2.
Glass
1. Definition of glass
The American Society for Testing Materials defined glass as an inorganic
product of fusion which has cooled to a rigid state without crystallizing‘
(ASTM, 1965).
The atoms and molecules in glass have an amorphous random distribution.
Scientifically this means that it has failed to crystallize from the molten
state, and maintains a liquid-type structure at all temperatures.
2. Glass Composition
Glass is primarily formed from oxides of metals, with the most common
being dioxide which is common sand. Glass is made by mixing several
naturally-occurring inorganic compounds at a temperature above their
melting points.
The molten mixture is then cooled to produce a noncrystalline, amorphous
solid. The main ingredient is silica (sand) (SiO2) that serves as the network-
forming backbone of the glass.
Adding soda (Na2O) modifies the silica network by disrupting some of the
Si-O bonds, with resulting lower melting temperature and viscosity but
reduced resistance to dissolving in water. Thus, lime (CaO) is added as a
network stabilizer, with the result that durability is increased but tendency to
crystallize is also increased. Finally, alumina (Al2O3) is added as an
intermediate to resist crystallization.
Minor amounts of colorants are added to produce colored glass, including
chromium oxide for green, cobalt oxide for blue, nickel oxide for violet,
selenium for red, and iron plus sulfur and carbon for amber.
Amber provides the best protection for light-sensitive foods and beverages,
transmitting very little light with wavelength shorter than 450 nm.
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3 Types of glass
3.1. White flint (clear glass)
Colorless glass, known as white flint, is derived from soda, lime and silica.
This composition also forms the basis for all other glass colors. A typical
composition would be:
silica (SiO2) 72%, from high purity sand; lime (CaO) 12%, from limestone
(calcium carbonate); soda (Na2O) 12%, from soda ash, alumina (Al2O3),
present in some of the other raw materials or in feldspar-type aluminous
material. Cullet, recycled broken glass, when added to the batch reduces the
use of these materials.
3.2. Pale green (half white)
Where slightly less pure materials are used, the iron content (Fe2O3) rises
and a pale green glass is produced. Chromium oxide (Cr2O3) can be added to
produce a slightly denser blue green colour.
3.3. Dark green
This colour is also obtained by the addition of chromium oxide and iron
oxide.
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3.4. Amber (brown in various colour densities)
Amber is usually obtained by melting a composition containing iron oxide
under strongly reduced conditions. Carbon is also added. Amber glass has
UV protection properties and could well be suited for use with light-
sensitive products.
3.5. Blue
Blue glass is usually obtained by the addition of cobalt to a low-iron glass.
Almost any colored glass can be produced either by furnace operation or by
glass colouring in the conditioning forehearth.
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4. Attributes of food packaged in glass containers
The glass package has a modern profile with distinct advantages, including:
4.1. Quality image
Consumer research by brand owners has consistently indicated that
consumers attach a high quality perception to glass packaged products and
they are prepared to pay a premium for them, for specific products such as
spirits and liqueurs.
4.2. Transparency
It is a distinct advantage for the purchaser to be able to see the product in
many cases, e.g. processed fruit and vegetables.
4.3. Surface texture
Most glass is produced with a smooth surface, other possibilities also exist,
for example, for an overall roughened ice-like effect or specific surface
designs on the surface, such as text or coats of arms. These effects emanate
from the moulding but subsequent acid etch treatment is another option.
4.4. Colour
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A range of colors are possible based on choice of raw materials. Facilities
exist for producing smaller quantities of nonmainstream colors.
4.5. Decorative possibilities
Decorative possibilities including ceramic printing, powder coating, colored
and plain printed plastic sleeving and a range of labeling options.
4.6. Impermeability
All practical purposes in connection with the packaging of food, glass is
impermeable.
4.7. Chemical integrity
Glass is chemically resistant to all food products, both liquid and solid. It is
odorless.
4.8. Design potential
Distinctive shapes are often used to enhance product and brand recognition.
