Resource

Cambridge International Certificate in Teaching and Learning

Module 1: Learning Theories

Resource Module 1: Learning Theories

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© Cambridge International Examinations 2014

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Module 1: Learning Theories Resource

Learning Theories

As part of the qualification, teachers should be encouraged to engage with key learning theories to help
them understand how learners learn, to develop their own professional practice. They should be
encouraged to explore teaching methods and learning activities which engage and motivate their
learners to learn.

This resource covers the following areas:

 What is learning?
 Summary of key learning theories
 Neuroscience: brain-based learning
 The role of the teacher
 The learning process
 Bloom’s taxonomy and SOLO taxonomy
 Resources
 Further references and links

What is learning?

Learning is a process whereby new knowledge, skills, behaviours and beliefs are gained by an
individual or group. Learning happens in many different ways; it does not begin or end in
classrooms, but permeates the school environment and broader community. Academics have
attempted to map and explain the learning process, though it is generally agreed that it is an
iterative and ongoing process.

Below is an example of a generic learning cycle which is relevant to all types of learning:

 Procure: new knowledge (theory) or ability (skill) is acquired

 Apply: new knowledge or skill is then practised in some way
 Consider: results of the practice are evaluated and/or assessed
 Transform: original knowledge or ability is modified accordingly

Learning is an internal activity and a key personal development skill. Therefore, learning is not
something that can be directly observed in others. However, the results of learning can be
observed, which is why assessment is such a crucial part of the teaching and learning process.

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Other terms associated with learning

Cognition broadly means thinking. In the research on learning, the mental processes of learning are
mainly described as ‘cognitive’ processes. The essential components of cognition are working memory
(the capacity to hold information in one’s mind) and long-term memory (concepts, skills and
knowledge that have been assimilated over time that can be recalled).

Learning takes place in domains, which can be academic subjects, specific areas of knowledge or
skill-defined zones. The way we learn in science, mathematics, the arts or other domains can be quite
specific (domain specific). A domain expert will organise knowledge in ways that make it more
‘retrievable and useful’ than novices can (Pellegrino, Chudowski and Glaser, 2001:72).

Metacognition means thinking about thinking. It includes strategies for learning, such as self-
regulation, planning ahead and knowing when to apply rules

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Summary of key learning theories

Learning theories provide a pedagogical basis for understanding how learners learn. The major
concepts and theories include behaviourist theories, cognitive psychology, constructivism, social
constructivism, experiential learning, multiple intelligences, and situated-learning theory. Below is a
brief summary of each.

Behaviourism

This theory assumes that a learner is essentially passive. Learning therefore is described as a
change in behaviour based on a reaction to environmental conditions. This theory states that the
principles of repetition and reinforcement are viewed as central to explaining the learning process.

Cognitive psychology
Cognitive theory attempts to explain human behaviour by understanding the thought processes.
The assumption is that humans are logical beings that make the choices that make the most sense
to them. Methods of instruction are lecturing and reading textbooks and the learner is viewed as a
passive receiver of knowledge by the teacher.

Constructivism
Constructivism emphasises the fact that learners construct or build their own understanding.
Learning is a process of making meaning. Learners replace or adapt their existing knowledge and
understanding (based on their prior knowledge) with deeper and more skilled levels of
understanding.

Social constructivism
Social constructivism focuses on the importance of learning within a community and was
developed by the psycholinguist Lev Vygotsky. For Vygotsky, learning is primarily by building up
knowledge as we interact with other people through language. An important idea is the zone of
proximal development (ZPD) which describes the area where the teacher interacts with the learner
to take them from tasks that they can accomplish independently to more challenging tasks.

Experiential learning
Experiential learning involves learning from experience and was proposed by psychologist David
Kolb. According to Kolb, this type of learning can be defined as ‘the process whereby knowledge is
created through the transformation of experience. Knowledge results from the combinations of
grasping and transforming experience.’

Multiple intelligences
Developed by Howard Gardner in 1983, this theory states there are at least seven ‘intelligences’ of
how learners understand and perceive the world. The theory has been criticised by educators who
argue that Gardner's definition of intelligence is too broad, and that his seven different intelligences
simply represent personality traits and abilities.

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Situated-learning theory
The theorist Jean Lave argues that learning is situated, which means that it is embedded within an
activity, context and culture. It is also usually unintentional rather than deliberate. This theory
assumes that knowledge needs to be presented in authentic contexts. Social interaction and
collaboration are essential components of situated learning, where learners become involved in a
‘community of practice’ which represents certain beliefs and behaviours to be acquired.

