,000 for natural death or Rs. 75,000 in
the event of accidental death or total disability; b) Health Insurance;
Hospitalization for each worker and his family members, costing Rs.
15,000 a year with Rs. 10,000 per ailment in designated hospitals; c) old
age security: all BPL (Below the Poverty Line) workers will get a
monthly pension of Rs. 200 at the age of 60 plus; all workers other than
BPL will be entitled to provident fund.
The proposed scheme is expected to cost Rs. 1,095 per worker per
year for 30 crore workers in the unorganized sector. The total cost of the
scheme for both agricultural and non-agricultural workers will be Rs.
33,950 crores at 2006-07 prices after full coverage (Rs. 19,400 crores for
agricultural workers and Rs. 13,950 crores for non-agricultural workers).
Workers below the poverty line (BPL) will be exempt from contribution
and their share will be borne by the central government; and other
workers will contribute Rs. 1 per day and the central and state
governments each will pay Rs. 1 per day. On the assumption that GDP
will grow at the rate of 8 percent in the next five years, the cost of the
scheme would be 0.20 percent of GDP in the year of its inception. This
will rise to 0.48 percent of GDP in 2010-11 when all the unorganized
workers are expected to be covered.58

44
1.19.3 Package of Measures for the Marginal and Small Farmers :-
The commission recommends that during the eleventh plan period,
the government focuses a targeted programme to help small and marginal
farmers. The government could take as its priority tasks the development
of area specific irrigation schemes; crop procurement, measures for
reducing risks, formation of self-help groups (SHGs) for farmers with
respect to irrigation resources, inputs and marketing arrangements;
tenancy reform and group farming. The government can also undertake
technological platforms, which could be accessed by such farmers.59
1.19.4 Emphasis on Accelerated Land and Water Management :-
The commission is of the view that in rain fed areas, the watershed
development programmes are of crucial importance and have a height
benefit cost ratio. About 45 million hectares have been covered under
watershed development programme so far, while about 75 million
hectares remain to be covered. The commission recommends accelerated
expansion of watershed development programmes and rainted area
programmes to revive agriculture in rain fed agricultural land on which a
large number of the rural poor are dependent, as an immediate priority.60
1.19.5 Credit for Marginal Small Farmers :-
The commission recommends that priority sector lending
guidelines of the RBI should be amended and a 10 percent quota, out of
the 18 percent presently assigned for agriculture, be fixed for farmers
with landholding below two hectares.
Besides this, 20-40 percent of marginal and small farmers are
excluded from formal financial sector due to lack of patta and title
decades. The commission recommends that such farmers be extended
credit on the basis of certificates issued by Panchayats. To reduce the risk
of default, the commission is of the view that the government may set up
a Credit Guarantee Fund (CGF) in NABARD, on the lines of the CGF set

45
up by the Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises, which
provides guarantee cover on loans to small units.61
1.19.6 Farmer's Debt Relief Commission :-
To alleviate the distress faced by farmers with respect to 31
districts, in the four states of Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka
and Kerala, the government has launched a special package of debt relief.
To help other states as well, the commission recommends the setting up
of farmers' debt relief commission. The central government, as a part of
the relief package, could extend assistance to state commissions on a
75:25 basis.62
1.19.7 Measures to Improve Growth of Non-agriculture Sector :-
Improve Credit Flow to the Non-agriculture Sector :
NCEUS recommends in a detailed manner measures to improve
access of bank credit for micro and small enterprises. At present, the
priority sector targets are as follows. Agriculture : 18 percent, weaker
sections 10 percent. And others include micro and small enterprises 12
percent. There is no specific target for small and micro enterprises. The
commission recommends that an explicit target of 10 percent be set for
lending to micro and small enterprises. Within this, a four per cent target
may be set up for micro enterprises with a capital investment upto Rs.
five Lakhs. Since, the priority sector quota for agriculture is 18 percent
(of which 10 percent should be reserved for small and marginal farmers),
and another 10 percent as recommended for small and micro-enterprises,
this would leave a quota of 12 percent from the total priority sector
allocation of 40 percent, which in the commissions view, should be
allocated for socio-economically weaker sections, for purposes of
housing, education, professions, etc with a loan ceiling of Rs. five
Lakhs.63

