Course Introduction
The Course ‘Learning and Teaching’ has been conceptualized on the basic premise that
learning and teaching should be viewed holistically. This course attempts to facilitate student
teachers to understand learning and teaching as a process which works for construction of
knowledge. Psychological and socio-cultural perspectives of learning have been discussed in
this course. Various theoretical constructs of learning which will help you to identify the
appropriate learning strategies for facilitating construction of knowledge have been analysed
critically. This course will help you in analysing the complex nature of teaching learning
process and understanding various dimensions of teaching-learning process. Course will
explain role of a teacher as a professional as well as a facilitator for learning, as an innovator
and an action researcher. This course is divided into four blocks.
Block 1: Learning: Perspectives and Approaches deals with various aspects of learning.
Conceptual framework of learning and discussion on various approaches to learning have
been provided in this Block. Block emphasizes on learning as a process for construction of
knowledge. It also facilitates you in organizing learning experiences in various contexts
through active learning, situated learning, collaborative learning, etc.
Block 2: Understanding the Learner shifts the focus from learning to learner. Understanding
the learner and his/her socio-cultural context is equally important for a teacher. Units in this
Block discuss socio-cultural diversity among learners. Individual differences and
characteristics of learners like their personality, intelligence, motivation, attitude, aptitude,
interest, etc. have been discussed in this Block, which are essential consideration for a teacher
while planning teaching learning process.
Block 3: Teaching-Learning Process is focused on various dimensions of Teaching and
Learning. It starts with discussion on nature of teaching. Teaching as a profession and role of
teacher in providing dynamic curricular experiences have been discussed in this Block.
Planning teaching-learning, organizing teaching-learning experience, using appropriate
resources for teaching-learning and managing classroom for facilitating learners to construct
of knowledge are the key focus areas in this Block.
Block 4 is on role of the Teacher as a Professional. This block intends to help you understand
diverse role of teachers. Multiple responsibilities of teachers have been discussed in this
Block. Teacher as an innovator and an action researcher has been discussed. Role of teacher
as reflective practitioner has also been highlighted in this Block. Block ends with discussion
of need and importance of professional development of teachers and suggests various ways
and means for professional development of a teacher.
BLOCK 1 LEARNING: PERSPECTIVES AND APPROACHES Introduction to the Block
for success in teaching-learning process, a teacher needs to know about not only the learners’
growth patterns but understanding learning is equally important. Perspective about learning
has changed a lot in past few years. The behaviourist approach to learning has been replaced
by constructivist approach. Focus has shifted from teacher centred to child centred pedagogy.
The present Block has focused on providing an understanding about various perspectives and
contexts of learning. This Block will help you understand the learning in different contexts.
This Block has four units.
Unit 1: Understanding Learning talks about the meaning and dimensions of learning. The
Unit explains what comes under learning and what not? Discussion on learning concepts like
maturation, teaching and instruction will help you find out differences among these terms.
Factors facilitating learning will also be discussed in the unit. Discussion of learning styles
and pace of learning will help you to plan your teaching learning keeping in mind the
learners’ differences.
In Unit 2: Approaches to Learning, we start with some common assumptions about learning
in various approaches. Discussion will deal the behaviourist, cognitivist and constructivist
approaches to learning in details. You will be able to analyse the merits and demerits of each
approach and choose the most appropriate approach for your learners.
Unit 3: Learning for Construction of Knowledge will help you to explore various dimensions
of constructivism. Ideas of Piaget, Bruner, Vygotsky, Novak and others on constructivism
will be discussed keeping in view their utility in teaching-learning process. Role of Zone of
Proximal Development, Scaffolding, Cognitive Apprenticeship, tutoring, etc. will be
discussed in detail to provide you deeper understanding on constructivism.
Unit 4: Learning in Various Contexts will help you to explore various learning strategies
which you can choose as per the nature and context of learning. Methods like active learning,
situated learning, collaborative learning will help you to design your teaching-learning
activities in more effective way. Discussion on learning out of school will add a meaningful
dimension to your teaching learning practices.
