TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction………………………...………………………………………..2
2. Glass…………………………………………………………………………2
3. History of glass……………..………………………………………………..3
4. Raw materials….…………………………………………………………….3
5. Manufacturing of glass…..…………………………………………………..3
6. Types of glass………………………………………………………………..5
 Float
glass……………………………………………………………..5
 Tempered
glass………………………………………………………..5
 Tinted glass…………………….……………………………………..6
 Frosted glass………………..….……………………………………..6
 Mirrored glass………………….……………………………………..6
 Double glazed glass……………………………………………….
…..7
 Laminated glass………………...……………………………………..8
7. Properties of glass..
…………………………………………………………..8
8. Innovations in glass………………………………………………………….9
9. Conclusion…...…………………………………………………………..…11
10. References…………………………………………………………………12
 Glass

Introduction:

Glass has become so commonplace today that it’s easy to see right through it without a second
thought. It’s in our windows, on our screens, in our cabinets, and in many of the devices we
interact with every day. Even though glass can be found everywhere, you may live your whole
life not knowing much about how it’s made or what it’s composed of. Even if you think you
know the basics, you’ve only skimmed the surface. From simple soda-lime to complex glass
structures that enable augmented reality, glass is an adaptable, wide-ranging material. That’s
why, after more than 165 years, we’re still making new discoveries.

Glass:

Glass constitutes a non-crystalline substance that is inert chemically, transparent, and brittle. It is
widely used in window frames, tableware, and optics, among other practical, technological in
nature, and decorative applications. The most common way to create glass is to quickly cool
down the molten form, or quench it; nevertheless, some glasses, such volcanic glass, are created
naturally. [1]

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 Fig 1.1 Float Glass

Since ancient times, glass has been fashioned into useful and ornamental items, and it continues
to play a significant role in a wide range of industries, including telecommunications,
housewares, and building construction. To create it, molten materials like silica sand must cool
quickly enough to stop visible crystals from forming. A brief discussion of glass is given next.
Stained glass & glassware define the visual elements of glass design as well as stained glass.
Industrial glass covers the composition, characteristics, and industrial manufacture of glass.

History of Glass:

Glass has always been found in nature, but the first glass created by humans can be dated to
about 4,000 years ago, when craftsmen working in Mesopotamia, the land between the Tigris
and Euphrates Rivers, discovered the art of mixing sand, soda, and lime to make glass. Glass was
considered a luxury item and was reserved for the upper classes. Glass objects were used for
personal adornment, for inlays to create decorative scenes on wooden and ivory furniture, and for
architectural embellishment. Glass was also formed into containers to hold precious scented oils
and perfumes. [2]

Raw Materials:

Prep
aration of glass:

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Following are the steps involved in preparation of glass:

1. Batching of raw materials:

The primary ingredients, which include silica sand, calcium oxide, soda, and magnesium,
are measured and combined into batches before being supplemented with recycled glass
(cullet). The utilisation of "cullet" lowers energy usage. The components are tested and
kept for blending later under electronic control. Saint-Gobain Clear Glass's exceptional
clarity is the outcome of rigorous adherence to high quality standards during the
manufacturing process, precise composition, and pure raw materials. [3]
2. Melting of raw materials in the furnace:
After passing via a mixing silo, the raw ingredients are batched and then heated in a
furnace with five chambers until they melt. The furnace can reach temperatures of up to
1600°C.
3. Drawing the molten glass onto the tin bath:
At a temperature of roughly 1000°C, the glass that is molten is then "floated" over a bath
of molten tin. It creates a "ribbon" that is typically 5 to 6 mm in length. Ribbon
thicknesses between 1.9 and 19 mm can be obtained by appropriately drawing the glass
through an intricate procedure using top roll machines. The product is referred to as "flat"
glass because the highly viscous glass and the highly fluid tin cannot combine, and their
contact surface is flat. [3]

Fig 1.2 Manufacturing of Glass

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 4. Cooling of the molten glass in the annealing lehr:
The glass, which was 600°C when it left the molten tin bath, had sufficiently cooled to
move to a lehr, or annealing chamber. The glass is now sufficiently hard to roll over
rollers and is annealed, which changes the internal stresses in the glass to allow for
predictable cutting and working while guaranteeing the glass's flatness. The two surfaces
are fire polished, so polishing or grinding is not necessary.
5. Quality checks, automatic cutting, and storage:
The glass is put through a stringent quality check after cooling. After that, it is sliced into
sheets that can be up to 6000 mm by 3660 mm in size. These sheets are then
automatically stacked, stored, and prepared for transportation.