46
1.19.8 Creation of a National Fund for Unorganized Sector :-
The commission recommends that an agency be created for the
development of unorganized sector which shall be called National Fund
for the Unorganized Sector (NAFUS) with an initial corpus of Rs. 5000
crores, contributed by central government, public sector banks, financial
sector institutions and other government agencies. The target group of the
fund would be micro-enterprises, with focus on those below an
investment of Rs. five lakhs. These constitute 94 percent of small
enterprises in the country but they receive only two percent of net bank
credit despite providing employment to 70 million people and
contributing to 30 percent of the industrial production.64
1.19.9 Up-scaling of Cluster Development Through Growth Poles :-
The commission recommends the development of 'growth poles'
for the unorganized sector, based on concept of a cluster of clusters with
public- private partnership. This recommendation involves an up-scaling
of cluster development efforts through the provision of common
infrastructure, service centres, etc designed to take the existing cluster
development approach to the next level. The commission believes that
clusters once developed would lead to multiplier effect on production and
employment in rural areas. The commission also recommends that growth
poles, should be given the same incentives currently being offered to
special economic zones.65
1.19.10 Measures to Expand Employment and Improve
Employability Programmes :-
1) Expand Employment Through Self-employment Programmes :-
The commission recommends that target of employment under
self-employment schemes should be raised to five million per year as
against two million per year proposed by the Eleventh Plan.66

47
2) Universalize and Strengthen NREGA :-
The commission recommends the extension and universalisation of
National Rural Employment Guarantee Programme to all districts in the
country. At present, NREGA programme covers 330 districts. The
commission, in this respect, recommends that on the employment front,
the cap on employment for 100 days a year to be provided per household
should be removed and the programmes should be purely demand based,
on the lines of Maharashtra Employment Guarantee Scheme.67
3) Improving the Employability Through Skill Development :-
The commission noted the 'skill development' initiatives' (SDI)
being provided at present at a total cost of Rs. 550 crores. The objectives
of the scheme is to provide training to school leavers, existing workers,
ITI graduates to improve their employability. On an average, an
expenditure of Rs. 5000 per person is expected to be incurred on training
imparted and certification of trainees under SDI scheme.
The commission recommends that though DGET scheme is a step
in the right direction, it should be expanded through a supplementary on
the job-training cum employment assurance programme for an additional
Sum of Rs. 5000 per person to be provided as one-time payment as an
incentive to any employer who is willing to provide on the job-training
for skill enhancement to at least one year to the trained worker.68

48
1.20 Recommendations Concerning Unorganized Sector by Major
Commission :-
Name of the Commission Select/major recommendations
First National Commission Conduct periodic Surveys to understand
on Labour (1969) the problems of different categories of
unorganized labour; legislative
protection by states; strengthen
inspection system, develop self-help
through cooperatives; enhance
employment opportunities.
National Commission on Give vulnerable sections ownership and
Self Employed Women and control over productive assets; have a
Women Workers (1988) system of registration for domestic
workers and regulate their appointment,
wages and other conditions of
employment; increase and review wages;
set up equal opportunities commission
under a central law; establish tripartite
boards; have a separate wing for
unorganized sector workers in the labour
department; extend maternity benefit and
childcare facilities for workers in the
unorganized sector. Favoured
simplification of existing laws and
strengthening of tripartite structure of
implementation.

