European Journal of Soil Science, 2009 doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2389.2008.01114.

Challenges and opportunities in soil organic matter

research

R. L AL
Carbon Management and Sequestration Center, School of Environment and Natural Resources, The Ohio State University, Columbus,
OH 43210, USA

Summary
Soil organic matter (SOM) can be a source or sink for atmospheric CO2 depending on land use, and
management of soil, vegetation and water resources. SOM is a source of atmospheric CO2, with the
use of extractive farming practices that lead to a negative nutrient balance and exacerbate soil degra-
dation. The historic loss of C from the SOM pool between the 1850s and 2000 is estimated at 78

12 Gt compared with the emission of 270
30 Gt from fossil fuel combustion. Despite its numerous
direct and ancillary benefits, enhancing the SOM pool is a major challenge, especially in impov-
erished and depleted soils in harsh tropical climates. In addition to biophysical factors, there are also
numerous social, economic and political constraints that limit increase in SOM pools. Conversion of
plough-tillage to no-till farming, an important practice to enhance the SOM pool, is constrained by
the limited access to herbicides and seed drill, and the competing uses of crop residues. Yet, enhanc-
ing the SOM pool is essential to restoring degraded soils, advancing food security and improving the
environment. Important subjects among researchable topics include: assessing the rate of SOM accre-
tion for a wide range of land use and management practices with reference to a baseline; evaluating
the importance of biochar; measuring and predicting SOM at landscape and extrapolation to
regional scale; establishing relationships between SOM and soil quality and agronomic productivity;
determining on- and off-site effects of crop residues removal for ethanol/biofuel production; deter-
mining the fate of C in SOM translocated by erosional processes; evaluating nutrient requirements
for increasing SOM in croplands; validating predictive models in tropical environments; and develop-
ing methodology for trading C credits.

Introduction an increase in the extent and severity of the human-induced

soil degradation (1.94 billion ha globally and increasing at
Important global issues of the 21st century are: (i) an increase
the rate of 5–10 million ha annually) (Oldeman, 1994), with
in human population by an additional three billion by the mid-
adverse impacts on ecosystems services and the environment.
dle of the 21st century, most of which is expected to occur in the
While the issues are serious and diverse, the common link
developing countries; (ii) a decline in per capita availability of
among them is the global C cycle as influenced by the terres-
cultivable land and renewable fresh water resources; (iii) an
trial C pool and its dynamics through interactive effects of
increase in the atmospheric abundance of CO2 (from 385
human-induced and natural perturbations. Strategies to
p.p.m. in 2008 and increasing at the rate of c. 2 p.p.m.
address these issues involve enhancing the terrestrial C pool
year1) and other GHGs with the attendant risks of global
for reversing the degradation processes and improving eco-
warming; (iv) an increase in energy demand from 440 EJ in
system functions.
2007 and growing at the rate of c. 2.5% globally; (v) an
The objective of this paper is to outline and deliberate direct
increase in food demand, especially in developing countries
and ancillary benefits of soil organic matter (SOM), identify
that are home to 850 million food-insecure people (Borlaug,
knowledge gaps and prioritize researchable issues in SOM with
2007), and where the scarce natural resources (per capita
special reference to soil quality, climate change and global food
land area and water) are already under great stress; and (vi)
security. The focus is more on outlining the basic issues rather
Correspondence: R. Lal. E-mail: [email protected] than collating and synthesizing a comprehensive literature
Received 2 December 2007; revised version accepted 11 November 2008 review.

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Journal compilation # 2009 British Society of Soil Science 1
2 R. Lal

