STEEL GLASS AND PLASTIC IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

UNIT I METAL, GLASS AND PLASTIC IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

Glass is an inorganic, homogeneous and amorphous substance obtained through the cooling of a molten mass. Its main
qualities are the transparency and hardness. The glass has uncountable applications in the most varied industries, given
its inalterability characteristics, hardness, resistance and thermal, optical and acoustic properties, becoming one of the
few materials yet irreplaceable, being every time more present in the technological development researches for the well-
being of the man.

Qualities & Features:

 Recyclability
 Transparence (permeable to light)
 Hardness
 Non absorbance
 Great dielectric insulator
 Low thermal conductivity
 Abundant resources in the nature and
durability

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

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Composition of Glass

- it’s not a single compound and its difficult to give it a particular chemical formula
- commonly expressed as combination of alkali oxides, metal oxides and silica dioxides aX2O, bYO, 6SiO2
Where,

a, b are no. of molecules;

X is an atom of an alkali metal i.e. Na, K etc.

Y is an atom of a bivalent metal i.e. Ca, Pb etc.

For example,

Soda-lime Glass - Na2O, CaO, 6SiO2

Potash-lead Glass - K2O, PbO, 6SiO2

Important properties of glass

1. Absorbs, refracts and transmits light

2. Amorphous substance having no definite crystalline structure – which makes it easy to fuse it and mould it as
many times as possible
3. No sharp melting point
4. Does not react with water and other atmospheric agents – but is affected by alkalis
5. Characteristics, both physical and chemical, vary considerably with addition of other materials (B2O3, if added with
glass makes its alkali resistant)
6. Excellent electrical insulator at elevated temperatures
7. Easy to clean and maintain it from stains
8. Easy to add colour to glass
9. Considerable compressive strength up to certain point but does not deform but breaks – highly brittle substance
10. Thermal conductivity is less

Manufacturing of Glass

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 Stage I – Collection of raw materials depending on the type of the glass:

Say, Soda-lime Glass preparation needs Chalk (CaO), Soda ash (Na2O) and Clean sand (SiO2)

Cullet in the form of waste glass or broken glass is added to increase the fusibility as well as to prevent the loss of alkali
through volatilisation.

Decolourisers are also added to eliminate the yellowish tint of Ferric Oxides and greenish tint of Ferrous Oxides –
Antimony Oxide, Arsenic Oxide, Cobalt Oxide, Manganese Oxide, Nickel Oxide are the most commonly used decolourisers.

Stage II – Preparation of batch

- By adding ingredients in correct proportion, and mixing them uniformly.

Stage III – Melting in furnace

- In pot furnace or tank furnace depending on the scale of operation – small scale in pot and large scale in tank furnace

- Refractory lining of fire clay.

Stage IV – Fabrication of glass

Float Glass – makes the molten glass float over liquid tin;

Plate Glass – rolled over either two layers of roller or combination of plate and rolled

Cast glass – cast by pouring molten glass or pressing them in moulds.

Stage V – Annealing of glass

- It’s of process of making glass objects cool down gradually from a very high temperature

- Due to high thermal insulation of glass rapid cooling creates thermal stress between inner and outer layers of glass –
leading to a state of strain

- Makes glass highly vulnerable to minor shocks and disturbances – thus annealing is a crucial process

Flue method of annealing – glass objects being passed through a flue with varying temperature allowing it to cool down
gradually – a constant process applied for large scale annealing.

Oven method of annealing – temperature variation achieved by cooling the oven itself from high temperature – an
intermittent process suitable for small scale annealing.

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Test for waviness

- Apply a coating of silver on one surface protected by metallic copper film (similar to making of mirror out of
glass)
- Sketch comprising broad straight bands at 45˚ to the horizontal in a rectangle waved in front of the mirror
which should be vertically placed.
- Image of bands free from distortion means that the glass is free from waviness or ‘distortion free’.

TYPES OF GLASS
CommercialForms
Sheet Glass

Plate Glass

Glass Block

Float Glass

Frosted Glass

Foam Glass

Fiber Glass

Wired Glass or Reinforced Glass

Insulating Glass

Heat Strengthened Glass

Heat absorbing Glass and Glare Reducing Glass

Laminated Glass

Safety Glass

Bullet Resisting Glass

Shielding Glass

Patterned Glass

Structural Glass

Perforated Glass

Soluble Glass

Ultra Violet Ray Glass

Corrugated Glass

Float Glass

Float process makes it possible to produce high quality clear glass with virtually flat surfaces.
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• Thickness 2 to 19mm.
• Can be colored during manufacture, acc. to light transmittance value.
• Thermal fatigue resistance from 30-40˚C.

Clear Glass

• Color purity= 1%

• light transmission= 85%

• infrared transmission=70%

• total transmission= 84%

Patterned or Rolled glass

• Texturing of glass surfacecan be done according todesign.

• Ultimate bending strengthlies slightly below floatglass because of surfacepattern.

SheetGlassisusedforglazingdoors,windowsandpartitionsandisobtainedbyblowing
themoltenglassintotheshapeofacylinder.Theendsofthecylindersoproducedarecutaway and the cylinder is flattened
over a plane tray. It is available in thicknesses of 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 5.5
and6.5mmandupto1750×1100mmsizeandisclassifiedas

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Fused Silica/Quartz Glass

• High melting and working temperature

• High Chemical resistance
• Used for laboratory ware

Alumino Silicate Glass

Great chemicaldurability(does not easily react with any kind ofchemical contact ), thuscan be used in productsfor daily
use.

• Used in manufacture ofglass fibres

Borosilicate Glass

• Resistant to chemical corrosion

• Low thermal expansion co-efficient(i.e, it can suffer suddendrastic

temperature difference)

• Used in domestic cooking utensils.(Oven ware, Chemistrylab )

PLASTICREINFORCEDGLASS

• Plastic reinforced in glass fibers, increases strength.

• Polypropylene- Flexible, fatigue-resisting

• Polyamides- Improves strength, heat distortion temp.

• Polycarbonates- Mechanical properties

• Polyesters (Fiber Glass)-High impact strength,Durability, Hardness

• Epoxies- Strength, dimensionally stable, chemicallyresistant

• Phenolic Resins- Good stiffness and strength

• Melamine formaldehyde resin- Dielectric strength

• Silicone resin- High temp. resistance

• Polyurethane Resins- Very flexible

Wire glass

• Wire mesh has been inserted during production.

• Impact resistance similar to normal glass.

• When broken, the mesh retains the pieces of glass.

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• Low cost fire glass

• Steel wire mesh is sandwiched between two ribbons ofsemi molten glass.

Double glazed

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Fire resistant glass

Self cleaning glass

• Keeps itself free from dust through natural process.

• Film of titanium dioxide.

• Photo catalytic stage

• Hydrophilic stage.

Laminated safety Glass

• At least 2 panels bonded with an intermediate layer, PVB (Polyvinyl Butyral)

• Anti-Vidal glazing

• Anti-intruder glazing

• Bullet resistant glazing

• Explosion resistant glazing

• Alarm glass

• Heated Glass

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Chemically Strengthened glass

• Chemical pre-stressing of a glass by ionic exchange

• Glass immerses in hot molten salt

• Exchange of smaller sodium ions, leads compressive strength on the surface

• High resistance to mechanical and thermal loads

CHEMICALLY TOUGHENED GLASS

Thermally Toughened safety Glass

• Heated to its transformation pt. (640˚C)

• Suddenly blasted to cold air

• Surface cool faster contracts quicker than the core

• Additional compressive stress on the surface, higher ultimate bending stresses

• While overloaded fractures into numerous pieces

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Low E Glass

• Allows Light to come in but resists heat to pass through.

• So no transfer of heat maintains the temperature in the inside in the hot and cold weather.