49
National Commission on Recommended a multi-dimensional
Rural Labour (1991) strategy to lift rural labourers out of
poverty including central legislation for
rural workers; made specific
recommendations for workers in
different sectors, including review of
provisions in the inter state migrant
workmen act; recommended minimum
wage of Rs. 20 at 1990 prices.
Second National Recommended, as per terms of
Commission on Labour reference, umbrella legislation for
(2002) unorganized sector workers including
employment based boards at state-level
and district level boards and worker
facilitation centres at lower levels
suggested three approaches to improve
conditions of work through legislation; i)
extension of the coverage of existing
laws to the unorganized sector; ii)
provision of comprehensive legislation;
iii) provision of a comprehensive
legislation which extends protection to
the unprotected/ unorganized workers,
with universal minimum working
conditions but which allows them to
secure better working conditions through
the existing laws.

50
National Commission on Recommended National Minimum
Enterprises in the Social Security Scheme for all
Unorganized Section (2007) unorganized sector workers, which can
be added upon by the states. Two
separate bill covering conditions of work
and social security, separately for
agriculture (AWB or agricultural
workers bill) and non-agricultural
workers (NAWB of non-agricultural
workers bill) were proposed.
Each of the draft bills cover nine aspects
:
i) Regulation of conditions of work. ii)
social security benefits, (iii) NSSF
(National Social Security Fund); iv)
NSSWB (National Social Security and
Welfare Board); v) The state social
security and welfare boards, vi)
Registration of workers; viii) Delivery of
benefits; and viii) Enforcement and
dispute resolution
Source : C.P. Thakur and C.S. Venkata.69

The proposals on conditions of work include 8 hour working day

with half-hour break; one paid day of rest per week; national minimum
wage for all employments in the minimum wages Act, piece rate wage to
equal time rate wage; women's work to be remunerated on par; deferred
payment of wages attract penal interest; deductions in wages attract fines;
right to organize; non-discrimination; safety equipment and compensation

51
for accident; protection from sexual harassment; provision of child care
and basic amenities at workplace. Dispute resolution structure to include
conciliation committees at appropriate levels below the districts, i.e.,
block/tehsil/mandal levels; dispute resolution councils at district level and
adjudication. The NSSWB administration functions at the state level.
1.21 Unorganized Sector and Aurangabad City :-
From last 3 decades the Aurangabad city seems to be growing in
industrial sector because of this the employment has been increased
therefore, there is great demand for workers which are emigrating from
rural areas in-search of employment which they found in unorganized
sector in Aurangabad city. From last 2 decades in India 93% people are
working in unorganized sector and the same situation we can\ observation
Aurangabad city, because of this the people working in unorganized
sector do not getting social security's and it in a great issue and critical
problem for economic development.70
1.22 Rationale of Topic :-
In India, traditionally, the aspects of social security were taken care
by the set up family/ community. Rapid industrialization/urbanization
that began in the early twentieth century has largely led to the collapse of
the joint family set up, thus necessitating institutionalized intervention in
the form of state-cum-society regulated social security arrangements. The
need has been felt for social security arrangements for workers and their
families to enable them to deal with transient poverty/ vulnerability
caused by shock/adversity social protection could be instrumental in
motivating the workers to work better and to increase productivity in so
far as it would enable them to work free from domestic worries to a great
extent. Indisputably, the best strategy to improve the condition of
unorganized labour is to improve the demand for labour employment
which is the best form of social protection;