What is learning? Answer to this question has been attempted by many psychologists and
educationists. Learning is not something that takes place within the boundaries of a
classroom; rather it takes place anywhere, anytime and from anyone. Traditional Indian
Literature has examples where people learnt from trees, mountains, rivers, insects, etc. It
means learning is something which is possible anywhere. In order to understand the concept
of learning, let us begin with few definitions of learning which many psychologists and
educationists have proposed. Generally, learning is defined as a process of behaviour
modification through experiences, exercise and efforts. Before discussing further, let us have
a look at the definitions of learning given by various psychologists/educationists:
Hurlock (1942) : Learning is development that comes from exercise and effort. Through
learning, children acquire competence in using their hereditary resources.
Hilgard, Atkinson and Atkinson (1979): Learning may be defined as a relatively permanent
change in behaviour that occurs as the result of prior experience.
Murphy (1968) : The term learning covers every modification in behaviour to meet
environmental requirements
Woodworth (1945) : Any activity can be called learning so far as it develops the individual
(in any respect, good or bad) and makes him alter behaviour and experiences different from
what they would otherwise have been. If you examine these definitions carefully, particularly
focusing on the underlined portion of the definitions, you may conclude that: Every creature,
including human beings, is born with certain capabilities. e.g.: a human baby can suck milk
from its mother’s breast as soon as it is born.
These capabilities are known as instinctive behaviour. As an individual grows s/he has to
make certain adjustments in various situations of life. Therefore, s/he has to acquire various
habits, knowledge, attitudes and skills, etc. The acquisition of all these things is called
‘learning’. It means that:
• Learning is not acquired by birth, but it is the process of acquiring competence by using
hereditary resources.
• Temporary change in behaviour is not learning.
• Not only the modification of behaviour by acquiring good things as per the social norms is
learning but even behaviour modification by acquiring bad things comes under ‘learning’. In
other words, learning leads to change in behaviour but this does not necessarily mean that
these changes always bring about improvement or positive development. According to Smith
(1962),‘learning is the acquisition of new behaviour or the strengthening or weakening of old
behaviour as the result of experience’. It means, instead of change in existing behaviour or
acquisition of new behaviour, learning may also result in discontinuance or abandonment of
existing behaviour. This ‘unlearning’ is also learning in itself. According to Fagin (1958),
learning is a sequence of mental events or conditions leading to changes in learner
It can be concluded that learning is a process by which an individual, as a result of
interactions in a situation, modifies his/her behaviour. It helps in bringing desirable changes
in behaviour attaining proper adjustment, and attaining proper growth and development.
Behaviours not Attributable to Learning In previous section, we have discussed that a
modification or change in behaviour is called ‘learning’. However, there are some types of
behaviour which are due to one or other kind of modifications yet; these are not termed as
‘learning’. e.g.: when a pin pricks our finger, we withdraw it from the pin. Similarly, when a
very bright light falls on our eyes, we immediately close our eyelids. Such behaviour is
instant and we even do not feel that we are putting in any special effort. This behaviour does
not fall under the learning category; rather these are called ‘reflex actions’.
Understanding Learning 9 Learning: Perspectives and Approaches 10 There is another
category of behaviour commonly known as ‘biological instincts’. e.g.: a child start crying
when s/he feels hungry, we feel like resting when tired, we are attracted towards opposite sex,
etc. Such behaviour is natural and not learned; therefore, we do not call it learned behaviour.
Sometimes, modifications or change in behaviour takes place due to accidents or
psychological defects, for example, limping of a person after an accident or stammering in
speech due to some defect in tongue. We again exclude such behaviour from the category of
learned behaviour. Similarly, there are some motor actions which a child can perform only at
a certain age. For instance, to sit in a proper posture, to walk with steady steps, etc., are
attained after a specific age. The behaviour which is the outcome of maturity of the child, is
not called learned behaviour. However, in most of such cases, maturity and learning both
play their role simultaneously and therefore, it becomes difficult to determine which of the
two is responsible for the behaviour
Learning occupies a very important place in our life. It provides a key to the structure of our
personality and behaviour. Experience, direct or indirect, plays a very important and
dominating role in moulding and shaping the behaviour of the individual from the very
beginning. When a child touches a hot pan and gets burnt, s/he immediately withdraws
her/his hand and learns to touch such vessels carefully. S/he concludes that if one touches a
hot vessel, one gets burnt. In the same way from other experiences, in her/his day to day life,
s/he derives different conclusions and modifies her/his behaviour. These changes in
behaviour brought about by experience are commonly known as learning and this process of
gaining experiences, drawing conclusions, and changing behaviour goes on from womb to
tomb. This discussion and the definitions given in the first section ‘What is learning?’ of this
unit, reveals the nature of learning as follows:
• Learning is a process and not a product: Learning is a fundamental and life-long process.