ACCORDING TO POST MANUFACTURE PROCESS

Acid Etching

• Matt finishes, degrees of matt finish, time the acid is in contact with the surface

• Pattern pictures, roughness, transparency decreases

Sand blasting

• Matt finish,

• Optical effects

• Translucent

Edge Works

• Safety

• Aesthetics

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APPLICATION OF GLASS IN DOOR AND WINDOW SHUTTERS
Transparent or translucent glass sheets, clear or tinted are used as door and window shutters in various sizes

Classification of transparent glass used as door/window glazing

1. AA Quality or Special Selected Quality (SSQ) – for safety glass in door/window or wind shields.
2. A Quality or Selected Quality (SQ) – for selected glazing and wind shields.
3. B Quality or Ordinary Quality (OQ) – for general purpose glazing and framing.
4. C Quality or Greenhouse Quality (GQ) – For green house glazing but varied suitably for doors and windows.

Glass Tiles

- made for the purpose of glazing, wall finish, partions, ceilings, curtain walls and swimming pool application
- Wide variety ranging from clear to tinted glass, plain, polished, textured, roughened, laminated with interlays
of polymers, wired etc.
Glass Fibres

- fibres made out of glass and drawn into threads

- diameter up to 5 micron.
- contains silica 50-55 percent, calcium oxide 15-20 percent, boron oxide 8-12 percent and sodium and
potassium oxide less than 1 percent
- used in gypsum plaster with epoxy resin or cement as binders
- low silica content makes them alkali resistant suitable for cement matrix composites
- glass fibre reinforced composites are extensively used in preparation of water pipes, tanks and panels

Glass Wool

- composition similar to boro-silicate glass

- glass melted at 1500-1600 ˚C and blown through holes of a platinum alloy plate – molten material after
passing through holes is subjected to high speed gaseous jets and the resultant woolly mass is moved over a conveyor
belt
- glass wool is more cost effective than rock wool
- extensively used for thermal insulation and acoustic insulation
- glass wool used as core material in ply woods and metallic sheets or plastics used for ceiling and partition wall
panels, door shutters etc.

Waste Utilisation

- glass manufacturing is a relatively environment friendly process and its offers ample scope for reuse
- waste glass in form of cullet is fed back to glass furnaces for reuse
- this leads to significant waste minimization and lower mining of raw materials
- broken glass in powdered form is mixed with clay for moulding bricks – imparting high strength
- waste glass has application in special grade concrete – the chemical resistance increases but the compressive
strength decreases
Types of glass:

There are 2 types of flat glass: The float and the printed glass.

Float Glass
The float glass is a transparent, colorless or colored glass, with uniform thickness and homogeneous mass. It is the ideal
glass for application that demand perfect visibility, as it does not present optical distortion and has high light transmission.
It constitutes the raw material for the processing of all the other flat glasses, being applied to different segments and it
can be: laminated, tempered glass, curved, screen-printed glass and used in double glazing. It is used in automotive
industry, of household appliances, civil construction, furniture and decoration.
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Printed Glass
The printed glass is a translucent flat glass, colorless or colored, which receives the printing of a pattern (drawing) when
is leaving the furnace. It is used in civil construction, household appliances, furniture and decoration.

Casted Glass

Glass casting is the process in which glass objects are cast by directing molten glass into a mould where
it solidifies. The technique has been used since the Egyptian period. Modern cast glass is formed by a
variety of processes such as kiln casting, or casting into sand, graphite or metal moulds.

Glass block:

When it comes to designing and building with glass, one of the simplest yet most versatile ways
of utilising glass is in the form of glass blocks. Glass blocks can be used both internally and
externally and wherever they are placed the way in which they transmit and refract light allows
the designer to maximise the sense of light and space creating beautiful and always unique living
and working spaces. Where privacy is paramount opaque glass blocks can be selected, retaining light and vibrancy whilst
protecting privacy.
Glass blocks are suitable for both commercial and residential purposes and can be used to fill window openings, form
dividing walls, external walls, in the creation of shower cubicles, bars, terraces, and desks. In fact the design potential
for the use of glass blocks in any construction is limited only by your imagination.
- glass blocks typically have compressive strength in the range of 3-4 MPa
- can be either hollow (made of two pressed glass shapes fused together into a single unit at an elevated
temperature with the air trapped inside dehydrated and partially evacuated) or solid
- chemical composition similar to the glass used in door/window panels
- can have various colours, textures, transparency and dimension
- used mostly as partition walls where light transmission, insulation and glare control are of major importance
- mortar used in glass block masonry is cement – lime mortar where cement in 1 part, lime in 0.5 part and sand
in 3 parts are used

The foamed glass aggregate is produced from cleaned recycled glass. The product is especially suited for usage in the
construction of roads, as frost-heave insulation as well as a bulk lightening material. It is also excellent as an all-round
building insulator (foundation and frost heave insulator, flat roof insulator in the structure of inverted roofs), as well as a
bulk lightening material for foundations. Crushed foamed glass can also be used as a capillary blocker.

GLASS AS A STRUCTURAL ELEMENT

Structural glass facades are most easily categorized by the structure types thatsupport them.
Strong back
Truss systems
Cable truss

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Grid shells
Cable net
Glass fins

GLASS FOR GREEN BUILDINGS

Reflective glasses come with reflective coating that filters heat and let optimum light into the building.
reduce the heat gain inside the building, and thus reduces electricity and cooling costs
allow optimum light (natural daylighting) inside the building, and thus reduces the cost for artificial
Lighting.
ADVANTAGES
• The glass that absorb, refracts or transmits light. It can be made transparent or translucent so it adds extraordinary
beauty to the building.
• Glass transmits up to 80% of available natural day light in both directions without any yellowing, clouding or
weathering.
• The glass is fully weather resistance so it can withstand the effects of the wind, rain, or the sun and can retain its
appearance and integrity.
• Glass does not rust so it does not degrade gradually by chemical and surrounding environment effects.
• Glass has a smooth glossy surface so it is dust proof and can be easily cleaned.
• Glass allows natural light to enter the house even if doors/windows are closed so thus it saves energy and also lowers
the electricity bills, brightens up the room and brings out the beauty of the homeland most importantly it boosts the
mood of occupant.
• It is an excellent insulator against electricity.It is impossible to conduct an electric current under the influence of an
electric field.
• Available in varieties of colours and when we combine the glass sheet in laminated or insulated units, they change in
colour and appearance.
• Glass is 100% recyclable and it does not degrade during the recycling process, hence it can be recycled again and again
without loss of quality or purity.
• The glass is excellent abrasion resistant so it will resist surface wear caused by flat rubbing and contact with another
material.
• It is unaffected by noise, air, water and most of the acids hence discoloration, alteration in the degree of shine,
softening, swelling, the detachment of coatings and blistering will not occur. Glass also protects against outside barriers.
• Glass has the ability to make the structure look more stunning, sophisticated and adds beauty to the building. It is
used to achieve the architectural view for external decoration.
• Whenused in the interiors, glass saves space.

DISADVANTAGES
• Manufacturing of glass is high energy consuming process due to high temperature required for processing the raw
materials, and it is expensive material and ultimately increases the cost of a building.
• The glass is very rigid and brittle materials so when it is subjected to stress, it breaks without significant (strain).
Broken pieces of Glass may be sharp and chances of injury are very high.
• The glass is less impact resistant so the capability of the glass to withstand a suddenly applied load is very poor.
• The glass is affected by external hydrofluoric acid hence sometime etching is appear on glass surface.
• The Glass is affected by alkalis ions. Alkali solution simply dissolves a glass surface and as long as the supply of
alkali is sufficient, this type of corrosion takes place at a uniform rate.
• Glass offers superior transparency of heat hence it is to be balanced with its relatively low R-value (energy saving).
R-value is considered as one of the most important factors for insulating.
• Use of glass also enhances the cost of security.
• The glass is also unsafe for earthquake proven area. Unfortunately, there is no such Glass as an earthquake proof
material but costly treatment makes them withstand against earthquake.
• The glass is poor in terms of heat preservation, leading to higher costs in the operation of air-conditioners.
• Though many feel that once you provide glass in a building façade, you are free from painting expenses for ever
but this is not fine. You may have to spend equally for cleaning of glass. Sometimes it is as costly as expose
painting. Again, you may paint building once in a 5 years but for glass you have to clean every year.
• Glass absorbs heat and hence act as a greenhouse and hence not suitable in warm and hot climates. It will increase
A\C load and more energy consideration for air conditioning.
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• Glare is a major problem in glass façade building.

