SETS

DEFINITION ➤

A set is a collection of objects, and these objects are the elements of the set.

1. SYMBOLS OF SETS ➤

∎ The set will be denoted by capital letters, like, A, B, C, …

∎ The elements of the set will be denoted with small letters, like, a, b, v, x, y, …

∎ The curly brackets { } will be to write the elements of the set irrespective of their
orders.

∎ The comma symbol ( , ) will be used as a separation between the elements .

2. METHODS OF DESCRIPTION OF SETS ➤

There are two known methods to descript a set

2.1. FIRST METHOD ➤

Some sets can be described by listing their elements in braces. For instance, the set
A consisting of the natural numbers (or positive integers) less than 6 can be expressed

as A = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

The entire set of integers is written as:

A = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,.......

2.2. SECOND METHOD ➤

Another way to describe a set is to enclose in braces a rule that generates all the
elements of the set. For instance, the set

A = x|x is an integer and 0  x  6

is the set of positive integers less than 6.

Note that the symbols ( | ) or ( : ) means ( such that)

3. EMPTY SET ➤

Is the set that doesn’t contains any element, denoted by the symbol 𝛟 or { }.

Illustrative Example ➤

Consider the set defined by

A = {x : x2 + 9 = 0 , x is a real number }

The set consists of two rules

(i) x satisfies the equation x2 + 9 = 0, that is

x=3i,-3i

(ii) x is a real number

Since 3i, -3i are imaginary numbers, then the set A is an empty set A = { }, or A
=Φ
EXAMPLES ➤

1] X = { x : x is a prime number , can be divided by 1 , 5 , 9 }

2] X = { x : x2 + 5 x + 6 = 0 , x > 0 }

3] X = {The number of employers in the university whose ages are less than 8-years}

EXAMPLE ➤

Describe the following sets:

a. 𝐷 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑅/ 3 < 𝑥 < 2}
b. 𝐸 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑍/ 2 < 𝑥 < 3}

SOLUTION ➤

a. Recall that a<x<b means that a<x and x<b. So D consists of all real numbers that
are both grater than 3 and less than 2. Since there are no such numbers, D has no
elements and thus 𝐷 = 𝜙

b. E is the set of all integers that are both greater than 2 and less than 3. Since no
integers satisfy this condition, E has no elements, and so 𝐸 = 𝜙

∎ If S is a set, the notation a  S means that a is an element of S, and a  S means

a is not an element of S.

EXAMPLE ➤

Let X = { (x , y) : x + y = 2 }, then

(1, 1)  X , (5, −3)  X , (2, 4)  X

4. NUMERICAL SETS ➤

So what does this have to do with mathematics? When we define a set, all we have
to specify is a common characteristic. Who says we can't do so with numbers?

Set of Natural numbers: J = {1, 2, 3, 4, ...}

Set of entire numbers: N = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ……}

Set of integers: I or Z= {….. , -3 , -2 , -1 , 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , …..}

Set of rational numbers: Q = { a/b : b ≠0 , a and b are real numbers }

Set of real numbers: R = {x : x is a real number }

Set of complex numbers: C = {z = x + i y, x, y  R , i = −1}

Set prime numbers: {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, ...}

Positive multiples of 3 that are less than 10: {3, 6, 9}

And so on.

We can also define a set by its properties, such as {x | x > 0} which means "the set
of all x's, such that x is greater than 0".

And we can have sets of numbers that have no common property, they are
just defined that way. For example:

{2, 3, 6, 828, 3839, 8827} , {4, 5, 6, 10, 21}

NOTES ➤

0 ∈ 𝑁, 0∉𝐽

−5 ∈ 𝐼, −5 ∉ 𝐽
1 1
∈ 𝑄, ∉𝑁
2 2

√3 ∈ 𝑅, √3 ∉ 𝑄

3 + 2𝑖 ∈ 𝐶, 3 + 2𝑖 ∉ 𝑅

EXAMPLE ➤

Mention 6 elements belonging to R and doesn’t belong to Q

SOLUTION ➤

1 3
√2, , −√5, √14 , 𝜋, 𝑒 ∈ 𝑅
√ 3

1 1 1
∎   22 / 7 , e = 1 + + + + ......
1! 2 ! 3 !