Attitudes, fears, gestures, motor skills, language skills, etc. are the products of learning. They
are not learning themselves. In a classroom, when learning is viewed as a product then it is
viewed as something external. Something like shopping– people go out and buy knowledge
and then it becomes their possession. Paulo Freire in his book ‘Pedagogy of the Oppressed’
criticizes this and says that education thus becomes an act of depositing, in which the students
are the depositories and the teacher is the depositor. In this ‘banking ‘concept of education,
the teacher is the subject of the learning process, while the pupils are mere objects. Whereas,
when learning is viewed as a process, it is viewed as something internal or personal. It is
something that a child does in order to understand the real world and uses it as a tool for
survival.
• Learning is purposive or goal directed: Learning is not an aimless activity. All true learning
is based on purpose. We do not learn anything and everything that comes in our way in a
haphazard manner. However, some experts argue that sometimes learning is unintended.
• Learning generally involves some degree of permanence: Activities bringing temporary
change in behaviour and not lasting do not come under learning. For example, cramming the
content matter by a learner for examination and forgetting it after sometime does not bring
any change (to some extent to permanence) in the total behaviour pattern of the learner and
thus this type of learning cannot be said as true learning.
• Learning is universal and continuous: Every creature till it lives, learns. In human beings it
is not restricted to any particular age, sex, race or culture. It is a continuous never-ending
process which starts from birth and continues till death.
• Learning prepares for adjustment: Learning helps the individual to adjust herself/himself
adequately and adapt to the changes that may be necessary to the new situations. We meet
with new situations which demand solutions. Repeated efforts are required react to them
effectively. These experiences leave behind some effects in the mental structure and modify
our behaviour.
• Learning is comprehensive: The scope of learning is spread over each and every dimension
of life. It is a very comprehensive process which covers all domains – Cognitive, Affective
and Psychomotor- of human behaviour.
• Learning is change in response or behaviour may be favourable or unfavourable: Learning
leads to changes in behaviour but this does not necessarily mean that these changes always
bring about improvement or positive development. There are chances to drift to the negative
side too.
• Learning is organizing experience: Learning involves all those experience and training of an
individual (right from birth) which help her/him to produce changes in behaviour. It is not
mere addition to knowledge or mere acquisition of facts. It is the reorganization of experience
which may also include unlearning. Understanding Learning 11 Learning: Perspectives and
Approaches 12
• Instincts and reflexes are not learning: Changes in behaviour on the basis of native
response tendencies like instincts and reflexes (e.g. infant’s sucking behaviour, blinking at
bright lights) cannot be attributed to learning.
• Learning does not include changes in behaviour on account of maturation, fatigue, illness,
or drug etc.