4.9. Heat processable
Glass is thermally stable, which makes it suitable for the hot-filling and the
in-container heat sterilization and pasteurization of food products.
4.10. Microwaveable
Glass is open to microwave penetration and food can be reheated in the
container. Removal of the closures is recommended, as a safety measure,
before heating commences, although the closure can be left loosely applied
to prevent splashing in the microwave oven. Developments are in hand to
ensure that the closure releases even when not initially slackened.
4.11. Tamper evident
Glass is resistant to penetration by syringes. Container closures can be
readily tamper evidenced by the application of shrinkable plastic sleeves or
in-built tamper evident bands. Glass can quite readily accept preformed
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metal and roll-on metal closures, which also provide enhanced tamper
evidence.
4.12. Ease of opening
The rigidity of the container offers improved ease of opening and reduces
the risk of closure misalignment compared with plastic containers, although
it is recognized that vacuum packed food products can be difficult to open.
Technology in the development of lubricants in closure seals, improved
application of glass surface treatments together with improved control of
filling and retorting all combine to reduce the difficulty of closure removal.
4.13. UV protection
Amber glass offers UV protection to the product and, in some cases, green
glass can offer partial UV protection.
4.14. Strength
Although glass is a brittle material glass containers have high top load
strength making them easy to handle during filling and distribution. While
the weight factor of glass is unfavorable compared with plastics,
considerable savings are to be made in warehousing and distribution costs.
Glass containers can withstand high top loading with minimal secondary
packaging. Glass is an elastic material and will absorb energy.
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3.Plastic
Plastic is an organic macromolecular compounds obtained by
polymerisation, polycondensation, polyaddition or any similar process from
molecules with a lower molecular weight or by chemical alteration of natural
macromolecular compounds.
Plastics are used in the packaging of food because they offer a wide range of
appearance and performance properties which are derived from the inherent
features of the individual plastic material and how it is processed and used.
Plastics are resistant to many types of compound – they are not very reactive
with inorganic chemicals, including acids, alkalis and organic solvents, thus
making them suitable, i.e. inert, for food packaging. Plastics do not support
the growth of microorganisms.
Some plastics may absorb some food constituents, such as oils and fats, and
hence it is important that a thorough testing is conducted to check all food
applications for absorption and migration. Gases such as oxygen, carbon
dioxide and nitrogen together with water vapor and organic solvents
permeate through plastics.
The rate of permeation depends on:
● Type of plastic
● Thickness and surface area
● Method of processing
● Concentration or partial pressure of the permeant molecule
● Storage temperature
Common plastics used are polyolefins, which form an important class of
thermoplastics. These include low-density polyethylene (LDPE), linear low-
density polyethylene (LLDPE), high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and
polypropylene (PP). All of these materials have good sealability, but
different barrier.
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LDPE is a tough, flexible, slightly translucent material that provides a good
barrier to water vapor but a poor barrier to gases. The usage temperature
range of LDPE is -50°C…+80°C and it is often used as bags, flexible lids or
bottles. LLDPE has higher strength than LDPE and improved chemical and
puncture resistance.
This material is possible to use in the temperature range of -30°C…+100°C.
Stretch wraps are usually LLDPE-based. HDPE is stiffer and harder than
LDPE and provides superior oil and grease resistance. It is easy to process
and form during production. HDPE has a temperature range of usage -
40°C…+120°C.
Commonly used HDPE materials include bottles, cardboard liners, tubs or
bags. PP is a polymer with better barrier properties than polyethylene
(LDPE, LLDPE, HDPE). It has the same range of usage temperature as
HDPE, being also microwavable. Another known polymer-based plastic
group is polyesters, in which the most widely used material is polyethylene
terephthalate (PET).
PET gives good oxygen and moisture barriers but less protection against
light. This polyester is known as the stiffest and with the widest usage
temperature in the range of -60°C…+200°C. PET, similarly to polyolefins,
is also resistance to grease and oil. This material is usually used to produce
bottles, jars, tubs or films.
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