EXAMPLE ➤

List a few elements in the sets below and describe them in words.

The set Z is the set of integers, positive and negative whole numbers.

1. 𝐴 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑍/ 𝑥 2 ∈ 𝑁}

2. 𝐵 = {𝑥 2 / 𝑥 ∈ 𝑁}
SOLUTION ➤

5. EQUALITY OF TWO SETS ➤

Two sets X and Y are called equal if

Each element if X is an element of Y, and

Each element if Y is an element of X,

Then X=Y , Y=X

EXAMPLES ➤

∎ If X = {2 , 5 , 1 , 3} , and Y = {1 , 2 , 3 , 5}, then

X=Y

∎ If X = {x : x2 – 4 x + 3 = 0 } , and Y = {1 , 3 }, then

X=Y

∎ If X = { (1,2) , (3,6) , (5,10) } , and Y = {(a , 2a) : a = 1,3,5}

Then X = Y
6. UNIVERSAL SET (U) ➤
It's a set that contains everything. Everything that is relevant to our question.
∎ In Number Theory the universal set is all the integers, as Number Theory is
simply the study of integers

∎ And in complex analysis, the universal set is all the complex numbers.

7. SUBSETS ➤

When we define a set, if we take pieces of that set, we can form what is called
a subset.
Example: the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
A subset of this is {1, 2, 3}. Another subset is {3, 4} or even another is {1}, etc.
But {1, 6} is not a subset, since it has an element (6) which is not in the parent set.
A is a subset of B if and only if every element of A is in B.

EXAMPLE ➤

X is the set of multiples of 3

Y is the set of multiples of 6
Z is the set of multiples of 9
Which one of the following is true? (⊂ means "subset")

A] 𝑋 ⊂ 𝑌 B] 𝑋 ⊂ 𝑍 C] 𝑍 ⊂ 𝑌 D] 𝑍 ⊂ 𝑋

SOLUTIN ➤

X = 3, 6, 9, 12,....

Y = 6, 12, 18, 24,....
Z = 9, 18, 27, 36,....
ANSWER: D] Z  X

DEFINITION ➤

If X and Y are two different sets, then

1] If all elements of X are also elements of Y, but not all elements of Y are elements
of X, then we say that X is a subset of Y or Y contains X. We denote this as

X Y or Y X

7.1. PROPER SUBSET ➤

A is a proper subset of B if and only if every element of A is also in B, and there

exists at least one element in B that is not in A

7.2. NON-PROPER SUBSET ➤

X is called non- proper subset of Y iff

All the elements of X belong to Y, i.e. X = Y

7.3. POWER SET ➤

There are various situations in which it is useful to consider the set of all subsets of
a particular set. The power set axiom guarantees that is a set.

DEFINITION ➤

Given a set A, the power set of A, denoted P(A), is the set of all subsets of A

EXAMPLE ➤

Classify the different subsets of the following set:

 X = { 1 , 2 , 3}

SOLUTION ➤

1] The empty set Φ

2] Subsets contains one element of X

{1},{2},{3}

3] Subsets contains two element of X

{ 1 , 2 } , { 1 , 3 } , { 2 , 3}

4] The non-proper set

X= { 1 , 2 , 3}

EXAMPLE ➤

Find the subsets of X which contains the following

1] the prime numbers

2] the numbers which are divisible by 3

3] the numbers between 6 and 12

4] the factors of the number 66

5] the elements which satisfy the equation x2 – 9 = 0

SOLUTION ➤

1] X1 = { 3 , 5 , 7 , 11 , 13 }

2] X2 = { 3 , 9 , 15 }
3] X3 = { 7 , 9 , 11 }

4] X4 = {1 , 3 , 11}

5] X5 = { 3 }

NOTE THAT ➤

(i) For any set X,  X and XX

(ii) For any two sets X and Y, if Y  X , X  Y , then

X=Y

(iii) ) For any three sets X , Y and Z, if X  Y and Y  Z , then XZ

EXAMPLE ➤

Which one of the following is the null set?