SIGNIFICANCE
Glass is the dominating material in modern dayArchitecture which places optical emphases andProvides for numerous
technical functions. The glass industry offers glazing with individualTechnical features that can be used for heat, solar,
orSound protection, as design components, safety glass, Or as a part of building design systems.Glass is no longer just
a filler element, but is rathernowadays also used for supporting or envelopingPurposes.

The main focus in building is usually on saving energy,especially in these challenging times of increasing pricesfor energy
and raw materials. Glass plays an importantRole in it. Hence promoting the concept of sustainability.

CURTAIN WALL GLAZING

Exterior wall on a building, which non structural building envelope element.

Does not carry any dead load weight from the building other than its own dead load weight.

It transfers dead load to the main building structure through connections at floors or columns of the building.

When Glass is used in the curtain wall, a great advantage is that natural light can penetrate deeper within the building

Components of Curtain Walls

Curtain-wall systems are typically designed with extruded aluminium members. The aluminium frame is typically in-filled
with glass.

• Mullions (Vertical Members): Mullions are provided basically to transfer the

dead load of curtain wall through connections on a structure.

• Transoms (Horizontal Members): Transoms are sections provided in

between mullions horizontally.

• Silicon Sealants: Silicone Sealants are used to prevent moisture, dust, air and heat through joints.

TYPES OF CURTAIN WALLS

1) Stick wall system:

• The wallisinstalledpieceby piece.

• Usually, the mullion members are installed first,followedinturnbythe transom members, and finally the
glazing or window units.

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2) Semi-unitized System:

• This system is composed entirely of large frame units pre- assembled at the factory.

• The mullion member join to the top and bottom transom member, and with a glazed glass panel.

3) Unitized System:

• In this system, the mullion members are separately installed first, then

• pre-assembled framing units areplaced between them.

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 STRUCTURAL GLAZING

• Structural glazing curtain wall systems are envelope systems that provide maximum transparency.

• These systems are usually incorporated in coverings of large internal spaces such as mall entrances, atriums and
continuous external skins that are largely separated from the building floor slab and its main structure.

• The first and foremost feature of these systems is that the support systems have become minimized to achieve
maximum external glazing and internal transparency.

• In this system, sheets of glass are assembled with special brackets to a secondary support substructure creating
a highly transparent envelope system with a seamless, continuous glazed surface.

Spider Structural Glazing (Bolted Glazing)

• This system consists attaching glass panels and the structure with rigid bolts and steel plates.

• Nowadays, spider bolts are used for fixing of glass instead of common fixed bolts.

Curtain Walls Shading

• In hot seasons, solar gains need to be minimised in order to optimise the occupants’thermal comfort and to
reduce air conditioning needs.

• As a result, in warm regions, low solar gain glass should be used with associated shading devices like solar blade
or shutters.

• In regions where winter and summer temperatures vary significantly, it is then crucial to design shading devices
capable of optimising the window’s solar gains according to the seasons.

Advantages: Curtain Walls

• Smaller wall footprint - resulting in extra floor area available.

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• Parallel scheduling - resulting in faster installation.

• Lighter structure - resulting in easier transportation and installation.

• Improved natural light access - resulting in a flexible architectural design.

• Structural flexibility - resulting in easier structural engineering.

• Structural independency - resulting in flexible architectural design.

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PLASTICS
INTRODUCTION

The word plastic itself comes from the Greek word plasticos, which means to be able to be shaped or molded by heat. All
plastics are polymers of carbon compounds. They are compounds of carbon with other elements like hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, etc. They are called plastics because their resins are capable of plastic deformation when heat and pressure are
applied on them. Their molecular structure consists of long chains of large molecules loosely tangled together. It has
toughness and good tensile strength. A large number of plastics can be manufactured by changing the composition, length
and character of their chains. There are more than 10,000 varieties of plastics today and their number is increasing
everyday as new ones are being invented.

SHORT HISTORY OF PLASTICS

The first plastic was invented by Alexander Perkes in 1865 was called Parkesite. It was produced by mixing camphor and
alcohol with nitrocellulose. Thereafter, Bakelite was discovered in 1909 by Bakeland. Later, Pollak prepared a plastic from
urea and formaldehyde (amino plastics) which was transparent like glass and unbreakable.

POLYMERIZATION OF PLASTICS

The process of producing resins of plastics is called polymerization. A substance containing one primary chemical is a
monomer. Combining thousands of monomers as a long chain of molecules is called polymerization. Thus, polymerization
is the process of combining molecules of com-pounds to form another complex molecule. It can be represented as follows.
If A is a monomer and if we combine n number of monomers to make a new compound, then the process is Polymerization
nA=A)

The product is called a polymer. Natural rubber is a polymer (a wonder product) made by nature itself in rubber plants
with the help of sunlight, in nature's chemical laboratory. Polymerization can be brought about by chemical methods in
industry by the following three ways

1. By addition polymerization.

In this process, the same molecules are made to form a bigger molecule. Thus, in the preparation of polythene
(polyethene), ethane, a carbon compound, is passed under pressure into an inert solvent containing a special catalyst (a
Ziegler catalyst named after the inventor of the process) to form the polymer. A high density form of ethane called
polyethane or polythene with a softening point of 130°C is produced. (We are familiar with polythene sheets in our
everyday life.) 3n (CH2 + CH2) (— CH2 — CH2 — CH2 — CH2 — CH2 — CH2 —)„

The reaction can be represented by the above equation where the value of n is about 300. Thus, polythene is an addition
polymer. Polyvinyl chloride is another addition polymer.

2. By condensation polymerization.

In this process, a large number of identical or different molecules combine and a low molecular substance is removed.
For example, terylene is a condensation polymer. It is synthesized from alcohol, ethane, glycol and a benzene derivative
when heated together, eliminates molecules of water between them and become terylene. Nylon is another example of
a condensation polymer.

3. Co-polymerization.

In this process, two or more different monomers are added together to form a polymer. Phenol formaldehyde is produced
by reaction of phenol and formaldehyde.

Many of these products are produced in the form of resins and as described in Section 24.6, they are made into articles
and also used for paints, etc.

The Materials
Thermosetting Resins (Resin Binders)

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Phenolic
Epoxy
Melamine
Silicone
Polyester
Others - Polyimide

Base Materials (Reinforcing Substrates)

Woven (Cotton) Canvas fabric
Woven (Cotton) Linen fabric
Non-Woven (Saturating) Paper
Woven (Fiberglas) Glass fabric
Others - Graphite

CLASSIFICATION OF PLASTICS

Plastic can be classified according to its thermal property or mechanical property.

According to thermal property, plastics can be classified into the two following
groups:

1. Thermoplastics are plastics which soften on heating without undergoing any

chemical change. It is, thus, possible to shape and reshape these plastics by heat and
pressure.

2. Thermosetting plastics (thermosets) undergo a chemical change when heated at

about 127-177"C and a new inert material which does not soften on subsequent heating is formed. Only charring occurs
when heated to higher temperatures (at about 340°C) which is a peculiar feature of this type of plastics. Another
distinguishing feature of thermosetting plastic is that when a corner is with a knife, chips of smaller pieces are formed,
rather than splinters (shivers).

The following two terms are also of interest while dealing with plastics.

(a) Thermoplastic elastomers (TPE). These are elastic and rubbery compounds at normal temperatures.