Climate change restoring the quality of degraded soils, especially those in the
developing countries of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and South
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007) report
Asia (SA). The relative magnitude of soil degradation in devel-
indicates that atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gasses
oped and developing countries indicates that the problem of
(GHGs) increased between the pre-industrial era and 2005 from
erosion-induced degradation is more serious in developing than
280 p.p.m. to 379 p.p.m. for CO2, 750 p.p.b. to 1750 p.p.b. for
developed countries (Table 1). Management of the SOM pool
CH4, and 270 p.p.b. to 319 p.p.b. for N2O. Two of the most
to improve soil quality and agronomic productivity is now re-
important GHGs reached a new maximum concentration in
lated to the urgency to increase food production (Swaminathan,
the atmosphere in 2006. The concentration of CO2 reached
2000; Sanchez & Swaminathan, 2005) and the need for intensive
381.2 p.p.m., and that of N2O 320.1 p.p.m. (WMO, 2006).
land management during the 21st century through adoption of
Consequently, the mean global temperature has increased
land saving technologies (Wild, 2003).
from 13.6°C to 14.4°C, sea level has risen by 15.2 cm to 22.9
There is an urgency and concern to feed the world population
cm during the 20th century, and the average cover of the arctic
of 6.7 billion (B) in 2008 and expected to be 7.5 B by 2020, 9.4 B
sea ice has shrunk at the rate of 2.7% per decade. Two pre-
by 2050 and c. 10 B by 2100. With reference to managing the
dominant sources of GHGs have been the terrestrial and the
SOM pool, there are three important features of the projected
geological carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) pools. Between 1850
rapid increase in world population: (i) almost all of the future
and 2000, the relative contribution of CO2-C to atmospheric
increase in population will occur in developing countries
abundance from the geological pool was 270
30 Gt by fossil
(Cohen, 2003) where the soil and water resources are already
fuel combustion compared with that from the terrestrial pool
under great stress; (ii) the projected increase of 3–3.5 billion
estimated at 136
55 Gt by deforestation, biomass burning,
will occur over a short period between 2000 and 2050; and (iii)
land use conversion and soil cultivation. Until the 1940s, more
such an unprecedented increase in developing countries does
CO2-C was emitted from terrestrial sources than from fossil
not provide enough time to make appropriate adjustments to
fuel combustion. Depletion of the C pool in world soils is esti-
meet the basic demands. There are c. 850 million food-insecure
mated at 78
12 Gt (Lal, 1999, 2004).
people in the world (Sanchez, 2002; Rosegrant & Cline, 2003;
Borlaug, 2007), the number may increase by another 100 mil-
lion by 2015, and the UN Millennium Goals will not be real-
Soil quality and agronomic production
ised. An additional 3.4 billion people suffer from hidden
Numerous and wide ranging benefits of SOM for enhancing soil hunger because of the intake of food grown on poor quality
quality and influencing the underlying pedological processes were soils (UN, 2006). Globally, food production must be doubled
quantified by Jenny (Jenny, 1941, 1961; Jenny & Raychaudhary, by 2050 to meet the increasing demand of the growing pop-
1961). Some direct benefits of the SOM pool include improvement ulation. Management of the SOM pool can play an important
in soil structure, retention of water and plant nutrients, increase in role in advancing food security. To meet the future demand in
soil biodiversity and decrease in risks of soil erosion and the food production, the global average cereal grain yield of 2.64
related degradation. Important among numerous ancillary bene- Mg ha1 and total cereal production of 1267 million Mg in
fits are increases in use efficiency of input because of the reduction 2000 must be increased to 3.60 Mg ha1 and total cereal pro-
in losses of water and nutrients from the root zone, an increase in duction of 1700 million Mg by 2025, and 4.30 Mg ha1 and
the soil’s (and ecosystem’s) resilience, and moderation of climate 1995 million Mg by 2050 (Wild, 2003). The required increase
through sequestration of atmospheric CO2 into stable SOM in grain yields (þ 35% by 2025 and þ 58% by 2050) will be
components with a long residence time and the ability to oxidize
CH4. In accord with the direct and ancillary benefits of SOM to
Table 1 The relative magnitude of soil degradation in developed and
soil quality, there are several soil properties and processes influ-
developing countries (modified from Oldeman, 1994)
enced by its quantity and quality. Soil degradative processes
that lead to depletion of the SOM pool include decline in soil % of the World’s degraded area
Total area
structure, depletion of plant nutrients, and change in soil tem-
Degradation affected in In developing In developed
perature and moisture regimes that enhance mineralization. The countries countries
process the world /Mha
rate and magnitude of depletion of the SOM pool are exacer-
bated by accelerated soil erosion. In contrast, reversal of degra- Water erosion 1100 77 23
dation trends through conversion to restorative land use would Wind erosion 550 83 17
enhance the SOM pool. Processes leading to restoration of the Loss of nutrients 136 97 3
Salinization 289 94 6
SOM pool include increase in aggregation, improvement in ele-
Pollution 21 100 0
mental cycling, increase in soil biodiversity and reduction in los-
Acidification 6 83 17
ses by runoff and erosion. There is a strong and positive impact Compaction 68 47 53
of maintaining/enhancing the SOM pool on soil and environ- Waterlogging 11 91 9
ment quality, and the urgent need to increase the SOM pool for

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Journal compilation # 2009 British Society of Soil Science, European Journal of Soil Science
 Soil Organic Matter Research 3