A] The set of even prime numbers

B] The set of factors of 7

C] The set of rational expressions for π

SOLUTION ➤

- The set of even prime numbers = {2} is not the null set.
- The set of factors of 7 = {1, 7} is not the null set.
- π is an irrational number, so cannot be expressed as a rational number.

EXAMPLE ➤

Let A={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, B={2, 4, 6}, C={1, 2, 3} and D={7, 8, 9}.

Determine which of the following are true, false, or meaningless.

1. 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵. 4. 𝜙 ∈ 𝐴.

2. 𝐵 ⊂ 𝐴. 5. 𝜙 ⊂ 𝐴.

3. 𝐵 ∈ 𝐶. 6. 𝐴 < 𝐷.

SOLUTION ➤

1. False. For example, 1 ∈ 𝐴, but 1 ∉ 𝐵

2. True. Every element in B is an element in A.

3. False. The elements in C are 1, 2, and 3. The set B is not equal to 1, 2, or 3.

4. False. A has exactly 6 elements, and none of them are the empty set.

5. True. Everything in the empty set(nothing) is also an element of A. Notice that

the empty set is a subset of every set.

6. Meaningless. A set cannot be less than another set.

8. OPERATIONS ON SETS ➤

8.1. UNION ➤

If X and Y are two sets, then X Y is their union and consists of all elements
belonging either to X or Y (or to both X and Y). Mathematically, this is denoted by

X  Y = { a : a  X or a  Y }

X  Y = { a : a  X  a Y }
The symbol (∨) means ( or). We can use Venn Diagrams to represent the union as

A∪ B

8.2. INTERSECTION ➤

X  Y consists of all elements belonging to both X and Y. Mathematically this can

be represented by

X  Y = { a : a  X and a  Y }

X  Y = { a : a  X  a Y }

The symbol (∧) means ( and )

Using Venn Diagrams, we can represent the intersection as:

 X Y

EXAMPLE ➤

Describe each of the following sets in words and listing out enough elements to see
the pattern.

1. {𝑥: 𝑥 + 3 ∈ 𝑁}.

2. {𝑥 ∈ 𝑁: 𝑥 + 3 ∈ 𝑁}.

3. {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑁 ∨ −𝑥 ∈ 𝑁}.

4. {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑁 ∧ −𝑥 ∈ 𝑁}.

SOLUTION ➤
8.3. SOME SUBSET RELATIONS ➤

8.4. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO SETS ➤

The difference (X – Y) between X and Y is defined as the set of elements that

belongs to X and not belongs to Y. mathematically

X − Y = { a : a  X and a  Y }

X −Y

EXAMPLE ➤

If X = {1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,6 ,7 ,8} , Y = {3 ,5 ,6} . Find

(X - Y) and (Y- X)

SOLUTION ➤

X − Y = 1, 2, 4, 7, 8
Y − X = 5

8.5. THE SYMMETRIC DIFFERENCE BETWEEN

TWO SETS ➤

It is defined as the union of the two differences

( X – Y) and (Y – X) , and denoted by

XY = ( X − Y )  (Y − X ) = ( X  Y ) − ( X  Y )

XY = { x : x  ( X − Y ) or x  (Y − X ) }

X Y

8.6. COMPLEMENTARY SET ➤

The complementary set of some set X, denoted by X C , is defined as the set of

elements which belongs to the corresponding universal set of X and doesn’t belongs
to X. i.e.