Types of Glass:

There are different types of glass depending upon their composition. Some of them are discussed
below:

 Float Glass:
Float glass is essentially an extremely smooth, distortion-free glass that is used to create a
variety of glass products, including laminated and heat-toughened glass. Unlike sheet
glass, which gives off a dull appearance, float glass is transparent and can transmit up to
87% of incident light. It also gives consumers an exceptionally clear perspective. The
procedure of making float glass, which involves submerging molten glass into a tin bath to
let it float freely, is responsible for the glass's unusual moniker. Float glass is a
multipurpose and adaptable product that may be used in both residential and commercial
settings. [4]
Float glass, being the source of all glass goods, can be manipulated to produce an
extensive range of glass products. It may be made to fit a wide range of consumer and
architectural needs by being designed in different sizes, colors, and thicknesses. To get the
desired appearance, the IS Clear Float Glass can be simply processed using a variety of
methods, including insulating, silk-screen printing, bending, glazing, laminating, thermal
toughening, sandblasting, acid-etching, and many more.
 Tempered Glass:
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 The most popular kind of glass for use in railings and other comparable structural
applications is this one. By means of conduction, convection, and radiation, glass that has
been annealed is heated to around 700 degrees Celsius. A consistent and simultaneous
blast of air on both surfaces speeds up the cooling process. Tensile stresses in the glass's
surface are counterbalanced by tensile strains in its body because of the disparate cooling
rates that exist between the glass's interior and outside. Compared to annealed or untreated
glass, this technique increases the strength and safety of the glass by four to five times.
Toughened glass has a higher mechanical resistance to breaking due to counteracting
pressures or surface compression, and when it does shatter, it breaks into small, regular,
usually square fragments.
 Tinted Glass:
To create coloured glass, tiny amounts of metal oxide are combined with the glass. This
modifies the colour and amount of solar energy that passes through, but it has no effect on
the glass's functionality. Ultimately, the procedure decreases the impact of sunlight, which
may assist prevent harm to the interiors and furniture. Tinted glass absorbs some of the
heat from the sun in addition to blocking some light. We refer to this as heat absorption. If
the glass hasn't been tempered, the increased heat will induce thermal stress, which could
shatter the glass. Glass with tint can withstand heat. It absorbs solar energy to regulate
radiation. Your windows' ability to allow in sunlight can raise the temperature.
Glass with tint can withstand heat. It absorbs solar energy to regulate radiation. Your
windows' ability to allow in sunlight can raise the temperature. Expensive HVAC systems
require more electricity to operate in heated buildings. Tinted glass can reduce the amount
of heat that enters your building. You may soak up to 45% of the solar heat, depending on
the kind and thickness of the tinted glass. Additionally, it might lessen light visibility and
create a calmer atmosphere in the space.
 Frosted Glass:
Technically speaking, frosted glass is a transparent sheet of glass that has been acid-etched
or sandblasted to become opaque. The glass appears translucent due to light dispersion
during transmission, making it difficult to see through while light is being transmitted.
Alternatively, you can use canned frosty glass sprays or a vinyl film that serves as a
stencil to create this frosting appearance to the glass's surface.

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  Mirrored Glass:
A mirror is a piece of art that reflects light while retaining enough of the original object's
detail to provide the observer an accurate representation of the topic. The Merriam-
Webster definition of a mirror is "a polished or smooth outer layer (as of glass) that
generates images by reflection." Modern mirrors are usually made of smooth glass (safety
or standard) coated in silver, reflecting paint, or aluminium powder. Early mirrors may
have been as basic as calm, reflecting pools.
One side of the glass is coated with metal to create mirrored glass. Usually, chrome,
silver, aluminium, or gold are used for the coating. A completely reflecting metal coating
is placed to plain mirrored glass, and it is subsequently coated with a layer of protection.
A significantly thinner metal coating—without any extra sealing or other opaque layer—is
used to create "one-way" mirrors. [5]
 Double glazed Glass:
Two or more monolithic glass sheets are joined by dehydrated air chambers to form
double-glazed glass. A dehumidifier product is inserted into an aluminium separator,
which separates the two glasses. A double perimeter seal guarantees the tightness of the
separation. The improved acoustic and thermal insulation of this kind of glass is what
draws attention to it. Glass sheets of varying thicknesses must be used to provide effective
noise insulation and prevent any potential resonances.