Candidates are not required to explore all of the above theories, though theory should provide the
basis for making curricular and pedagogical decisions. It is important that candidates are encouraged
to integrate theory with practice, to enable them to make ongoing decisions about their classroom
practice within the context of deeply understood and relevant theory.

Neuroscience: brain-based learning

In recent years, educators have explored links between classroom teaching and emerging theories
about how people learn. Brain-based learning refers to teaching methods that are grounded in the
neuroscience of learning. It is based on scientific research about how the brain learns, including factors
such as cognitive development and how pupils learn differently as they develop. Brain- based learning is
motivated by the belief that learning can be accelerated and improved if educators base their teaching
practices on how the brain processes learning.

Developments in neuroscience and cognitive psychology have presented new ways of thinking about the
brain and how it contributes to the learning process, and there is much debate about neuroscientific
research and its potential within educational settings. For example, recent evidence appears to indicate
that it is creating new methods of identification and intervention in learning needs such as dyscalculia
and dyslexia (see OECD, Understanding the Brain). However, educational neuroscience is a relatively
new field and extensive research into this area is still necessary.

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The role of the teacher

Teachers are essential in the learning process and should be encouraged to:

 adapt their teaching according to the learning needs of the learners

 make the goals of learners learning very clear to learners
 provide specific, timely and frequent feedback to help the learner understand where he or she is
going, how to get there and what the next steps should be to keep the learning moving forward
(Hattie and Timperly, 2007)
 create a challenging but secure environment in the classroom
 differentiate instruction according to the needs of the learners.

Exploring evidence is crucial in understanding what works and what does not work in the classroom.
Teachers should critically evaluate their impact on learning by gathering evidence from different sources
on what is working and what is not working in their classrooms. Some potential sources are:

 peer observation: This should focus on the extent to which pupils are learning and how
classroom techniques such as questioning, group activities, the use of portfolios, new
technologies, assessments and classroom conversations are allowing this to happen.
 collaborative discussions among teachers: For example, regular class reviews attended by all
teachers can focus on the progress that learners are making, how they respond to different learning
strategies, which learning environments seem to best suit individual learners and what provision
can be made available to the learners to ensure the best possible learning.

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The learning process

The following principles could be explored as part of the learning process.

Learning is primarily a
Learning requires the
social activity and
1. Active active, constructive
2. Social involvement participation and
involvement involvement of the
collaboration is central
learners.
for learning to occur.

People learn best when

New knowledge is
they participate in
4. Relating new constructed on the
3. Meaningful activities that are
learning to prior basis of what is
activities perceived to be useful
knowledge already understood
in real life and are
and believed.
contextually relevant.

Learners need Learners should know

effective and flexible how to plan and monitor
6. Engaging in self-
strategies that help their learning, how to set
5. Being strategic evaluation and
them to understand, their own learning goals,
reflection
reason, memorize and and how to correct
solve problems. errors.

Sometimes prior Learning is effective when

knowledge can obstruct resources are organised
8. Aiming towards
new learning. Learners around general principles
7. Reconstructing understanding
should learn how to solve and explanations, rather
prior knowledge rather than
problems and restructure than on the memorisation
memorisation
existing conceptions when of isolated facts and
necessary. procedures.

Learning is a complex
cognitive activity that
Learning becomes more
cannot be hurried. It
9. Helping students meaningful when it is 10. Taking time to
requires time and
to learn to transfer applied to real-life practise
periods of practise to
situations.
begin building expertise
in an area.

Learning is influenced by
learner motivation.
Learners learn best when
11. Developmental Teachers can help
their individual 12. Creating
and individual learners become more
differences are taken into motivated learners
differences motivated by their
consideration.
behaviour and the
statements they make.

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Bloom’s taxonomy and SOLO taxonomy

Candidates may find it helpful to explore frameworks such as the examples below when exploring the
learning process.

Bloom’s Taxonomy
Benjamin Bloom and a group of educational psychologists developed a classification of intellectual
behaviour considered important to learning. Bloom found that 95% of test questions encountered by
pupils required them to think only at the lowest possible level: the recall of information. Bloom
identified six levels within the cognitive domain, and created a taxonomy for categorising the level of
abstraction of questions that commonly occur in learning. The taxonomy was later revised in the 1990s
by Lorin Anderson.