(b) Gel. These are dilute polymer solutions which form into soft solids called gels. Such fluids can be pumped and form in-
situ gels, those injected into soils to help soil consolidation.

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Classification According to Mechanical Property

According to the mechanical property, plastics are divided as follows:

1. Rigid plastics with high modulus of elasticity

2. Semi-rigid plastics with medium modulus of elasticity

3. Soft plastics with low modulus of elasticity

4. Elastomers which can extend to as much as ten times its original length. (Act like rubber)

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PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS

The main desirable properties of plastics are the following:

1. Appearance. It can be made in attractive colours.

2. Chemical resistance. It has good resistance against almost all chemicals.

3. Dimensional stability. It has good dimensional stability as with other engineering materials.

4. Durability. Many plastics are quite durable if protected.

5. Electric insulation. They are good insulators and hence, extensively used for plugs, switches, etc.

6. Easiness in fixing. They are easy to be used for fabrication.

7. Finishing. It can take good finishes.

8. Light in weight. Because of their molecular structure, plastics are light.

9. Maintenance. They are easy to maintain.

10. Thermal conductivity. It is very low like wood.

11. Thermal, stability. It is stable under low temperatures.

The main undesirable properties of plastics are as follows:

1. High thermal expansion. It is about ten times as much as steel.

2. High creep properties. Plastics exhibit high creep.

3. Lack of durability. Under direct sunlight, they are not durable.

4, Lack of ductility. Most of the plastics have low ductility.

5. Lack of fire resistance. All plastics cannot withstand high temperatures. They may also emit toxic fumes in case of fire
in buildings.

6. Low melting Point. Thermosetting plastics are less affected by heat and burn at high temperatures. Thermoplastics
melt at lower temperatures.

7. Non-suitability for structural members. Plastics has not yet become a popular material for fabrication of structures. For
structural use, they are usually used only with embedded metals like steel.

FABRICATION OF PLASTIC ARTICLES

The raw materials for plastics come in the form of resins, which are in solid form. Plastic articles are made from these
plastic resins. For this process, certain moulding compounds are added to the resins. Then, they are processed for
fabrication into different articles.

Moulding Compounds

To give the desired properties to the finished plastic articles, the following moulding compounds are usually added:

1. Catalysts to assist and accelerate hardening of the resin.

2. Fillers, fibrous, laminated or powder fillers are inert materials added to give body to the plastics. 3. Hardeners to
increase the hardness of the resin.
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4. Lubricants applied to the surface of moulds for easy release of the article.

5. Pigments added for colour.

6. Plasticizers for improving plasticity and imparting softness to the plastics.

7. Solvents to dissolve the plasticizer.

Fabrication Methods Used for Making Plastic Articles the following are some of the processes used to fabricate different
types of articles of plastics:

1. Blowing. It is used in glass industry to produce many products.

2. Calendaring. It is carried out by passing through a set of rollers for producing plastic films and sheets.

3. Casting. It is used as in metal casting.

4. Laminating. It is applied in production of laminates of thermosetting plastics that are applied on paper, glass, fibre, etc.
and pressed to get laminates. (Section 16.6.1)

5. Moulding. It is the most commonly applied method. It can be done in one of the following ways: (a) Compression
moulding. In this method, plastic materials are placed in the mould, closed, and heated under pressure when the plastic
materials are shaped in the mould.

(b) Extrusion moulding. In this process, the raw materials are fed in machines and heated when they become plastic. It is
then pressed through a die (i.e. extruded) to take the desired form. This is a continuous process used for thermoplastics.

(c) Injection moulding. In this process, the heated plastic materials are injected into moulds at room temperature where
they take the form of the articles to he made. This is applicable to thermoplastics.

(d) Transfer moulding. This is applicable to thermosetting plastics. In this process, the moulds used are heated moulds.

(e) Jet moulding. This process is like extrusion moulding except that for higher temperatures, the nozzles are also heated.
This process can be used for both thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics.

SOME PLASTICS IN COMMON USE

In this section, we will briefly study the following plastics which are used every day and also some others which are used
in building construction.

(a) Thermoplastics

1. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

2. Acrylics (Perspex)

3. Polycarbonate

4. Polyethane (polythene)

5. Nylon

(b) Thermosetting plastics

6. Polyester (terylene)

7. Formaldehydes

8. Casein

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Vinyl Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

Ethyne is a member of the alkyne group. Hydrogen chloride reacts with ethyne to form vinyl chloride. Vinyl chloride is
polymerized to polyvinyl chloride consisting of a long molecular chain represented by CH2 — CHC1 group.

PVC is represented as

—CH2 — CHC1 — CH2 — CHC1 — CH2 CHCI - -

Polyvinyl chloride is one of the cheap plastic material. It is available in three forms, ordinary, plasticized and
postchlorinated. The last one is more resistant to heat up to 120°C which makes it suitable for hot water pipes. Poly Vinyl
Chloride can also be made rigid by compounding. One of its popular uses is for pipes for all situations because of its high
resistance to most of the chemicals. They are also used to make doors, windows, floor coverings, wall coverings, etc.
Details of PVC pipes are given in Chapter 33 (Refer Section 33.3).

When PVC is compounded with rubber stabilisers fillers etc. it becomes less brittle and more temperature resistant. This
process is called plasticizing. of pipes, pipes with less than 4% plasticisers are called unplasticized PVC pipes or UPVC or
rigid plastic pipes. UPVC pipes can be used in all cases where we have to carry water at ordinary temperatures. For hot
water systems, we need special pipes.

Advantages of using PVC pipes. The following are the advantages of PVC pipes (which, nowadays, are very popular) over
metal pipes:

1. One of most important advantages of using PVC pipes in water supply systems is their resistance to corrosion to
chlorides in water (brackish waters). Whereas GI pipes tend to corrode, PVC pipes do not get affected by these salts.

2. They are unaffected by atmospheric pollution.

3. They provide savings in cost. PVC pipes cost much less than metal pipes.

4. They are light in weight, easy to transport and install. The fixing devices for PVC pipes can be simple because the pipes
are light in weight.

5. PVC pipes are smooth inside and have good flow characteristics to convey liquids. The pipes smaller than metal pipes
can be used for given flow. Post-chlorinated pipes can be used to carry hot water also. No problem of incrustation arises
as in using metal pipes.

6. PVC pipes are extensively used for tube well construction as they can be buried safely even in corrosive soils.

7. PVC is a good insulator. PVC pipes are extensively used for concealed electrical conduits being an insulator, it is ideal
for this use. They are not affected if buried in brickwork, concrete, etc.

8. It is easy to make leak-proof joints in PVC pipes. Cutting them and joining them is easy.

9. PVC is being used for doors and windows and are becoming popular for the following reasons:

(a) They are termite-proof.

(b) They are not affected by saline air or atmospheric pollution.

(c) It can be made to close tolerances to make airtight doors and windows necessary for air-conditioned rooms.

(d) It is an alternate to valuable timber of good quality which is getting scarce.

(e) They are unaffected by rains when used as external doors. Some of the disadvantages of PVC pipes are the following:

1. Some of the PVC pipes are brittle and get broken easily in compression. (In places, where "water hammer" can be
present as in suction pipes of reciprocating pumps used for pumping water from sumps in residences, it can lead to
breakages unless superior plastic pipes are used.)

2. They creep under load much more than metals.

6
3. Being thermoplastic, ordinary PVC cannot be used for higher temperatures. They are best suited for temperatures up
to 80°C under normal pressures.

4. They have high coefficient of expansion as much as ten times that of steel. Sufficient care should be taken for their
expansion.

5. They do not weather well in direct sunlight. When installed they should be protected from the direct rays of the sun.

Accordingly, the right type of pipe for each use as described in Chapter 33.

Acrylics—Polymethyl Methacrylate (PMMA). Perspex

This is a group of thermoplastics invented by ICI. The resin is derived from coal, petroleum and water. It is an example of
acrylic plastics. Perspex is available in sheets, rods, blocks, etc. They are used for sanitary ware, roof lighting and replacing
glass in many situations. The advantages of Perspex can be stated as follows.