Fig 1.3 Double Glazed Glass

Double glazing, as the name implies, describes a window with two glass panes. The
insulated glass unit (IGU), also known as the double-glazed sealed unit, is the main part of

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 the window and is housed in an uPVC, aluminum, or wood frame. A spacer bar creates an
air gap between two glass sheets, which is then filled with a gas that Insulates such as
argon, krypton, or xenon. This is known as the IGU.
In the UK today, double-glazed windows are installed in six out of ten homes. The
primary benefit of double glazing is thermal insulation, which increases the energy
efficiency of your rooms by preventing cold air from outside and retaining heat within.
Noise pollution has additional benefits, such as preventing outside noise from entering the
house and enhancing overall home security.
 Laminated Glass:
Glass can be laminated on any of the varieties. Two sheets of toughened glass bonded
combined with a 1.52mm thick Polyiynil Butyral (PVB) interlayer constitute the most
widely used final product. Glass that is laminated has several benefits. The most well-
known of them are safety and security; as a result, laminated glass is glued intact by the
interlayer and does not break upon impact. This lessens the risk to public safety posed by
broken glass pieces, and, to some extent, the security risk posed by simple entry. [5]
There are numerous alternative interlayers that can be used to apply different technologies
to the application. When large loadings are necessary, structural interconnected layers can
be utilised to increase the glass's strength. Coloured interlayers can be used solely
decoratively or for seclusion. The interlayer can also have additional characteristics like
fire resistance and sound absorption.

Properties of Glass:

Some basic properties of glass are given below:

 Density: Glass's density can change based on its chemical makeup and production
method. Glass is less dense than metals but generally has a higher density than most
liquids and gases. Glass's density affects both its mass and structural properties. [6]
 Thermal Conductivity: Glass is a poor heat conductor because of its low thermal
conductivity. Because of this characteristic, glass is a good insulator in places where heat
transfer must be kept to a minimum, including oven doors, windows, and thermal
barriers.

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  Viscosity: One of the most crucial factors in glass manufacturing optimisation is
viscosity. For this reason, understanding a glass's viscosity-temperature relationship is
crucial. It is simple to estimate the viscosity of a glass sample by applying a force,
measuring the resulting velocity gradient, and then computing the viscosity. When
viscosity equals 2.0 dPas, the melting point can be reached, resulting in a homogeneous
melt.

 Brittleness: Because glass is a brittle material, stress will usually cause it to fracture or
break instead of to distort. It is not as malleable and ductile as some polymers or metals.
Glass breaks into sharp pieces when it is struck or stressed severely.

 Electrical Conductivity: An outstanding electrical insulator is glass. Because it

doesn't conduct electricity, it can be used in insulators, electrical parts, and electronic
devices—applications where insulation from electricity is necessary.
 Refractive Index: Refractive index, a measurement of how much light refracts or
bends as it travels through a substance, is present in glass. a variety of factors including
its composition, glass can have a different refractive index, which makes it possible to
create lenses and other optical components that control light. [7]
 Hardness: Glass is a somewhat sturdy substance. With a Mohs hardness of about 5.5, it
can scratch most less hard objects but can also be scratched by harder materials. Glass's
resilience to surface damage and long-term durability are influenced by its hardness.
 Optical Properties: Glass has a variety of optical characteristics, including as light
absorption, transmission, reflection, and scattering. The glass's composition, thickness,
and treatment of the surface all affect these characteristics. Lenses, mirrors, filtration
systems, and other optical components are designed and made with their help.

Innovations in Glass:
It's more difficult than ever for architects to know where to seek for some clarity and impartiality
because so many real advances are being hidden by the mist of sales hyperbole and marketing
hype. This implies that chances could be lost. We hope that these synopsis summaries will be of
some assistance in that regard.

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 1. Smart Glass:
Smart glass, sometimes referred to as switchable glass, is a kind of glass that can alter
how it transmits light in response to an electric current or other stimulus. Since this
technology has so many advantages in terms of energy efficiency, privacy, comfort, and
aesthetics, it is anticipated to grow in sophistication and use over the next five years. As
of right now, smart glasses come in three main varieties: 1) electrochromic 2) Polymer
Dispersed Liquid Crystal (PDLC); and 3) Suspended Particle Device (SPD). It is
anticipated that further advancements in Smart Glass technology would enhance
functionality, expand dimensions, and lower expenses, hence rendering it more
affordable for a wider audience. Smart Glass is applicable to internal partitions as well as
windows, doors, and skylights. Maximum size restrictions continue to be the key
challenge. [8]
2. Improved Energy Efficiency:
Higher efficiency, energy-efficient glazing solutions are desperately needed, as
conventional glass and glazing technologies, as well as the fenestration itself, are under
constant pressure to meet minimum code compliance. As huge expanses of glass became
the standard in modern windows and doors and local code compliance for thermal
efficiency tightens further, this is especially common on the west coast and in the
mountain regions. It is anticipated that advancements in glass and glazing technology will
continue to push the boundaries of sustainability and performance in the next five years,
enabling buildings to use less energy while still looking beautiful. [9]