even larger (þ 62% by 2025 and
121% by 2050) if there is erosion, decreasing leaching and minimizing decomposition.
a strong shift in the dietary habits of populations in emerging Based on the choice of appropriate strategies, there are
economies. Human nutrition and diet can have a significant numerous management options for enhancing the SOM pool
impact on SOM dynamics, soil quality and the environment (Figure 2). Processes that lead to C sequestration include
through the degree of agricultural intensification (Iserman & humification, aggregation and illuviation (transfer into the
Iserman, 2004). There are implications of diet and nutrient sub-soil) for soil organic C (SOC) and formation of secondary
requirements on soil quality (Lampert, 2003), for which judi- carbonates and leaching of biocarbonates for soil inorganic C
cious management of SOM is crucial. While the data on crop (SIC) sequestration. The largest potential for SOC sequestra-
performance in relation to some recommended management tion exists in restoring those degraded soils whose SOM
practices (RMPs) are known from developing countries, credi- reserves have been depleted the most by past land misuse and
ble information is needed on the rate of C storage for diverse soil mismanagement. In addition to off-setting fossil fuel emis-
soils and ecosystems. Research data are also needed with sions and improving the environment, enhancing the SOM
regard to the soil-specific functions relating SOM storage to pool in cropland soils is also important for increasing agro-
soil quality characteristics (e.g. available water holding capac- nomic productivity and advancing global food security (Lal,
ity, structural stability, erodibility, water and nutrient use effi- 2006).
ciency, water transmission properties, aeration and gaseous Soil/site specific management options of enhancing the SOM
diffusion, emission of GHGs including CH4 and N2O, and pool in ecosystems are outlined in Figure 3. The long-term goal
agronomic/biomass yields). Lal (2006) estimated that increas- is to increase the SOM pool in the root zone to above the critical
ing the SOC pool by 1 Mg ha1 year1 might increase food level (Loveland & Webb, 2003). However, addition of biomass-
production by 6–12 million Mg year1 in SSA, and 24–40 mil- C without consideration of other components (N, P, S etc.) may
lion Mg year1 in all developing countries. The need for decrease the SOC pool in some situations where it may accentu-
enhancing the SOM pool in soils of the tropics is also under- ate the rate of mineralization. The critical limit of SOM for
scored by the fact that soils on poor land quality classes (class agricultural soils may change with possible change in crop yields
IV to class IX) predominate in developing countries of the with the projected global warming (Schimel, 2006). Indeed, the
tropics (Table 2). Improving soil quality and increasing SOM choice of an appropriate strategy depends on the land use and
along with the inputs required to raise productivity, remains many other factors pertaining to biophysical environment and
a major challenge. the human dimensions. While increasing the SOM pool is an
important goal for choosing soil and crop management practi-
ces, it is difficult if not impossible to bring about a measurable
Present techniques of SOM management
increase in the SOM pool over a short period of 2–5 years. The
Proven technology of SOM management can be broadly problem is especially challenging in developing countries of the
grouped under two categories: (i) those that increase C input tropics, where the need to enhance the SOM pool is the greatest
into the soil and (ii) those that decrease losses from managed because the drastic depletion of the SOM pool is also linked with
agroecosystems (Figure 1). Input of C into the soil can be mod- severe decline in soil quality by accelerated erosion, nutrient
erated either by recycling biosolids or by growing biomass depletion, acidification, elemental imbalance, decline in soil
in situ. Similarly, losses of SOM can be curtailed by reducing structure, salination, etc. (Oldeman, 1994).
No-till (NT) farming is assumed to be the oldest tillage method
Table 2 Land quality in temperate versus tropical climates (Blum &
practised since the dawn of settled agriculture. The modern ver-
Eswaran, 2004) sion of NT farming is practised on c. 100 Mha of cropland,
mostly in Brazil, USA, Canada, Argentina, Chile and Australia
Temperate Tropical Others (Derpsch, 2007). Yet, its impact on soil properties and processes
Land quality class % of ice-free land surface in relation to SOM dynamics is not widely understood. For
I 2.14 0.25 – example, the effects of NT cropping systems on the concentra-
II 2.55 2.43 – tion and depth distribution of SOM have not been widely docu-
III 0.70 1.51 2.33 mented for a range of soils and eco-regions, including for soils
IV 1.31 1.83 0.82 of the tropics. Further, its effects on the chemical composition
V 4.76 9.90 1.85 of SOM and on its chemical recalcitrance against decomposi-
VI 1.66 8.53 3.13 tion have not been widely assessed. The need to enhance the res-
VII 2.01 2.31 4.70 idence time of the SOM pool necessitates identification of land
VIII – – 16.70
use and management practices that increase recalcitrance
IX 0.15 0.16 28.45
against microbial decomposition. Study of the recalcitrance of
Total 15.28 26.92 57.98
% > Class III 35.2 80.7 95.9
SOM requires characterization of soil from long-term experi-
ments using analytical techniques such as 13CNMR spectros-
copy (Kögel-Knabner, 1997; Kiem et al., 2000) and/or gas

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Journal compilation # 2009 British Society of Soil Science, European Journal of Soil Science
4 R. Lal

Strategies of Enhancing
Soil Organic Matter Pool

Increasing Decreasing
C Input Losses

Recycling Growing Reducing Decreasing Minimizing

Biosolids Biomass Soil Erosion Leaching Decomposition
Improving Soil Quality

Crop Crops with Conservation Managing Managing

Enhancing Net Primary Productivity

Residues More Root Tillage Soil Water Soil Surface
Biomass
Animal Moderating Moderating
Waste Cover Complex Soil Processes Soil Trench
Crops Farming Exature
Systems
Industrial Managing Growing
Bioproducts Biomass/ Plants for Plants with
Mulch Engineering
Practices Root Recalcitrant
Plantations Exudates Compounds
Bioproducts
of Crops with
Bioenergy Deep Root
Plantations Systems

Creating a Positive Ecosystem/Soil Carbon Budget

Figure 1 Strategies of enhancing and preserving the soil organic matter pool.