Original Revised
Evaluation Creating
Synthesis Evaluating
Analysis Analysing
Application Applying
Comprehension Understanding
Knowledge Remembering

SOLO Taxonomy

The Structure of Observed Learning Outcomes (SOLO) Taxonomy is a model developed by John Biggs
and Kevin Collis in 1982. Biggs and Collis described their taxonomy as: ‘providing a simple and robust
way of describing how learning outcomes grow in complexity from surface to deep to conceptual
understanding’. It is a model of learning outcomes that aims to help schools develop a common
understanding and language of learning, which in turn aims to help teachers and learners to understand
the learning process and learning outcomes. SOLO Taxonomy is a simple five-stage hierarchy that
allows learners to understand their learning journey: where they are, where they would like to be and
what they need to do to get there.

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Five Stages of Solo Taxonomy

This stage is associated with unconnected information with no organisation.

Pre-structual
Learners may complete a task with no real connection or understanding.

This stage is associated with learners understanding a single fact or a single

Uni-structural piece of information. The learning is still often disconnected and limited.

This stage is an example of quantitative learning where learners can recall a

Multi-structural series of separate pieces of information and facts, though do not recognise
the relationship between them.

This stage represents deep learning and it now becomes qualitative. Learners
Relational can link and relate pieces of information, enabling them to have a deeper
understanding of the task or subject.

This stage is where deep and profound learning and thinking takes place.
Extended abstract Learners can re-evaluate their ideas and use this as a basis for generalising,
reflecting, creating a new understanding or learning, etc.

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Resources

1.1 Bloom’s taxonomy action verbs

1.2 SOLO taxonomy

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Resource 1.1 Bloom's taxonomy action verbs

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Resource 1.2 SOLO taxonomy

Level of understanding Outcome

Pre-structual
Learning outcomes show unconnected information, no
organisation

Uni-structural
Learning outcomes show simple connections, but
importance not noted

Multi-structural
Learning outcomes show connections are made, but
significance to overall meaning is missing.

Relational
Learning outcomes show full connections made, and
combination of parts to the overall meaning

Extended abstract
Learning outcomes go beyond subject, and make links
to other concepts

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Further references and links

Texts

Anderson, L. W. and Krathwohl, D.R. (Eds.) (2001) A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and
Assessing. New York: Longman.

Biggs, J. and Collis, K. F. (1982) Evaluating the Quality of Learning. New York: Academic Press.

Brooks, J.G., and Brooks, M. G. (1999) In search of understanding. Alexandria, Va.: Association
for Supervision and Curriculum Development..

Gardner, H. (1991) The unschooled mind: how children think and how schools should teach. New
York, Basic Books.

Hattie, J. and Timperly, H. (2007) The Power of Feedback. Review of Educational Research,
77(1), pp. 81–112

Jensen, E. (1998) Teaching with the brain in mind. Alexandria, VA: Association of Supervision and
Curriculum Development.

Marzano, R., Pickering, D. and Arredondo, D. (1997). Dimensions of learning. Alexandria, VA: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Pellegrino, J. W., Chudowsky, N. and Glaser, R. (2001) Knowing What Students Know. Washington, DC:
National Academy Press.

Piaget, J. (1978) Success and understanding. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978) Mind in society. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press.

Web Links

Aussieeducator.org.au, (2014). Learning Theories & Theorists. Available at:

http://www.aussieeducator.org.au/education/other/theories.html [Accessed 30 October 2014].

Epltt.coe.uga.edu, (2014). Summary of Bloom's Taxonomy - Emerging Perspectives on Learning, Teaching

and Technology. Available at: http://epltt.coe.uga.edu/index.php?title=Bloom%27s_Taxonomy [Accessed 30
October 2014].

Pamhook.com, (2014). SOLO Taxonomy. Available at: http://pamhook.com/solo-taxonomy/ [Accessed 30

October 2014].

Teachersgarden.com, (2014). Outline of Educational Learning Theories and Theorists. Available at:
http://www.teachersgarden.com/professionalresources/learningtheorists.html [Accessed 30 October 2014].

Understanding the Brain: the Birth of a Learning Science. (2008). OECD: Centre for Educational Research
and Innovation. Available at: http://www.oecd.org/site/educeri21st/40554190.pdf [Accessed 30 October 2014].

Unesco.org, (2014). Influential theories of learning. Available at:

http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/strengthening-education- systems/quality-framework/technical-
notes/influential-theories-of-learning/ [Accessed 30 October. 2014].

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