1. Colourless Perspex sheets is clear and can replace glass in buildings.

2. It has a high breaking resistance as much as 10 to 15 times that of glass.

3. It is light in weight, weighing only 45 per cent that of glass.

4. It is unaffected by most of the household detergents except by some hydrocarbons and ketones.

5. As it is a thermoplastic, it can easily be formed into different shapes like domes. (Structural engineering models are
usually made of Perspex.)

6. It is available in different colours and shades

7. It is a good insulator .Heat conduction by using tinted acrylic sheets can be reduce radiation by as much as 50 per cent.

8. It cuts out ultraviolet rays from sunlight to a very large extent.

As Perspex (as in the case of all plastics) has high thermal expansion, provision should always be made for expansion and
contraction when large sizes of this material are used for external windows, skylights, etc.

Polycarbonate (PC)

Polycarbonate is another modern plastic which is as clear as glass with very high impact strength. It can replace glass and
is also available in different shades. Vandal proof glazing for tall buildings becomes a possibility with this material. They
are also used for railway station platform coverings, shop windows, as cover for protection of costly paintings etc.
Polycarbide is at least 250 times stronger than glass. It is used for bulletproof protections in vehicles and VIP public
speaking podiums.

Polyethylene (PE)

Polyethylene is also shortened as polythene. It is prepared by polymerization of the ethylene molecule. As shown in Table
24.1, two types of polythene, the low density type and high density type (CDPE and HDPE) are available in the market.
Their use is given in Table 24.1 (See also Section 24.14).

Nylon

Nylon is also a condensation polymer, because water is split out between) pairs of molecules as the polymer is formed.
Two petroleum derivatives are used to make nylon. It is done in two stages, the second process is carried out with heat
and pressure in an autoclave. After cooling, nylon appears as chips. By melting the chips and forcing the liquid through
tiny holes in a metal disc, filaments are formed. These are stretched between rollers and gathered as nylon yarn, which
can be woven into garments, ropes, stockings, etc.

Terylene (Polyester)

7
Terylene is a thermosetting plastic. As its name -polyester" it is a complex ester synthesized from derivatives of alcohol
and benzene. It can be extruded as fibres and woven into fabrics. It is also a condensation polymer. The

particular feature of polyester resins in their high resistance to impact. As a resin, it can be combined with glass fibres to
produce glass fibre reinforced plastics (polyesters).

Amino Plastics—Formaldehydes

The first to be developed in this group was formaldehyde plastics. Urea formaldehyde is a good adhesive used for plywood
and decorative laminates. Phenol formaldehyde is formed when phenol is reacted with formaldehyde. Resins from this
plastic is used in paints, varnishes, water resistant adhesion for plywood and laminates electrical fittings etc.

Phenol furfur aldehyde or melamine formaldehyde is obtained from the vapours produced from digestion of substances
like rice husk, shells of oats, groundnuts, etc. with sulphuric acid in the presence of prescribed catalyst. This vapour is
made to react with phenol to produce the product.

Casin

It is a product obtained from precipitated milk with acids. It is one of the early products used for glues and also used for
making plastics for button, buckles, etc.

Epoxy Resins

Epoxy resins are thermosets derived from polymerization of epoxides—an organic chemical from epoxy group, that
consists of an oxygen atom bounded by two already connected carton atoms. They are mostly used as adhesives, coatings
and castings.

Araldite is an epoxy or epoxide adhesive. It is used in two parts—araldite GY and a hardener HY. Hardener HY830 is slow-
curing and HY850 is fast-curing agent. The two parts GY and HY are mixed together and the mixture gets hardened into a
solid. It is used for many purposes like sealing cracks in concrete or masonry, as bonding coat for plaster and as epoxy
mortar for repairs, etc. (See also Section 26.2.3). It can be injected as a solution into holes where it will get harden. This
material used for repair of concrete beams, water proofing and many other uses.

REINFORCED PLASTICS

In theory, any plastic resin can be reinforced with almost any fibrous material to stabilize, stiffen or otherwise improve
the physical character of the plastic resin. There are a wide range of these reinforced plastics and some of the
combinations are shown in Table 24.2.

Glass Fibre Reinforced Polyesters (GFRP)

GFRP is a good example of how plastics can be reinforced with other materials. It is a combination of glass fibre and
plastics. It is one of the very popular reinforced plastic material. It is very appropriate to consider glass fibre which has
high tensile strength (as much as 3500 N/mmsq) as a reinforcement. (Its strength is higher than that of any textile material
8
and matched only by carbon fibre). It also stretches elastically up to its breaking point with extension at breaking point of
only 5%. It also does not creep. It can stand temperatures up to (600`C. It is resistant to most of the chemicals and is also
non-conductive. Glass fibre can be made into many forms such as strands, cloth, wool, rebars, etc.

Usually, polyester is used to impregnate glass reinforcement until a resin-to-glass ratio of 3 to 1 is achieved, when the
reinforcement becomes saturated. Polyester is chosen as plastic as it is a thermosetting plastic and has high resistance to
impact and strength. Mats made of glass fibre and plastics are called fibreglass reinforced plastic tissues or fibreglass RP
tissues. Ordinary fibreglass does not act well with cement as they can react with the alkali of cement resulting in drastic
reduction of strength of the fibre. Hence. The most widely used method of using glass fibres with cement is the spray
method by which the chopped fibres are sprayed on the surface with a simultaneous spray of cement/sand slurry. Such a
procedure is used for tanks, claddings, etc. Fibreglass reinforced plastic is used extensively in building constructions. Some
of their uses are as follows: 1. For waterproofing and damp proofing of roofs, tanks. Etc. The mats made of fibreglass
reinforced plastic are used as reinforcing membrane in waterproofing and damp proofing along with bitumen or with
special elastomeric paints (see Chapter 30). 2. for making roof sheets. The translucent FRP sheets are used extensively
for roof coverings. 3. Water storage tanks. FRP water tanks are light, easy to install and can be used inside and outside of
buildings. 4. for components in buildings. Doors, window frames, wall panels, structural sections, temporary shutters,
concrete shutters, etc. can be made of this material by suitable fabrication. 5. for strengthening reinforced concrete
bridge decks, slabs, etc. Carbon fibre and glass fibres with plastics are standard materials for this purpose. Carbon Fibre
Reinforced Plastic (CFRP) This material is similar to GFRP. The fibres used are strong carbon fibres instead of glass.
THERMOCOL Thermocol is a light cellular plastic material used for sound and heat insulation. It is also used in formwork
for concreting to form special features in the structure. PVC FLOOR SHEETS/TILES PVC flooring material is used in office
buildings as well as in residential and non-residential buildings. It gives a resilient, decor dative and non-porous surface
which can be easily cleaned but care should be taken to prevent burning stumps (cigarette stumps) to come into contact
with PVC floor material. The material should conform to IS 3462-1966. The flooring consists of a blend of vinyl chloride
polymer or vinyl chloride copolymer mixed with binder, filler, and pigments. Etc. backed with hessian or other woven
fabric. It is available as tiles 1.5 to 5.0 mm thick and in rolls 1 to 2 m wide and lengths of 10 metres with varying thickness.
Rubber-based adhesives are suitable for fixing PVC flooring over concrete, wooden or metal subfloors. Polyvinyl acetate
(PVA)—based adhesives are not suitable when these sheets are used on metal floors and also where there is constant
spillage of water.