Learning and Teaching is a system of actions which induce learning through interpersonal
relationships. It is a purposeful social and professional activity. The ultimate goal of teaching
is to bring about development of a child. Teaching is a complex phenomenon as its nature is
scientific as well as artistic. Gage (1979) has discussed teaching as a science to describe ‘the
elements of predictability’ in teaching and as an art to describe ‘what constitutes good
teaching’. When we consider teaching as an art, we consider it loaded with emotions,
feelings, values, beliefs and excitement and difficult to derive rules, principles or
generalizations. When we consider teaching as science, then pedagogy is predictable to the
extent that it can be observed and measured with some accuracy and research can be applied
to the practice of teaching. The total task of teaching is to provide a conducive environment
to child for learning and helping him in exploring his potential. That is why, Joyce, Weil and
Calhoun (2009) say that models of teaching are really models of learning. As we help
learners in acquiring information, ideas, skills values, ways of thinking, and means of
expressing themselves, we are also teaching them how to learn. In fact, the most important
long term outcome of teaching may be the learners’ increased capabilities to learn more
easily and effectively in the future. ‘Any valid conception of teaching must be integrally
related to a conception of learning. How human beings learn should provide much of the
basis for our derivations of how teachers should teach’ (Gage, 1967). 1.5.3 Learning and
Imprinting ‘Imprinting’ as a term was first used in 1930s by the Austrian Ethologist Konrad
Lorenz for describing the attachment behaviour of new born-birds to the first large moving
objects in their environment. He conducted a series of experiments for studying such
attachment behaviour. Like, in his initial experiments he demonstrated that ducklings and
goslings follow the mother soon after hatching. Afterwards, Lorenz replaced the mother by a
big object like football and found the new-borns following the new object. In one of his later
experiments he himself worked as a substitute for the object and the mother. He first hatched
a group of goslings in an incubator and then presented himself as the first moving object they
saw. He found that the new born birds began to follow him wherever he went. Thus he
concluded that imprinting represents an inborn perceptual process independent of any
training or experience. It is a sense of strong connection or attachment that is made between
Understanding Learning 13 Learning: Perspectives and Approaches 14 the new-born
organism and the first object it may have initially responded to. This attachment behaviour is
a species-specific behaviour and is not exhibited by all species. Imprinting is quite dissimilar
and distinct from the actual process of learning. It depends on an instinctive and inborn
species-specific behaviour mechanism rather than the experience and training carried out
during specific critical periods of the species life time soon after birth. Meaning and Nature
of Transfer of Learning According to the older view, transfer of learning implies that training
in one faculty of the mind may help in the functioning of older faculties as well various
faculties of mind - memory, reasoning, judgment, observation etc. - are directed or trained
through various academic subjects. Languages and mathematics give training to the mind
which helps in learning other subjects. A person who possesses a good knack for language,
can learning and retain any fact easily. Thorndike by proposing the theory of identical
elements took the stand that resemblance and similarity between situations has a considerable
effect on the amount and kind of transfer of learning that can be carried over from one
situation to the other. For instance, take memorization. When a learner practices
memorization in one subject area, s/he becomes capable of memorizing other subjects as
well, to some extent. And it is quite possible that s/he memorizes the content of some other
subject areas quickly. According to this view point, this phenomenon is not due to an
improved faculty of memory; rather it depends upon the extent to which the two situations
share identical elements of content, attitude, method or aim. Judd says that transfer of
learning is nothing but a generalization. According to the principles of generalization
proposed by Judd, the development of special skills, the mastery of specific facts, formulation
of particular habits and attitudes in one situation have transfer value only if the skill, facts,
habits, etc. are systematized and related to other situation in which they can be utilized. In the
opinion of Hilgard, transfer of learning is possible only when a person develops the ability of
finding out the identity of relationships and using it to solve solutions in new situations and
for this, insight is necessary. An analysis of the above mentioned view of psychologists leads
us to the following interferences in regard to the nature of transfer of learning:
• Transfer of learning can also be viewed as problem solving, in which experience in one
task influences the performance of another
. • Transfer of learning comes from similarity of contents, similarity of techniques, similarity
of principles, or a combination of these.
1.11.2 Types of Transfer of Learning Transfer of learning may take place in three ways.
i) Positive Transfer: Positive transfer occurs when the acquisition of one type of performance
facilitates another type. In the positive transfer, learning of Understanding Learning 23
Learning: Perspectives and Approaches one activity makes learning of another activity easier.
For instance, school children, who memorize poems, mathematical tables and other verbal
material, show better learning of the similar new material as compared to the children who
did not get previous training in memorization. It is also a common experience that learning to
pedal of tricycles makes the pedalling of bicycles easier. In all these examples, we have
noticed that previous learning of a related skill benefits the learner in subsequent learning.
ii) Negative transfer: Negative transfer occurs when the previous puts hindrances in the
performance of the subsequent task. The content, techniques or principles which make for
negative transfer are opposed to those required by the new situation. For instance, after the
end of a year, most of us continue to write the previous year on our cheques for some time. If
the telephone number of our friend changes, we often continue dealing their former number.
When we switch over from riding a bicycle to driving a scooter, we often put the clutch lever
for stopping the vehicle instead of using the foot brake. These types of habits’ interference
are example of negative transfer of learning.
iii) Zero transfer: The zero transfer refers to the fact that previous learning has no effect on
the subsequent learning. e.g.: a cricketer who improves his bowling skills is not expected to
transfer this skill to improve this batting skill.