XC = U − X

Mathematically we write
 XC = {a : a  U , a  X}

Using Venn Diagrams, we can represent the complementary set X C of X as follows

XC = U − X

EXAMPLE ➤

If U = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and Y = a : a − 8 a + 15 = 0 . Find Y C

2

SOLUTION ➤

a 2 − 8 a + 15 = 0

(a − 3)(a − 5) = 0  a = 3 , a = 5

Y = 3, 5 ⟹ Y C = U − Y = 1, 2, 4

NOTE THAT ➤ ( X C )C = X

9. SOME IMPORTANT THEOREMS ON SETS ➤

9.1. IDENTITY LAW ➤

X X = X , X X = X
9.2. COMMUTATIVE LAW ➤

X Y = Y  X
X Y = Y  X

9.3. ASSOCIATIVE LAW ➤

9.3.1 THE UNION OPERATION ➤

is an associative operation

(X  Y )  Z = X  (Y  Z)

PROOF ➤

x  (X  Y )  Z  x  (X  Y )  ( x  Z )
 ( x  X  x  Y )  ( x  Z)
 ( x  X )  ( x  Y  x  Z)
 ( x  X )  (Y  Z )
 x  X  (Y  Z )

(X  Y )  Z = X  (Y  Z)

9.3.2 THE INTERSECTION OPERATION ➤

is an associative operation

(X  Y )  Z = X  (Y  Z)
9.4. DISTRIBUTIVE LAWS ➤

( i) X  (Y  Z) = ( X  Y )  ( X  Z)
.
( ii) X  (Y  Z) = ( X  Y )  ( X  Z)

PROOF ➤

(i) X  (Y  Z) = (X  Y )  (X  Z)

x  X  (Y  Z)  x  ( X )  ( x  Y  Z )
 ( x  X )  ( x  Y  x  Z)
 ( x  X  x  Y )  ( x  X  x  Z)
 ( x  X  Y )  ( x  X  Z)
 x ( X  Y )  ( X  Z )

 X  (Y  Z) = (X  Y )  (X  Z)

9.5. DE’ MORGAN LAWS ➤

( i) ( X  Y )C = X C  Y C
( ii) ( X  Y )C = X C  Y C

PROOF ➤

x  ( X  Y )C  x  U  x  ( X  Y )
 (x U  x  X)  (x U  x Y )

(i) (X  Y )C = XC  Y C  (x U − X)  (x U − Y )
 ( x  XC )  ( x  Y C )
 ( x  XC  Y C )

 ( X  Y )C = X C  Y C
EXAMPLE ➤

If the universal set is given by U={1,2,3,4,5,6}, and A={1,2} ,B={2,4,5},

C={1,5,6} are three sets, find the following sets:

a] A  B , b] A  B

c] AC  B , d ] A  BC

e] Check De Morgan's law by finding

( A  B ) = AC  B C
C

( A  B ) = AC  BC
C

f] Check the distributive law by finding

A  ( B  C ) and ( A  B )  ( A  C )

SOLUTION ➤

U={1,2,3,4,5,6}, and A={1,2} , B={2,4,5}, C ={1,5,6}

AC = 3, 4,5,6 , BC = 1,3,6

a] A  B = 1, 2, 4,5 ,
b] A  B = 2

c] AC  B = 2,3, 4,5,6

d] A  B = 1
C
e] ( A  B ) = 3, 6
C
(i)

AC  BC = ( 3, 4,5,6 )  1,3,6 = 3,6 (ii)

From (i) , (ii) we get

( A  B) = AC  BC
C

Also,

( A  B) = 2 = 1,3, 4,5, 6

C C
(iii)

AC  BC = 3, 4,5, 6  1,3, 6 = 1,3, 4,5, 6 (iv)

From (iii) , (iv) we get

( A  B) = AC  BC
C

F] A  ( B  C ) = 1, 2  1, 2, 4,5,6 = 1, 2 (i)

( A  B)  ( A  C ) = 1,2
 A  (B  C ) = ( A  B)  ( A  C ) (ii)