chromatography coupled with isotope ratio mass spectrometry a wide range of ecosystems, there is a conspicuous lack of
(Dignac et al., 2005; Wiesenberg & Schwark, 2006). Guggen- adoption of these technologies, especially by the resource-poor
berger et al. (1995) observed that soil management techniques small land holders in SSA, SA and elsewhere in the developing
have little impact on the chemical composition of the SOM countries.
despite having large impact on its concentration. Effects are
similar to that of cropping systems on the composition of the
particulate organic matter (POM) (Golchin et al., 1995; Oades No-till farming
et al., 1998). Dieckow et al. (2005) reported that land use, crop-
The SOM pool can be maintained or enhanced by adoption
ping and N fertilization of a sub-tropical Acrisol had no effect
of NT farming and conservation tillage (CT) with the liberal
on the composition of SOM in silt- and clay-sized fractions or
use of crop residue mulch, manure, compost and incorporation
on the whole soil. However, soil under grassland management
of cover crops (forages) in the rotation cycle. Some animal-based
had larger alkyl and smaller aromatic C concentrations than
(e.g. pastoral, agro-pastoral and agrisilvipastoral) and forestry-
that under cropland.
based (e.g. agro-forestry, short-rotation, woody perennials
agroforestry) farming systems can sequester C, especially when
marginal/degraded croplands are converted to these restorative
Technological options for soil organic matter
systems. While market forces and the economic benefits are
management
strong determinants that govern the decision about technology
Several options are being considered for stabilizing atmo- adoption in commercial/industrialized farming, the situation of
spheric abundance of GHGs (Bohannon, 2007). Important the resource-poor farmers who practise subsistence or extractive
among these options is C sequestration in world soils through farming in SSA and SA (Figure 4) prohibits their adoption
increase in the SOM pool. While the technology to improve the of RMPs. Small land holders, faced by the perpetual food in-
SOM pool is known and has been proven for diverse soils in security leading to hunger and malnutrition along with

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Journal compilation # 2009 British Society of Soil Science, European Journal of Soil Science
 Soil Organic Matter Research 5

Management Options of Enhancing Soil

Organic Matter Pool

Degraded Soils Cropland Soils Pasture Land Soils Forest/Managing Bioenergy Restoring Wetlands
Plantations

Creating Continuous Vegetal Cover with High NPP

Restoring Degraded Soils and Ecosystems

Afforestation Biomass Controlling Site Water Table

& Vegetal Application Grazing Preparation Management
Cover
Positive Fire Forest Species
Nutrient Nutrient Management Species Succession
Application Budget
Improvement Stand Nutrient
Water No-Till Species Management Recycling
Conservation Farming

Water Nutrient Bioenergy

Exclosure Crop Conservation Application Use
Rotations

Fertility Water
Water Management Management
Conservation

Bioenergy Bioenergy
Plantations Plantations

Restoring Soil Processes That Enhance Terrestrial Carbon Pool

Figure 2 Technological options for enhancing organic carbon pool in soils of managed ecosystems.

sub-standard living, naturally give importance to immediate lage/community level. In addition, biofuel plantations must be
needs over those of future generations. The stewardship of soil established in rural areas to provide viable sources of clean
resources cannot be considered practically by people facing star- cooking fuel either as a wood fuel or as a modern liquid fuel
vation. There are also no incentives for the small-size land hold- (e.g. cellulosic ethanol, biodiesel, etc.) and create employment
ers. Further, social and political unrest, exacerbated by poverty opportunities.
and hunger, also hinders the adoption of RMPs. There are five pathways of C fixation. These are: (i) the Calvin
There are numerous constraints to widespread adoption of cycle, (ii) the reductive citric acid cycle, (iii) the reductive acetyl-
NT farming in developing countries. Important among these CoA pathway, (iv) the 3-hydroxypropionate/malyl-CoA cycle,
are the competing uses of crop residues (e.g. fodder, fuel and and (v) the 3-hydroxypropionate/4-hydroxybutyrate cycle
construction materials), use of animal dung for household fuel (Thauer, 2007). The fifth pathway involves growing cyanobac-
rather than as soil amendment, lack of availability of herbicides teria as a source of producing biomass. Rather than using woody
and appropriate seed drill, lack of or no incorporation of cover perennials (e.g. poplar, willow, eucalyptus and mesquite) and
crops in the rotation cycle, among others, and an uncertain land warm season grasses (e.g. switchgrass and miscanthus), it may
tenure system. Identifying clean/modern biofuels and alternate be prudent to produce biomass by growing algae and cyanobac-
sources of household energy is crucial to improving the SOM teria, which represent other pathways of C fixation. In addition
pool and enhancing soil quality. to C, these organisms also play an important role in the Earth’s
nitrogen (N) and sulphur cycles and can be grown in bioreactors
that do not compete with land, water and other scarce and non-
Modern biofuels and SOM
renewable resources.
Development of clean sources of household fuel is also an essen- Crop residues are being widely considered as a source of lig-
tial pre-requisite to using animal dung (Venkatraman et al., nocellulosic biomass for conversion into ethanol (Somerville,
2005) and crop residues as amendments for improving soil 2006; Kennedy, 2007). However, there are few systematic and
quality. Animal dung and other agricultural/urban biosolids long-term studies designed to assess the impact of residue har-
could be used in a biodigester to generate electricity and the vest on SOM concentration, and rate of C sequestration and soil
by-products synthesized into fortified compost for use as soil quality (Wilhelm et al., 2004). Serious concerns are being
amendments. Such power generators must be developed at vil- raised as to whether bioenergy produced from crop residues is