1.11.3 Classroom Implications Utility of transfer of learning should be discussed in the
context of the assumption that knowledge, skills and methods of learning which learners use
in relation to definite school tasks remain available in the future and also applies to solve new
problems. With this assumption in mind, the knowledge of nature of transfer of learning helps
you in finding answers to some crucial questions like - what type of learning in the school
will help learners in solving problems in daily life. Which type of learning helps and which
hinders in coping with day-to-day problems? And perhaps the most important and most
neglected question - how best can we increase the transfer effect? Educationists have
performed experiments for finding answers to the above mentioned questions. On the basis of
the results of their investigations, they recommended that education must be life-centred to
facilitate transfer of learning. School activities should have the tint and texture of the
activities which the learners are expected to come across in his daily life. Problem-solving
and discussion methods are more useful in promoting the power of transfer. Cramming
should be replaced by meaningful learning. Learners should be trained to form generalization
and they should be made self-reliant in solving new problems Approaches to learning
describe and explain the conditions under which learning does and does not take place. This
movement is towards theorising the process of learning. It attempts to provide a definite
coherence to one particular subset of experimental findings in the field of learning.
Approaches to learning are concerned mainly with the modus operandi, procedure, style or
technique of learning. These approaches apply to all learning tasks. Generally, there are two
types of approaches prevailing in the world of learning. They are Surface approach, and Deep
approach. Surface approach: In this approach, the learner’s intention is just to complete the
task requirements. Instead of properly understanding the content, s/he just memorises
information/answers to the anticipated questions. This task is treated as an imposition on
her/him. Deep approach: Here, the learner’s intention is to understand the meaning of
learning object. S/he interacts actively with the content, relates new ideas to her/ his previous
knowledge and to her/his everyday experience. S/he examines the conclusions drawn by the
author or the teacher and sometimes even seeks alternative solutions. The two approaches
cited earlier to learn give rise to an offshoot known as strategic approach. In this approach,
the learner’s intention is to get the highest possible marks or grades in the term-end
examinations. To achieve this, s/he may choose either of the two approaches. But the most
important characteristics of the strategic approach are well-planned and carefully organised
study methods with the systematic management of time and efforts. Learning theories that
emerged during the twentieth century have been supported by experimentation. The theories
may be classified into four major approaches/ faculties of learning or the schools of thoughts
namely behaviouristic, cognitive, social and humanistic approaches. Here we will study them
one by one.
2.4 BEHAVIOURISTIC APPROACH TO LEARNING The approach which describes
learning as a connection between stimulus and response is the behaviouristic school of
thought. This approach to learning emphasizes that behaviour begins with reflexes i.e.,
natural responses and new behaviour results from the acquisition of new bonds of stimulus
and response through experiences. Behaviourism has its roots in what is called the
associationistic school of psychology. The school believes that recollection of an item of
knowledge is facilitated by associating that idea with another when the individual learned it.
For example, an aroma of flowers is associated with some occurrence in life which generates
good or bad feelings later in life. The major tenets of the behaviouristic approach are as
follows: • Learning brings about changes in behaviour.
• Learning takes place if environmental conditions are arranged appropriately with general
changes.
• Learning is the result of continual interaction of the individual with the environment.
• The resultant behavioural changes are objectively observable.
2.4.1 Concept of Behaviouristic Approach to Learning Behaviourists were strongly
influenced by the work of the Russian Psychologist Ivan Pavlov. They devoted themselves to
study the overt (directly observable) behaviour. They believed that overt behaviour was
determined by a complex system of independent stimulus-response connection made more
complex through learning. Thorndike, Watson and Skinner, gave more emphasis on
objectivity in behaviour. Pavlov’s experiment with the salivating dog is a famous one.
2.4.2 Characteristic of Behaviouristic Approach to Learning The behaviouristic approach has
the following important characteristics:
• Behaviourists believe in the objective study of behaviour - animal and human being both
(objectively observable behaviour).
• Its chief emphasis is on environment. This approach considers environment more important
than heredity in the determination of behaviour
. • Conditioning is the key to the understanding of behaviour, which is composed of stimulus
and response links and can be successfully analysed by the objective scientific method.