Fig 1.4 Improved Energy Efficiency Glass

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 3. Enhanced Security:
When it comes to protecting people, there can be no compromise in your building’s
security precautions. In today’s world, we face increasing dangers of attack by intruders,
shootings, and explosions in public spaces. Vetrotech’s glass solutions can resist such
threats while meeting every building requirement to achieve seamless architectural
integration. Attack- or burglar-resistant glass is classified based on its ability to resist
manual attacks by tools such as hammers, crowbars, and power tools. Blast-resistant
glass is a specialized type of glass designed to withstand the dangers of explosions and
other high-pressure events.
4. Lightweight Glass:
Glass and glazing technology are anticipated to advance to suit the growing need for
lightweight and flexible materials. To produce ultra-thin, lightweight glass for usage in a
variety of applications, such as eyewear, packaging, computer and phone screens, and
glass bottles, new manufacturing methods and supplies are being developed. For some
products, completely new types of glass made of titanium and zirconium rather than
transparent silicon are already under development. These innovations will eventually find
their way into fenestration glazing, and this is anticipated to have a significant impact on
engineering, construction, and architectural design.
5. Self-Cleaning Glass:
It is costly, difficult, and time-consuming to clean glass surfaces, particularly in high-rise
buildings or other buildings with inaccessible elevations. While self-cleaning glass has
been advertised in the past, it has not been universally acknowledged as a functional
solution and has instead been seen as a marketing gimmick rather than a real, workable
one. Stay tuned, but for the time being, be sceptical of performance claims as research
and development into efficient self-cleaning technologies centred around photocatalysis
and hydrophilic coatings, for example, is still ongoing. It is anticipated that specifications
will be developed for practical solutions that would lower maintenance expenses, offer
longevity, and enhance the overall aesthetics of buildings.
Conclusion:

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Perhaps because glass is naturally translucent and used as a vessel it goes by unnoticed. Glasses,
the kind we wear, enable us to see clearly. But it’s the gift of sight we applaud, not the tool.
Similarly, windows bring light indoors. But mostly, we praise the light, not the window. Glass
provides a clear lens for humans to see the world, and, in the case of mirrors, to see ourselves.
Yet, its uses go far beyond these purposes. Many materials can melt and cool to a glassy state
under the right circumstances. Glass is not as cool to the touch as other liquids. Glass is nearly as
solid at ambient temperature. It melts at moderate temperatures and is fragile.

Reference:

1. Roperch, Pierrick; Gattacceca, Jérôme; Valenzuela, Millarca; Devouard, Bertrand;

Lorand, Jean-Pierre; Arriagada, Cesar; Rochette, Pierre; Latorre, Claudio; Beck, Pierre
(2017). "Surface vitrification caused by natural fires in Late Pleistocene wetlands of the
Atacama Desert". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 469 (1 July 2017): 15–26.
2. Julian Henderson (2013). Ancient Glass. Cambridge University Press. pp. 127–157.
3. Karklins, Karlis (January 2013). "Simon Kwan – Early Chinese Faience and Glass Beads
and Pendants". BEADS: Journal of the Society of Bead Researchers.
4. Wilde, H. "Technologische Innovationen im 2. Jahrtausend v. Chr. Zur Verwendung und
Verbreitung neuer Werkstoffe im ostmediterranen Raum". GOF IV, Bd 44, Wiesbaden
2003, 25–26.
5. Whitehouse, David (2003). Roman Glass in the Corning Museum of Glass, Volume 3.
Hudson Hills. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-87290-155-1.
6. Liebermann, H.; Graham, C. (1976). "Production of Amorphous Alloy Ribbons and
Effects of Apparatus Parameters on Ribbon Dimensions". IEEE Transactions on
Magnetics. 12 (6):921. Bibcode:1976ITM....12..921L. doi:10.1109/TMAG.1976.1059201
7. Ruby, S.L.; Pelah, I. (2013). "Crystals, Supercooled Liquids, and Glasses in Frozen
Aqueous Solutions". In Gruverman, Irwin J. (ed.). Mössbauer Effect Methodology:
Volume 6 Proceedings of the Sixth Symposium on Mössbauer Effect Methodology New
York City, January 25, 1970. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-
4684-3159-9.
8. Charbel Tengroth (2001). "Structure of Ca0.4K0.6(NO3)1.4 from the glass to the liquid
state". Phys. Rev. B. 64 (22): 224207.

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 9. Pantano, Carlo. "Glass Surface Treatments: Commercial Processes Used in Glass
Manufacture" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 September 2015.

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