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Journal compilation # 2009 British Society of Soil Science, European Journal of Soil Science
6 R. Lal

Forest Soils
•Afforestation, reforestion
•Choice of appropriate species
•Stand management
•Soil Fertility Management
•Site Preparation
•Harvesting techniques
•Recycling litter and detritus
material

Cropland Soils
Wetland/Peatsoils •No-till farming
•Cover crops
•Wetland restoration Enhancing •Positive nutrient balance
•Water table management •Manuring/organic amendments
•Reseeding appropriate
SOM Pool •Water conservation
species •Complex crop
rotations

Grazing land soils

•Controlled grazing
•Appropriate species
•Water Conservation
•Agroforestry systems
•Soil fertility Figure 3 Techniques of enhancing the SOM
management
pool.

effective in improving the C balance (Baker & Craig, 2007; mation on SOM dynamics under different scenarios of residue
Cassman & Liska, 2007; Doorbosch & Steinblik, 2007). The harvest is needed through long-term experiments conducted
serious question that needs to be answered critically and objec- on a wide range of soils and environments.
tively regards the amount of energy that can be produced The impact of N application on the mineralization and humi-
without harming the environment (European Environment fication of large input of carbonaceous crop residues (e.g. corn,
Agency, 2006). In Ohio, Blanco-Canqui & Lal (2007a, b, c) wheat, barley and rice rather than legumes such as soya beans,
reported that even 25% removal of maize stover from a long- cowpeas, pigeon peas and alfalfa) is a debatable issue. Khan
term NT experiment resulted in a significant adverse impact et al. (2007) indicated the importance of the judicious manage-
on the SOM pool and soil quality. In addition to losses of ment of N if crop (maize) residues are to be harvested for bio-
nutrients contained in the residues (Singh et al., 2005), infor- energy production. The feasibility of using NT residues as

Competing Uses of
Crop Residues and
Animal Dung
•Foder
•Fuel
•Construction
material

Lack of Political Will Non-Availability of

Power as: Constrains to Input

•Visionary and committed

Terrestrial/Soil •Herbicides for weed control
leadership Carbon
•No-till drill
Sequestration
•Policy incentives •Round up ready crops

Weak Institutions
•Poor infrastructure
•No extension support
•Lack of market
Figure 4 Constraints to carbon sequestration
in developing countries.

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Journal compilation # 2009 British Society of Soil Science, European Journal of Soil Science
 Soil Organic Matter Research 7

a feedstock for production of cellulosic ethanol (Graham et al.,

2007) needs careful and objective analyses. In addition to
using cellulosic biomass as feedstock for producing ethanol,
biomass is also being used for producing chemicals derived
from cellulose and hemi-cellulose. Hayes (2006) reported that
quantitative yields of levulinic acid, a promising feedstock
chemical that can be used for fuel additives, polymers and
plastics and numerous other essential chemicals, have been
obtained in the ‘Biofine’ process; Hayes (2006) reported that
a 300 – Mg day1 biofine plant is operational at Caserta, Italy.
Other feedstock chemicals being derived from biomass include
fermentable levoglucosan derived from cellulose and furfural
from the pentoses in hemicelluloses. Some argue that the bio-
economy, based on those alternative uses of crop residues,
may revolutionize agriculture (Hayes, 2006), and assume that Figure 5 Schematic of assessing the rate and magnitude of soil car-
bon sequestration with reference to the baseline.
agro-based industries can boost the economy by producing
ethanol and chemicals while also generating biochar as
a byproduct of the biorefinery. Those who oppose the removal
Most studies on SOM dynamics have been made for the
of crop residues are concerned with the decline in agronomic
plough layer (0–20 cm depth). There is a strong need to assess
productivity, the increase in use of fertilizers and herbicides to
the land use and management impacts on depth-distribution
compensate for the loss of nutrients and increase in infestation
because of the depth-dependent response of some practices to
of weeds by the residue-free soil and increases in risks of soil
temporal changes in the SOM pool. For example, the schematics
erosion and non-point source pollution.
in Figure 6 show that conversion of plough tillage to NT may
enhance the SOM concentration in the surface soil but decrease
Assessment of soil carbon storage that in the sub-soil (Puget & Lal, 2004; Baker et al., 2007). Some
argue that seemingly larger SOC concentrations in NT systems
Soil C storage (SCS) is considered a viable option to mitigate
may merely be due to shallow depth of sampling (Baker et al.,
climate change (Lal et al., 2003; Lal, 2004; Pacala & Socolow,
2007; Blanco-Canqui & Lal, 2008). Therefore, measurement of
2004). The SCS in a specific ecosystem is assessed in compari-
management-induced changes in SOM concentration to at
son with a reference ecosystem over a given period of time
least 1-m (preferably 2-m) depth is important. Assessment of
and designated space (Bernoux et al., 2005, Figure 5). The
the SOM pool to 2-m depth may be especially important in
question of establishing a baseline in assessing the SCS is
critical and needs an objective consideration. Using the anal-
yses of SOC pool data from the long-term Morrow plots in
Illinois, Khan et al. (2007) reported a decline in the SOC pool
over 51 years in plots receiving fertilizer. However, compara-
tive analyses made between unfertilized and fertilized plots
for either 1995 or 2005 data would lead to a different inter-
pretation that fertilizer use enhanced SCS. Thus, choice of
baseline is critical.
Net SCS must be assessed in relation to the hidden C costs (of
all inputs including fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation and energy),
and fluxes of all GHGs (e.g. CO2, CH4 and N2O) (Robertson
et al., 2000; Flessa et al., 2002). Some management systems
(e.g. NT farming) may enhance the SOM concentration either
in the surface soil or the whole profile, but may also alter the
fluxes of CH4 and N2O. Thus, estimation of the net rate of
SCS must be based on due consideration of all hidden C costs
and fluxes of all GHGs (Schlesinger, 1999). Integrated evalua-
tion of GHG emissions is essential for determining the net rate
of C sequestration. The relevant aspect of SCS that needs
additional research is the gross versus the net C gains, and the
residence time of C sequestration in soil under a managed Figure 6 A possible schematic of the soil organic carbon profile in
ecosystem. no-till and plough tillage systems.