LAMINATED PLASTICS-FORMICA Laminated plastic sheets are used as a hygienic finish for surfaces of cupboards, tables
in bars and kitchen as well as for bathroom fittings, wall decorations, etc. They are also heat resistant. They consist of
layers of paper impregnated with thermosetting resins bonded together under heat and pressure to form hard
impermeable sheets. They are dimensionally stable, requires no maintenance except cleaning with a damp cloth. Phenolic
resins are used for the backing piles and for the top surface (which is usually coloured or patterned), impregnation with
melamine is carried out. Composite, plywood and chipboard with decorate plastic laminates with backing laminates are
also available in the market. Formica Company was, perhaps, one of the first companies that started manufacturing such
boards and they are sometimes referred as Formica sheets (see Section 15.12). USE OF

PLASTICS FOR DOORS AND WINDOWS

As good timber is becoming scarce and costly, traditional wood and door systems are being substituted by steel and
aluminium structural from some years back. Nowadays, thermovinyl polymer sections reinforced with steel have also
come to the market for these items. They are especially applicable in coastal areas where corrosion of steel windows is a
serious problem.

USE OF PLASTICS FOR ROOFING Corrugated plastic roofing sheets with and without fibre reinforcements are, nowadays,
extensively used for roofing of buildings. Sheets with reinforcements last longer. As they are weak in ultraviolet radiation,
nowadays, we get such sheets that are especially treated on the exposed side for such radiation. Such treatment protects
the sheet from effects of ultraviolet radiation of sunlight. POLYETHYLENE (POLYTHENE) WATER TANKS Tanks made of
high-density or low-density polythene (HDPE or LDPE) are used to make overhead water tanks. The plastic is usually

9
compounded with up to 2.5 per cent carbon black to make it more resistant to the ultraviolet rays from the sun as these
tanks are usually kept exposed. Addition of carbon makes it black in appearance. These tanks are generally square or
cylindrical in shape. The cylindrical tanks are manufactured by rotational moulding process. Each tank is of a single piece
construction. Tanks are provided with integral manhole at the top. Also openings for inlet, overflow, outlet and drain are
also provided. Tanks of capacity from 200 litres (49 to 61 cm in height) to 50,000 litres (180 to 210 cm in height) are
available in the market. Generally, for overhead tanks a storage capacity of 70 litres per head for dwelling houses to 135
litres per head for hotels is recommended. COMPOUNDING PLASTICS WITH RUBBER We have already seen that ordinary
PVC pipes are called un-plasticized (UPVC) pipes. When PVC is compounded with synthetic rubber and other compounds,
it becomes plasticized and becomes less brittle. Similarly, polystyrene plastics alone are very brittle but by adding a
butadiene rubber compound, their performance is greatly improved.

USES OF PLASTICS

The uses of particular plastics are mentioned while discussing thermo-plastic resins and thermo-setting resins. There are
more than 10000 different kinds of plastics available in the market and their performance abilities span those of every
other known material from soft rubber to steel. The typical uses of plastics in building are summarised as follows:

(i) bath and sink units, (ii) cistern ball floats, (iii) corrugated and plain sheets, (iv) decorative laminates and mouldings,
(v) electrical conduits, (vi) electrical insulators, (vii) films for water-proofing, damp-proofing and concrete curing, (viii)
floor tiles, (ix) foams for thermal insulation, (x) joint less flooring, (xi) lighting fixtures, (xii) overhead water tanks, (xiii)
paints and varnishes, (xiv) pipes to carry cold water, (xv) roof lights, (xvi) safety glass, (xvii) wall tiles (xviii) Water -resistant
adhesives, etc.

The plastic sanitary fittings like taps, showers, basins, float balls, flushing cisterns, gratings, etc. are now available and
various BIS specifications have been formulated for these products. The user of these products helps in conserving
cement, steel and non-ferrous metals. These products are economical, resistant to corrosion, easy in installation and light
in weight.

PVC PIPES IN BUILDINGS

The PVC or polyvinyl chloride is the most versatile plastic and the use of PVC pipes in buildings is becoming popular day
by day. It is possible to substantially change or modify the properties of PVC resin by the technique of compounding i.e.,
addition of other additives to PVC. It is thus possible to prepare a PVC rigid pipe. The other applications to which PVC can
be put up include footwear, bottles, gramophone records, water stops, cables, making toys, bags, tubes, floor coverings,
etc. The use of PVC for doors and windows is also going to be popular because of the following advantages offered by
such doors and windows:

(I) they are totally rust-proof, rot-proof, termite-proof and water-proof.

(ii) They are unaffected by coastal saline air, dry heat, sub-zero temperatures or tropical rains.

(iii) They do not fade, corrode, flake or warp and consequently, require no maintenance. All that is needed is an occasional
cleaning with ordinary soap and water.

(iv) They provide an alternative to wood.

(v) They provide better thermal insulation and may be considered as ideal for air-conditioned and heated rooms.

(vi) They restrict dust penetration through openings and hence prove ideal for operation theatres, computer rooms, food
processing plants, electronics factories, pharmaceutical plants, etc. The advantages of PVC pipes over conventional pipes
of asbestos cement, cast-iron and galvanized iron can be summarised in a tabular form as shown in table 16-1.

10
The advantages of PVC pipes can be summarised as follows:

(i) They have good insulating properties and hence the temperature of water passing through such pipes is not affected
by the outside temperatures. (ii) They permit high, smooth and undiminished flow of water. (iii) They have no problems
of incrustation. (iv) They possess high Hazen Williams Constant and it results into adoption of smaller size of PVC pipes as
compared to the sizes of pipes of other conventional materials under similar conditions. (v) They prove to be economical
as compared to other pipes of conventional materials such as asbestos cement, cast-iron and galvanized iron. (vi) They
provide resistance to a variety of chemicals.

Following are some of the disadvantages of PVC pipes:

1. They are liable for creep phenomena requiring closer spacing when installed above ground level.

2. They cannot be used at high temperatures as they are basically thermo-plastic. The recommended range of
temperature for pressure applications is 1°C to + 49°C and for non-pressure applications, the higher temperature up to
80°C can be used.

3. They do not have the same strength as cast-iron or galvanized iron pipes.

4. They possess higher coefficient of expansion as compared to the cast-iron or galvanized iron pipes.

Polycarbonate Sheets

What are Polycarbonate Sheets?

Polycarbonate (PC) Polycarbonate is another modern plastic which is as clear as glass with very high impact strength. It
can replace glass and is also available in different shades. Vandal proof, glazing for tall buildings becomes a possibility with
this material. They are also used for rail way station platform coverings, shop windows, as cover for protection of costly
paintings, etc. Polycarbide is at least 250 times stronger than glass. It is used for bulletproof protections in vehicles and
VIP public speaking podiums.

They are easily worked, molded, and thermoformed. Because of these properties, polycarbonates find many applications

Polycarbonate is a polymer with a unique blend of desirable properties. This polymer can be given shape by different
processes, which include injection moulding, blow moulding, extrusion -and thermoforming. Polycarbonate roof sheets

11
are manufactured by the process of extrusion. Polycarbonate roof sheets are commonly called transparent steel due to
their wonderful impact resistance and glass like clarity. Following are a few salient properties of corrugated roof sheets:

Polycarbonate sheets possess superb impact strength (Virtually Unbreakable).

Excellent flexural strength hence can be cold curved or even cold bent into simple shapes.

Very high light transmission of upto 90%.

Superlative fire performance (Self-extinguishing) and TAC approved.

Light in weight hence easy to handle & install.

Available in tailored lengths, hence minimum wastages.

High temperature tolerance (from -40°C to +130°C).

Excellent thermal and electrical insulation properties.

Being an engineering thermoplastic, polycarbonate sheets can be thermoformed to make them suitable for a host of
different applications where high performance is sought in combination with transparency/ translucency. These plastic
corrugated roof sheets can also be engineered to suit various innovative applications in the future.

Polycarbonate Corrugated Sheets

Polycarbonate sheets are extensively used in Industrial Applications. These are used for Industrial Sky Lights and North-
Light Glazing to provide daylight solutions in Industrial and Commercial Structures. These polycarbonate roof sheets are
available in a variety of profiles matching to commonly used industrial roofing sheets that include asbestos cement sheets
& metal corrugated sheets, corrugated roof sheets and plastic corrugated roof sheets.