52
 Articles 39 (a) a 41 of the constitution requires that state should
within the limits or its economic capacity, make effective provision for
securing the right to work; to education, and to public assistance in case
of unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement. Though, social
security is not viewed as a fundamental right. Article 42 requires that the
state should make provision for securing just and human conditions of
work and for maternity relief. Article 43 states that states shall endeavour
to secure to all workers agricultural, industrial or otherwise, a living
wage, such conditions of work that ensure a decent standards of life.
Article 47 requires that the state shows us its primary duty, raise the level
of nutrition and the standards of living of its people and improve public
health, though the constitution itself through its different articles clearly
mentioned the need of provisions for social security of workers. But the
workers of unorganized sector and their families are still not benefits.
More than 91% of India's workforce consists of informal workers
working either in the unorganized formal sector (85%) or in the organized
formal sector (6%). A large majority of them face the problem of
'deficiency' or capability deprivation (of basic needs) as well as the
problem of 'adversity' (arising out of such contingencies as sickness and
accidents). The social security schemes that are currently in place hardly
cover even 5 to 6 percent of the estimated number of total informal
workers of 362 million (as of 1999-2000). With the exception of a small
number of states with some social security cover for workers in the
unorganized sector, a majority of the states do not offer any cover,
especially for addressing such core concerns as health care and maternity.
Among the central and state government initiatives address the social
security needs of the population, they are very few schemes addressed
specifically for the unorganized workers.

53
 Till today, not much efforts being taken to study the economic
aspects of social security in the unorganized sector of Aurangabad city.
Since last two decades, Aurangabad is witnessing rapid industrial growth
and has achieved the status of fastest growing city in Asia. Undoubtedly
this growth led to rise in employment opportunity but at the same time it
is seen that there is lack of attention towards the social security of
workers as far as unorganized sector is concerned, which further created
more problems for the workers in this sector. After observing the above
social condition of the unorganized sector in Aurangabad city, the present
study is chosen to understand different aspects such as, whether the
workers of unorganized sector are socially secured? Whether they are
benefited by the government? Socio-economic conditions of the workers
in the absence of social security, to study the health related issues of these
workers and study of expenditure incurred by the government for
different social security scheme.
1.23 Objectives of the Study:-
The major objectives of the study are:
1) To study the social security schemes implemented by the central
and state government.
2) To study the expenditure made by the central and state government
for social security in unorganized sector.
3) To study the socio-economic status of the surveyed labourers in
unorganized sector of Aurangabad city.
4) To study the social security status of the surveyed labourers.
5) To analyze the benefits taken if any, by the surveyed labourers in
Aurangabad city.
6) To suggest measures for the better working of social security for
the unorganized sector in Aurangabad city.

54
1.24 Hypotheses:-
1) The Government expenditure on social security for unorganized
sector is increased.
2) Workers from unorganized sector in Aurangabad city do not get
social security.
1.25 Scope and Limitations:-
The study of social security for workers in unorganized sector is
limited to Aurangabad city only. The scope of the research includes their
age, literacy, religion, poverty, living of standard, wage structure, social
protection, financial security, health security, psychological security,
family security, work security, living security (eg. Accident), benefits of
government schemes etc.
1.26 Research Methodology:-
This section explains the procedure followed in the selection of the
sample, the strategies and tools adopted in collecting the qualitative and
quantitative data. The logical aspects of the method are explained
separately as the study area, the sources of data, the sampling design, the
tools used, the variables studied and the methods of data analysis.
1.27 Area of Study :-
Aurangabad city was selected for the intensive study of the social
security in unorganized sector.
1.28 Sources of Data :-
After the purpose and scope have been defined, the next step is to
decide the sources of data. Here in the study, the researcher uses both the
primary and the secondary data. The primary data have been collected
through personal interview schedule method. The secondary data have
been collected from NSSO's several reports, employment reviews of
various years, Economic survey of India, Economic Survey of
Maharashtra, Labour Ministry of India, Aurangabad Zone Office,

55
Municipal Corporation of Aurangabad, census of India, district socio-
economic reviews, internet and also used statistical tools of the research.
1.29 Selection of Sample :-
In this present research work, to study the social security in
unorganized sector, I have selected ten different sectors from different
areas of Aurangabad city. 200 samples were selected with the use of
stratified random sampling.
Respondents
Sr. Sector Sample
No.
1 Rickshaw-wala 20
2 House Maids 20
3 Cobblers 20
4 Stone-mason 20
5 Industrial Workers 20
6 Construction Workers 20
7 Vegetable Sellers 20
8 Brick Workers 20
9 Hawkers 20
10 Porter Workers 20
Total 200