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Journal compilation # 2009 British Society of Soil Science, European Journal of Soil Science
8 R. Lal

forest ecosystems where deep tap roots may transfer biomass information technology. Combination of nano-technology
C to deeper layers and enhance its residence time in the soil and biotechnology can provide useful tools to restore degraded
(Lorenz & Lal, 2005). soils and ecosystems and enhance the SOM pool. Some possible
innovations include nano-enhanced products (e.g. nanofertil-
izers and nanopesticides) with a nano-based smart delivery sys-
Fate of carbon in soil organic matter transported by
tem (use of halloysite) to provide nutrients at the desired site,
erosional processes
time and rate to optimize productivity. Using such nanoscale
Whether soil erosion is a source (Lal, 2003) or sink (Stallard, formulations of agricultural chemicals can enhance the use effi-
1998; Smith et al., 2001; Van Oost et al., 2007) of atmospheric ciency of input, and minimize losses into the environments.
CO2 must be determined by assessing the fate of C in SOM Nanoporous materials (e.g. hydrogels and zeolites) can store
transported by the erosional processes. Such an assessment water in the soil during the rainfall season and release it slowly
requires a detailed evaluation of the C budget at each of the during the dry season and minimize the adverse effects of
four stages of the erosion process (e.g. detachment, transport/ drought stress. Similarly, nanoporous membranes are available
splash, redistribution over the landscape and transfer to to minimize loss of water from soil. Nanomaterials are efficient
depression/deposition sites and aquatic ecosystems). Merely sorbents of pollutants and can reduce eutrophication of natural
assessing the gain in C pool at depression sites and aquatic waters, and nanofilters are available to remove agricultural and
ecosystems or evaluating the loss of C in the soils subject to natural chemicals from water. Nanocrystals of magnetite (< 12
erosion can lead to erroneous conclusions and misleading nm) can bind up to 100 times as much as larger Fe particles.
interpretations. Nanosensors can be used to improve predictability of edaphic
environments by remote sensing, using nanoscale mass spec-
trometers, atomic force microscopes and other modern devices.
Modern innovations for enhancing soil carbon storage
With remote sensing of edaphic conditions, automatic release of
The importance of applying crop residues as an amendment to targeted input (nanoscale precision farming) can effectively and
enhance SCS has long been recognized (Melsted, 1954; Tisdale & efficiently alleviate soil-related constraints. However, the C
Nelson, 1966). However, the nutritional requirement (e.g. N, P input into deep sub-soil may lead to priming of old or passive
and S) for humification of biomass C and conversion into stable C (Fontaine et al., 2007), an important topic that needs addi-
humic substances and organo-mineral complexes is not widely tional research.
understood. Himes (1998) observed that additional amounts of In a similar way to nanotechnology, biotechnology also has
N, P and S are required to convert biomass C into humus. numerous applications for understanding and managing pedo-
Jacinthe & Lal (2005) also showed that application of N spheric properties and processes. Relevant examples of such
increased the humification efficiency of wheat straw in a long- applications include: (i) enhancing SCS in terrestrial ecosystems
term mulching experiment conducted in central Ohio. Using the (soils, trees and wetlands) by using GM plants characterized by
data from Morrow plots in Illinois, Khan et al. (2007) reported a favourable root:shoot ratio and the harvest index with a large
that use of fertilizer N promoted the decomposition of both biomass production, and a deep root system containing recalci-
crop residues and SOM content. These authors observed no trant compounds (e.g. phenolics); (ii) expanding the land base by
convincing evidence of SCS in fertilized sub-plots despite bringing new land under production, which was hitherto not
increase in input of the biomass-C. On the contrary, a notice- cultivable, by growing specifically improved crops/cultivars,
able decline in C pool occurred with the application of fertil- and restoring degraded ecosystems through bioremediation of
izer. However, Drinkwater et al. (1998) showed that in organic contaminated soils; (iii) growing efficient plants with high N-
systems (without use of chemical fertilizers), legume-based fixation capacity and built-in resistance to drought (aerobic
cropping systems reduced C and N losses, presumably because rice), anaerobiosis, nutrient/elemental imbalance, unfavourable
of an increase in N availability through biological N fixation. soil pH/reaction, etc.; and (iv) developing plants that emit chem-
This important issue of the elemental requirements for SCS ical stress signals that can be remotely sensed and treated with
needs to be resolved for soil type, crop rotations and the tillage targeted inputs to alleviate the stress prior to severe adverse
method. Is it possible that the conclusions from Morrow effects on production.
(Khan et al., 2007) plots may have been different if these
experiments had been managed with a NT system of seedbed
Need for new tools to measure SOM dynamics
preparation? Soil-specific and demand-specific (yield of grains
and biomass, and desired rates of SCS) rates of N application Most measurements on the impact of geogenic and anthropo-
are required to minimize losses, reduce environmental pollu- genic factors on SOM pool and fluxes are made at a point scale or
tion (leaching of nitrates and emission of N2O) and maximize pedon level. The impacts of SCS on ecosystem services must,
energy efficiency. however, be assessed at farm, landscape or watershed scales.
Significant advances in SOM research can be made by using Therefore, assessment of the components of ecosystem C budget
modern innovations in nanotechnology, biotechnology and (e.g., life cycle analysis) for RMPs versus traditional practices