Polycarbonate corrugated sheets can be manufactured from compact clear, embossed or opal white sheets depending
upon the amount of light required for the specific industrial application. The light transmission can be as high as 89% or
controlled to as low as 35%. These sheets can be offered to the customer as a tailor-made product in terms of dimensions
with the maximum size being 1100mm x 4270mm (Approximately 3.5 Ft x 14 ft). The process of forming these sheets is
generally referred to as Thermoforming.

Roofing Sheet is resistant to UV radiation, has good insulating properties, high light transmission and impact resistance,
and exceptional insulating properties. Polycarbonate Roofing Sheet SUNLIGHT ® is used in construction and architecture,
which requires a high degree of thermal insulation, as well as maximum strength and resistance to high loads.

CONSTRUCTION AND RENOVATION:

The transparent roof;

Glazed roof and stained glass;

Vaulted ceilings galleries;

Soundproofed barriers highways;

Office partitions;

Glazed internal doors;

Swimming pools and sports facilities;

Awnings and canopies;

12
Walls in the bathroom and shower.

AGRICULTURE:

Greenhouses, conservatories and winter gardens;

Verandas and farm.

ADVERTISING AND DESIGN:

Exhibition stands, pavilions, windows;

Outdoor lighting advertising.

Scope of Polycarbonate Roofing Sheets, depending on their thickness: 4mm – greenhouses and sheds, advertising design
(exhibition stands and display cases) 6mm – a material widely used (canopies, greenhouses, stained glass); 8mm – a
material widely used (walls, roofs, greenhouses, roof), 10mm – For a solid glaze vertical surfaces (roof lights, noise barriers
for highways), 16mm – a roof over long spans (buildings), for large loads.

The advantages of Polycarbonate Roofing Sheets

Polycarbonate Roofing Sheets have a number of properties which, in full, does not possess any of the other transparent
materials used in construction, namely:

1. Emergency light, low specific gravity (Polycarbonate Roofing Sheet weighs 16 times less than glass and is 6 times less
than the acrylic of the same thickness, which significantly reduces the cost of supporting structures).

2. High impact strength (polycarbonate, as a viscous polymer, 200 times stronger than glass and 8 times stronger than
acrylic plastic). The panels of polycarbonate, not broken and do not crack, and, consequently, sharp splinters on impact.

3. Polycarbonate panels can withstand significant wind and snow loads, do not tear like plastic film, which makes them
the best material for greenhouses. Thus, the panel of polycarbonate are resistant to shock and hail are safe glazing.

4. High temperature resistance (the properties of polycarbonate little dependent on changes in the environment, and the
critical temperature at which the material becomes brittle, are outside the zone of operation).

5. Low flammability (the coefficient of F-1), did not ignite in a fire, is not conducive to its spread and temperature fracture
poses no danger to life. Polycarbonate Roofing Sheet under the influence of the flame melts with the formation of no
conducting arachnoid fibers and, unlike other plastics, not accompanied by the release of toxic substances.

6. High insulating properties, low thermal conductivity (heat transfer coefficient 3.4 W / sq and the resistance of the
transmission of heat is higher than that of conventional single-layered glass, which reduces energy consumption for
heating and cooling by about 50%).

7. Excellent sound insulation (sound absorption significantly compared with single-layer materials by quenching of the
sound wave, which passes from one medium to another). This allows you to successfully use Polycarbonate Roofing Sheet
as noise barriers.

8. high light transmission (transparency – up to 86%, good dispersion of light, no shadows, the gain due to the reflection
on the partitions).

9. The bending strength and tensile strength.

10. Wide operating temperature range:

The general properties can be summarized as follows:

Excellent physical properties

Excellent toughness

13
Very good heat resistance

Fair chemical resistance

Transparent

Moderate to high price

Fair processing

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)

It is a synthetic fluoropolymer of tetrafluoroethylene that has numerous applications. The best-known brand name of
PTFE-based formulas is Teflon.

PTFE is used as a non-stick coating for pans and other cookware. It is very non-reactive, partly because of the strength of
carbon–fluorine bonds and so it is often used in containers and pipework for reactive and corrosive chemicals. Where
used as a lubricant, PTFE reduces friction, wear and energy consumption of machinery. It is also commonly used as a graft
material in surgical interventions.

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is a versatile polymer used in a

Broad range of medical, industrial, and high technology applications.

Porous PTFE is inert, making it unreactive to most chemicals, and,

It can work in high processing and operating temperature

Environments (500°F / 260°C continuous).

1. Teflon® PTFE

PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) nonstick coatings are two-coat (primer/topcoat) systems. These products have the highest
operating temperature of any

Fluoroplastic (260°C/500°F), an extremely low coefficient of friction,

Good abrasion resistance, and good chemical resistance. PTFE is available only in water-based liquid form.

Benefits of Teflon Coatings

Teflon® Properties

Teflon® is probably best known for its nonstick properties, but this substance has a number of other useful properties that
make it an excellent choice as a coating for components in a range of applications. Teflon coating process can add these
unique attributes to carbon steel, stainless steel, steel alloys, aluminum, brass, and magnesium, as well as non-metallic
surfaces such as glass, fiberglass, plastics, and some rubber materials.

Teflon’s beneficial properties include:

Nonstick: almost no substances will permanently adhere to Teflon®

Low Coefficient of Friction: Teflon® has the third-lowest coefficient of friction of any known solid material

No wetting: Teflon® repels both water and oils

Heat Resistance: Teflon® coatings can operate continuously at temperatures as high as 260°C (500°F)

Electrical: Teflon® offers high dielectric strength and other

14
Unique electrical properties

Cryogenic Stability: Teflon® coatings can withstand temperatures as low as -270°C (-454°F)

Chemical Resistance: Teflon® is completely resistant to all but a very few chemicals

What is Teflon®?

The scientific name for Teflon® is polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)-it's a synthetic fluoropolymer of tetrafluoroethylene. It
is a high-molecular-weight compound consisting entirely of carbon and fluorine molecules. Teflon® has a melting point of
327°C (621°F), and a density of 2200 kg/m3.

Today, Teflon® coatings, resins, additives, and film solutions are used for everything from consumer products like apparel,
cookware, and paint to industrial applications such as semiconductors, pharmaceutical manufacturing, and data
communications cables.

Adhesives, Sealants and joint fillers

An adhesive is a substance used to stick two or more parts together so that they behave as a single unit.

Sealants are substances used to seal or fill joints.

Joint fillers are used in those places where the sides of the joint are subjected to relative movements.

ADHESIVES

There are many situations such an in timber construction where we have to use adhesives to stick one piece to another.
Modern plastic materials (like PVC pipes) are always joined by adhesives.

Adhesives can be of the following three types:

(a) Organic adhesives. These adhesives are made from animal, protein, blood albumen, milk casein or starch etc.

(b) Synthetic adhesives. These adhesives are made from natural resin or from manufactured plastic resins such as
melamine resins, urea resins and phenolic resins.

(c) Rubber-based adhesives. These adhesives are materials in which rubber is dissolved in benzene or ground with other
resins of plastics

Adhesives Used in Timber Construction

Formaldehyde adhesives of phenol, urea and resorcinol a woodwork. It is used to make are the accepted products for use
in plywood and laminated products. It is also used in timber joints to strengthen the joint. The following four types of
grades of adhesives are recognized:

(a) Weatherproof and boil proof (WBP)—highly resistant to micro-organisms, cold, boiling water and dry heat.

(b) Boil resistant (BR) inferior to WBP but resistant to weather.

(c) Moisture resistant (MR)—only moderately resistance to weather.

(d) Interior (INT)—to be used in the interior only. Only certain phenolic resin adhesives fall into the first group. Fevicol is
a synthetic resin adhesive used in furniture industry in India. It is resistant to heat and water. Adhesives Used for Ceramic
Tile Fixing Ceramic tiles are very much used for floors and walls as floor tiles and wall tiles.