1.30 Chapter Summary :-

The present study has been divided in five chapters.
Chapter- I : Introduction:-
Chapter first introduces the importance of social security in
unorganized sector, evolution of social security, need for social security,
purpose and contingencies of social security, definition of social security,

56
levels of social security, social security in USA, social security in Europe,
social security strategy in India, social security in India, organized and
unorganized sector, definition of organized sector and India's informal
economy, trends in unorganized labour and their characteristics in India,
social security measures : the experience, social security for the
unorganized workers : the needs, social security for the unorganized
sector, action programme for the unorganized sector, recommendations
concerning unorganized sector by major commissions, unorganized sector
and Aurangabad city, rationale of the subject, objectives, hypotheses,
scope and limitations, research methodology, area of study, sources of
data, selection of sample, chapter scheme, references.
Chapter II : Review of Literature :-
Second chapter is taken with the review of literature and more
effective forty-two studies given in brief related to the subject.
Chapter III: Analysis of social security Schemes in India
In this present chapter various social security schemes of
unorganized sector by central government as well as state government
have been studied and the expenditure on unorganized sector by them has
been studied.
Chapter IV: Status of workers in unorganized sector in Aurangabad
city:-
This chapter relates to the social security in unorganized sector of
Aurangabad city. It has been seen by taking on account the age group of
workers, gender wise population of workers, literacy rates, marital status,
poverty of workers, living standard of workers, working days of workers,
income status of their family, expenditure pattern of their family,
financial security, health security, psychological security, family security,
work security and availability of basic amenities for them will be studied
in this chapters.

57
Chapter V :Summary, Conclusions & Recommendation :-
In the last chapter of study, main conclusions of this study and
recommendations to tackle the problems of studied class have been
mentioned.

58
References :-
1) Menon Shalaja (2007) : "Social Security for the other India",
Published by Indian Society Book Services, Hyderabad, PP. 71-72.
2) Alagesam R. (2009) : "Conditions of Work and Rights of Workers
in the Unorganized Sector", Published by Oxford University Press,
New Delhi, PP. 123.
3) Mishra Kishor Haridra (2009) : "Social Security for Unorganized
Workers", Published by Allan Book Services, Bihar, PP. 17.
4) Gore Parmeshwar Bhagwanrao (2011) : "Consumption Pattern of
Customers in Organized Retail Outlets in Aurangabad",
Unpublished Thesis, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada
University, Aurangabad, PP. 79.
5) http://maha.gov.in/mahacenses
6) Rao Madhav (2009) : "Social Security for Persons with Disability
in India", (http://www.disabilityinindia.org/socialsecurity.(fm)
7) Government of India (2011) : "11th Five Year Plan II Volume,
Published by Oxford University Press, New Delhi, PP. 97.
8) Ibid, PP. 98.
9) Srivastava S.C. (2005) : "Social Security and Labour Law", Eastern
Book Company, Lucknow, PP. 8.
10) Ibid, PP. 8.
11) Lord Bereridge (2003) : "Labour Welfare & Social Security",
Published by Deep Publication, New Delhi, PP. 11.
12) Ibid, PP. 12.
13) http://www.ilodecentwork.in
14) Government of India (2007): Report on Social Security for
Unorganized Workers: Summary and Recommendation, Indian
Journal of Human Development, Vol. 1, No. 1, New Delhi, PP. 86.
15) Ibid, PP. 87.