# 2009 The Author

Journal compilation # 2009 British Society of Soil Science, European Journal of Soil Science
 Soil Organic Matter Research 9

must be done at the landscape or watershed scale. Such an agement scenarios to optimize net SCS per unit input and
attempt must include both direct and hidden C costs of all input area; and (iv) identify multi-functional land use/soil manage-
(tillage, fertilizers, crop drying and irrigation) and the fate of C ment systems in which SCS is one of the numerous objectives.
transported by leaching, runoff and sediments and mineraliza- In addition to the management-induced changes in SOM pools
tion. A holistic approach to ecosystem C budgets would involve and fluxes, it is equally important to model the SOM pool and flux
full life cycle analysis of RMPs versus the traditional systems in the context of climate change. There are several questions that
over a period of time. In addition to research on the biophysical remain to be addressed with respect to climate change. On a global
processes, economic assessment of SOM-enhancing techniques scale, will there be a positive feedback leading to acceleration of
is also needed. Landers (2001) assessed one hidden C cost of the rate of climate change? Alternatively, will the CO2 fertilization
converting plough tillage to NT farming in Goinia State of effect and the shift of eco-regions/biomes towards the Earth’s
Brazil for a farm of 2270 ha over a 6-year period from 1992- poles increase NPP and have a negative/mitigative impact on
1993 to 1997-1998. By assessing the input at the farm scale, global warming? Will there be an increase or decrease in the
Landers reported that the total number of tractor hours SOC pool in the temperate regions (mid-latitude) with a modest
decreased from 10 630 to 5135, leading to 50% reduction in fuel increase in soil temperature?
consumption. Similarly, the number of machine operators was Charcoal, biochar or black C gained importance since the
reduced by half. It is only in a study at this scale that the ecosys- identification of the so-called terra preta by the late Wim
tem C budget can be assessed by conducting detailed life cycle Sombroek in the Amazon (Morris, 2006; Mann, 2008). The
analysis. Standardized and cost-effective methodology is needed terra preta do indio are anthrocenes made by some tribes in the
for assessment of the net C flux from all managed ecosystems Amazon, and are characterized by large patches of once agri-
(West & Marland, 2004). cultural/crop lands that the farmers enriched with charred bio-
Credible measurement of the SOM pool and fluxes at a range mass (Morris, 2006; Mann, 2008). Some of these dark and
of spatial and temporal scales remains a challenge. Soil scientists fertile patches, presumed to be 7000 years old, contain three
have monitored management-induced changes in SOM concen- times as much N and P as the surrounding soil and 18 times as
trations in the plough layer since c. 1850 (see Manlay et al., much SOC (9.0% vs. 0.5%). Since then, many researchers
2007). However, assessing changes in the SOC pool and fluxes have argued that use of charcoal, with or without reinforce-
in the context of SCS for off-setting anthropogenic emissions ment with compost and fertilizers, is a viable option for SCS
requires a different protocol, precision and units of assessment and improving soil quality. Indeed, some industry involvement
(Mg C ha1 vs. g kg1) to those needed for soil fertility evalua- is also occurring to manufacture charcoal-based amendments
tion on cropland soils. While recent developments in methods (Woods et al., 2006). Rumpel et al. (2006a, b) observed that
of measuring SOC concentration in the field (Ebinger et al., some soils managed by slash-and-burn agriculture are
2006; Wielopolski, 2006) are noteworthy improvements, tech- enriched with black C or relatively recalcitrant charcoal. These
niques must be developed to assess SOC pools over a short researchers observed a positive correlation between SOC and
period of 1–2 years. An important question that needs to be black C concentrations. They measured the highest concentra-
answered (Smith, 2004) is: How long before a change in SOM tion of black C under the most intensively-operated slash and
can be detected? A methodology is needed to assess C cycling burn practice. Because of its concentration in the surface layer,
in the Earth’s systems with a soil science perspective (Janzen, the black C, similar to other SOC pools, is also preferentially
2004). translated to depositional sites by the erosional processes (Rum-
As with measurements of SOM concentrations, models of pel et al., 2006). Steiner et al. (2007) observed that application of
SOM pools and their dynamics have been constructed for organic fertilizers and charcoal to a much-weathered central
c. two centuries (see Manlay et al., 2007). Whereas consider- Amazonian upland soil increased soil fertility and crop yields.
able progress has been made in predicting the SOM pool in Charcoal-amended soil lost only 4 to 8% of the SOC pool com-
relation to land use, management, soil properties and climatic pared with the loss of 25 to 27% for the compost-amended
factors (Nye & Greenland, 1960; Jenkinson & Rayner, 1977; plots. Thus application of charred biomass as a soil amendment/
Parton et al., 1987) and more recently development of EPIC, conditioner is an option being widely considered (Glaser et al.,
ROTH-C, CENTURY, CQUESTER models, etc., there 2001; Baldock & Smernik, 2002; Lehman et al., 2002, 2003;
remains a strong need to predict changes in soil structure and Steiner et al., 2004; Topoliantz et al., 2005).
tilth characteristics, along with attendant changes in determi-
nants of soil physical quality, with changes in SOM pools and
Conclusions
fluxes. The goal of modelling is to develop a ‘sense-making
framework’ or a decision support system as a tool to manage The importance of maintaining/enhancing SOM in the root
SOM pool and flux for multifarious uses. Models are needed zone for improving soil quality and agronomic productivity
to: (i) understand processes and identify missing links; (ii) has been recognized ever since the dawn of settled agriculture.
identify what is needed and determine what is possible or Measurement and prediction of management-induced changes
achievable in SCS; (iii) develop a framework of diverse man- in SOM concentration (g/kg) in the root zone have been made at