Adhesives Used for Ceramic Tile Fixing

Ceramic tiles are very much used for floors and walls as floor tiles and wall tiles. They are used in the interior as well as
the exterior for cladding. For internal tiling, traditional cement/sand mortar is still used in many places. However, the
necessity to speed up the work and the need for curing cement works as well as non-availability of good workers has
introduced new products for tile fixing. They provide greater bond strength, reduction in weight of fixing material and

15
make the work cleaner and quicker. The need to soak the tiles in water and errors due to variation of the composition of
the mortar are also eliminated. They are usually one of the following products:

1. Natural or synthetic latex-based mortars

2. Cement-based specially formulated thick bed and thin bed mortars with latex

3. Synthetic resin emulsion

4. Epoxides

Adhesives for External Claddings

External claddings or facades are important items in tall buildings. Stones, tiles, mosaic, etc. can be fixed with proper
adhesives. Stone facings are usually fixed by metal dowels. Coloured special glass fixed in aluminum or steel framework
is very popular these days as cladding for tall buildings. Till recently, for these claddings or facade glass was fixed inside
aluminum or steel framework. In this type of work, the frames were visible from outside the building. Special adhesives
have now been developed so that the glass or special plastics (like polycarbides) can be fixed directly on to the frames by
adhesives so that the structural framework becomes invisible from the front elevation and thus, presenting a continuous
glazed surface.

Sealants

SEALING COMPOUNDS (SEALANTS) AND LINSEED OIL PUTTY

As already pointed out, sealants are used to fill gaps in joints such as window-wall joints, in glazing, lap joint of roof sheets,
etc. Joint fillers should allow the joints to move to a certain extent but the material should always maintain its joint-sealing
capacity. This special property is necessary for joint fillers and will not be present in brittle materials like concrete, plaster,
etc.

The traditional material used for filling joints between glass to frame or panel to frame is linseed oil putty, oil-based
mastics, etc. Linseed oil putty for window glazing is prepared by first mixing one part of white lead with three parts

of fine powdered chalk and then adding boiled linseed oil to the above mixture to form a stiff paste. Varnish is also added
to the pasts at the rate of one litre of varnish to 18 kg of paste. This putty is still used in India but only in low cost and
ordinary building constructions.

Many modern sealants are available in the market for joint filling purpose of high rise building. They are marketed in the
following forms:

1. Preformed strip. They are supplied as preformed tapes.

2. Mastics. They are high viscosity liquid form applied by using a putty knife or by hand-operated guns.

3. Semi-elastic sealants. They are superior to mastics invariably applied by special guns.

4. Elastomeric sealants. They are the most efficient type of sealants usually supplied in two parts to be mixed at site and
generally applied by special guns. Elastomeric silicon sealants are very efficient and popular.

COMPRESSION AND EXPANSION JOINT FILLERS IN BUILDINGS

Design of joints that move like expansion joints and detailing of joint fillers for these joints are important. The joints are
usually filled with blocking strips at the back so that the adhesion in between two opposite sides only. Three-side adhesion
destroys the adjusting power of the sealant and leads to failure of the joint as shown in Fig. 26.1. This factor is very
important in installation of expansion joint fillers.

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(a) Deep joints should be filled with back-up foam of polyurethane (PU) or polyethylene (PE) to reduce the depth of the
joint. (b) Polyethylene tape used for two side adhesion which allows the silicone sealant to stretch freely in the joint.

Compression and expansion joints have to be given in many parts of a building. Movement joints are provided in concrete
buildings as changes in temperature and humidity cause change in length. The joint width to be provided for expansion is
usually twice the calculated movement due to temperature variation, or at least 25 mm. Cellular back up material is always
provided to control depth of joint and avoid three-side adhesion (Fig. 26.1(a)). Adhesion should be only between the two
opposite sides as shown in Fig. 26.1. This back up material should be a compressible gap filling material like high density
polyethylene or polyurethane strip. This prevents back adhesion. (Thermocol should not be used as it gets destroyed by
insects.) Polysulphide silicon or other sealants which can undergo movements of 25 per cent in compression and 25 per
cent in tension are available and are commonly used in R.C. construction. Another example of using sealants is while
providing cladding or facing for a building with stone slabs fixed to an existing wall, the stones are generally fixed to the
wall with non-ferrous cramps (metal bar with bent ends). To allow for movements in large size walls horizontal
compression joints must be formed at intervals by fixing strips of butyl rubber compound or preformed bituminous-
foamed polyurethane sections. Vertical expansion joints are first filled with bituminous-foamed polyurethane strip or
other material set deep into the grooves and then the gap is filled with gunned in polysulphide or silicon rubber sealants.
As already stated in the expansion joints, threeside adhesion should be avoided, otherwise adhesion at the back will cause
failure of the joint.

PVC FLOOR SHEETS/TILES

PVC flooring material is used in office buildings as well as in residential and non-residential buildings. It gives a resilient,
decor dative and non-porous surface which can be easily cleaned but care should be taken to prevent burning stumps
(cigarette stumps) to come into contact with PVC floor material. The material should conform to IS 3462-1966. The
flooring consists of a blend of vinyl chloride polymer or vinyl chloride copolymer mixed with binder, filler, etc. backed with
hessian or other woven fabric. It is available as tiles 1.5 to 5.0 mm thick and in rolls 1 to 2 m wide and lengths of 10 metres
with varying thickness. Rubber-based adhesives are suitable for fixing PVC flooring over concrete, wooden or metal
subfloors. Polyvinyl acetate (PVA)—based adhesives are not suitable when these sheets are used on metal floors and also
where there is constant spillage of water.

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UNIT – III FINISHES
PAINTS
The paints are coatings of fluid materials and they are applied over the surfaces of timber and metals. The varnishes are
transparent or 'nearly transparent solutions of resinous materials and they are applied over the painted surfaces. The
distempers are applied over the plastered surfaces. The protective power granted by the application of paints, varnishes
and distempers decreases with the passage of time and hence they are to be periodically applied at the intervals of
about 2 to 5 years.

PAINTING
Following are the objects of painting a surface:
It protects the surface from weathering effects of the atmosphere and actions by other liquids, fumes and gases.
(ii) It prevents decay of wood and corrosion in metal.
(iii) It is used to give good appearance to the surface. The decorative effects may be created by painting and the surface
becomes hygienically good, clean, colourful and attractive.
(iv) It provides a smooth surface for easy cleaning.

CHARACTERISTICS OF AN IDEAL PAINT

Following are the characteristics of an ideal paint:
It should possess a good spreading power i.e. maximum area of the surface should be covered by minimum quantity of
the paint.
(ii) The paint should be fairly cheap and economical.
(iii) The paint should be such that it can be easily and freely applied on the surface.
(iv) The paint should be such that it dries in reasonable time and not rapidly.
(v) The paint should be such that its colour is maintained for a long
(vi) The paint should form a hard and durable surface.
(vii) The paint should not affect health of workers during its application.
(viii) The paint should not be affected by weathering actions of the atmosphere.
(ix) The paint should possess attractive and pleasing appearance.
(x) The surface coated with paint should not show cracks when the paint dries.
(xi) When applied on the surface, the paint should form a thin film of uniform nature.

PIGMENT VOLUME CONCENTRATION NUMBER (P.V.C.N.)

Following equation is used to work out the pigment volume concentration number or P.V.C.N.:
P.V.C.N. = V1 /(V1 +V2)
V1 = Volume of pigment in the paint; and
V2 =Volume of non-volatile vehicle or carrier in the paint.
The higher the value of P.V.C.N., the lower will be the durability and gloss of the paint.

INGREDIENTS OF AN OIL BORNE PAINT

An oil paint essentially consists of the following ingredients:
(1) a base,
(2) a vehicle or carrier,
(3) a drier,
(4) a colouring pigment, and