59
16) Ibid, PP. 87.
17) http://llen.org/wiki/social-security (united states)
18) www.unillm.for/prospear/an/prospear/som-protection.htm
19) Rao Madhav (2009) : "Social Security for Persons with Disability
in India", (http://www.disabilityinindia.org/socialsecurity.(fm),
PP. 2.
20) Ibid, PP. 3.
21) Ibid, PP. 4.
22) Ibid, PP. 5.
23) Government of India (2007): Report on Conditions of Work and
Promotion on Livelihoods in the Unorganized Sector, National
Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganized Sector, Published
by Oxford University Press, New Delhi, PP. 3.
24) Ibid, PP. 4.
25) Ibid, PP. 5.
26) Government of India (2007): National Sample Survey 61th Round,
Published by Oxford University Press, New Delhi, PP. 73.
27) Datt Ruddar (2007) : "Unorganized Sector and Informalisation of
the Indian Economy", The Indian Journal of Labour Economics,
Volume 50, No. 4, Published by New Delhi, PP. 777.
28) Ibid, PP. 778.
29) Ibid, PP. 779.
30) Government of India (2007): Report on Conditions of Work and
Promotion on Livelihoods in the Unorganized Sector, National
Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganized Sector, Published
by Oxford University Press, New Delhi, PP. 241, Appendix A1-4.
31) Government of India : National Sample Survey 61th Round,
Published by Oxford University Press, New Delhi, PP. 96.
32) http://www.org.unorg.in/1237/ppp.in

60
33) Ahn. Pong- Sul (2007) : "Organizing for Decent Work in the
Informal Economy, ILO, Sub-regional Office and Bureau for
Workers, Activities Publication, New Delhi, PP. 93.
34) Ibid, PP. 94.
35) Ibid, PP. 95.
36) Ibid, PP. 96.
37) Dhas Albert, Christopher Helen, Mary Jacqueline (2008) : "Social
Security for Unorganized Workers in India", Published by MPRA
Book Services, Mudurai, PP. 13.
38) Ibid, PP. 14.
39) Ibid, PP. 15.
40) http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/9247/mpra paper no. 9247, PP. 9.
41) Ibid, PP. 10.
42) Ibid, PP. 11.
43) Ibid, PP. 12.
44) Ibid, PP. 13.
45) Ibid, PP. 14.
46) Battacharya B.B. (2002) : "Feminization of Indian labour Force",
Labour & Development Journal, Vol. 8, Published by New Delhi,
PP. 19.
47) Ibid, PP. 20.
48) Ibid, PP. 21.
49) Ibid, PP. 22.
50) National Institute (2010) : "Statistics for Women Report",
Published by ISPA Services, New Delhi, PP. 71.
51) Ibid, PP. 72.
52) Ibid, PP. 73.
53) Ibid, PP. 74.

61
54) Government of India (2011) : "11th Five Year Plan", II Volume,
Published by Oxford University Press, New Delhi, PP. 154.
55) Ibid, PP. 155.
56) Ibid, PP. 156.
57) Indian Society of Labour Economics (2007) : The Indian Journal of
Labour Economics, Special Report of Labour, Volume 4, No. 4,
New Delhi, PP. 789.
58) Ibid, PP. 790.
59) Ibid, PP. 791.
60) Ibid, PP. 792.
61) Ibid, PP. 793.
62) Ibid, PP. 794.
63) Datt Ruddar (2007) : "Unorganized Sector and Informalisation of
the Indian Economy", The Indian Journal of Labour Economics,
Volume 50, No. 4, Published by New Delhi, PP. 872.
64) Ibid, PP. 871.
65) Ibid, PP. 872.
66) Ibid, PP. 873.
67) Ibid, PP. 874.
68) Ibid, PP. 7875.
69) Thakur C.P. & Venkata C.S. (2007) : "Condition of Work in the
Unorganized Sector in India", The Indian Journal of Labour
Economics, Vol. 50, No. 4, New Delhi, PP. 762.
70) Patel Bilquis Hasanali (2002) : "Problem of Absentencism in
Industrial Sector of Aurangabad Township", Unpublished thesis
submitted to the Dr. B.A.M.U., Aurangabad, PP. 117.

62