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Journal compilation # 2009 British Society of Soil Science, European Journal of Soil Science
10 R. Lal

a point/pedon scale since the beginning of the 19th century. Cassman, K.G. & Liska, A.J. 2007. Food and Fuel for All: Realistic or
However, there is a need to measure and monitor manage- Foolish? Society of Chemistry Industry, Wiley, Chichester, UK.
ment-induced changes in the soil C pool at landscape, farm scale Cohen, J.E. 2003. The human population: the next half century.
or watershed scale in order to relate the changes in the SOC pool Science, 302, 1172–1175.
Derpsch, R. 2007. No-tillage and conservation agriculture: a progress
(Mg C ha1 year1) to offset fossil fuel emissions. Assessment
report. In: No-Till Farming Systems (eds T. Goddard, M. Zoebisch,
of the net rate of SCS in agricultural and managed ecosystems
Y. Gan, W. Ellis, A. Watson & S. Sombatpanit), pp. 7–39. Special
necessitates complete life cycle analysis or computation of the Publication No. 3, World Association of Soil and Water Conserva-
ecosystem C budget. It is also relevant that emission of all tion, Bangkok, Thailand.
GHGs (CO2, CH4, N2O) is assessed in order to compute C Dieckow, J., Mielniczuk, J., Knicker, H., Bayer, C., Dick, D.P. & Kögel-
equivalence of all fluxes. Relating the SOC pool and flux to Knabner, J. 2005. Composition of organic matter in a sub-tropical
emerging global issues requires careful evaluation of the fol- Acrisol as influenced by land use, cropping and N fertilization,
lowing: (i) measurement of SCS rate with reference to a base- assessed by CPMASBCNMR spectrology. European Journal of Soil
line; (ii) assessment of the SOC pool to 1-m if not 2-m depth; Science, 56, 705–715.
(iii) linkage of the cycling of C with N, P, S water and energy Dignac, M.-F., Bahri, H., Rumpel, C., Rasse, D.P., Bardoux, G.,
use; (iv) relationship of SOC pools with soil quality properties Balesdent, J. et al. 2005. Carbon-13 natural abundance as a tool to
study the dynamics of lignin monomers in soil: an appraisal at the
and agronomic/biomass yield; (v) evaluation of the residue
Closeaux experimental field (France). Geoderma, 128, 3–17.
(biomass) requirements for achieving the desired SCS rate; (vi)
Doorbosch, R. & Steinblik, R. 2007. Biofuels: Is the Cure Worse than
determination of the impact of harvesting crop residues on soil the Disease? OECD, SG/SD/RY.
quality, erosion and non-point source pollution; and (vii) Drinkwater, L.E., Wagoner, P. & Sarrantonio, M. 1998. Legume-
a methodology for trading of C credits, etc. Soil scientists need based cropping systems have reduced carbon and nitrogen losses.
to be pro-active in assessing the direct and ancillary benefits of Nature, 396, 262–265.
SCS in agricultural and other managed ecosystems. Ebinger, M., Cremers, D., Meyer, C.M. & Harris, R.D. 2006. Laser-
induced breakdown spectroscopy and applications for soil carbon
measurement. In: Carbon Sequestration in Soils of Latin America
(eds R. Lal, C.C. Cerri, I.I. Bernoux, J. Etchevers & E. Cerri), pp.
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