• The chief method of learning is condition.
• Behaviourists believe that one unit of knowledge gets associated with a new unit of
knowledge by virtue of similarity, contrast or contiguity (closeness of occurrence in time or
situation).
2.4.3 Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Pavlov was basically a physiologist. While working
on digestive system, he proposed a theory of learning which propagates stimulus response
conditioning. This theory is known as ‘classical’ as it was first theory of conditioning, later
Watson and Skinner worked on its different dimensions This learning theory of Pavlov is
based on his famous experiment of dog. This theory explains learning by associations and
focuses on learning of involuntary emotions or psychological responses such as fear,
increased muscle tension, salivation or sweating. (Woolfolk, 2013, p. 235) During the
salivation experiment, Pavlov proposed few concepts, which are very important to know, if
one wants to understand classical conditioning. Neutral Stimulus: It is a stimulus which is not
responsible directly for desired response in neutral condition, e.g.: a tuning fork or a bell has
nothing to do with salivation, if it is being used without association with food. Unconditioned
Stimulus: It is a stimulus which does not require any conditioning for desired behaviour.
Sometimes it is known as natural stimulus also, e.g. Food is an unconditioned stimulus for
salivation. Conditioned Stimulus: When a neutral stimulus is conditioned with an
unconditioned stimulus for bringing desired behaviour change, it becomes a conditioned
stimulus. A bell or a tuning fork when presented as stimulus along with food, and get
conditioned for salivation, it is conditioned stimulus. Unconditioned Response: The
behaviour which does not require any training or conditioning for association with an
unconditioned stimulus, e.g. salivation is unconditioned response for food as unconditioned
stimulus. Conditioned Response: The behaviour or response occurred due to conditioned
stimulus, is known as conditioned response, e.g. salivation after ringing the bell or tuning
fork is a conditioned response. He further identified few important processes in classical
conditioning: Generalization: If behaviour occurs in presence of other stimulus similar to the
conditioned one, this is called generalization, e.g. salivation after hearing the sounds similar
to bell (sometimes may be in higher or lower tone also), is called process of generalization.
Discrimination: Pavlov proved that at higher level of conditioning, dog learnt to distinguish
the sounds and stopped salivation on sounds other than the bell. This is called discrimination.
Extinction: If only conditioned stimulus is being presented repeatedly without associating
with the unconditioned one, the desired behaviour (salivation in this context) faded and
stopped to occur. Spontaneous Recovery: Pavlov observed, if after extinction, the
unconditioned stimulus is being associated again with conditioned stimulus, the behaviour re
occurs immediately. These are few concepts as outcome of Pavlov’s experiment. Classical
conditioning helps a teacher to associate positive events with learning. It helps in avoiding
undesired behaviour also and helps learners in recognizing the situations to discriminate and
generalize properly. 30 2.4.4 Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Behaviour refers to an activity
of an organism that can be observed and measured by another person/organism or by
experimenter. It includes activities like pressing a key or a lever, or a button, uttering a word,
answering a question correctly, solving problems, and so on. Skinner, as distinct from Pavlov
and other behaviourists, used the operant conditioning approach to the study of learning
(operant is the response made by an organism to the surrounding environment). When a dog,
for example, is taught a trick, it is usually rewarded by food or by patting after it makes the
appropriate behaviour. Operant behaviour can be evoked by a wide range of stimuli. This can
be brought under stimulus control through the process of discrimination. The basic operation
in a Skinnerian experiment is to determine the rate at which a given operant (e.g. pulling a
level or pecking a key) is emitted under a given set of conditions. Operant Conditioning is
also known as reinforcement conditioning. Here, the reinforcement is correlated with the
response rather than with the stimuli. In this type of conditioning, reward or reinforcement is
not possible unless the response is emitted. In other words, reinforcement becomes contingent
upon the stimulus. According to Skinner, the basic law underlying this type of conditioning is
that if the occurrence of an operant is followed by a reinforcing stimulus then the
conditioning is strengthened. In other words, what gets strengthened is the response, or
operant and not an S-R connection as in Thorndike’s law of effect. Skinner demonstrated his
theory of learning his theory of learning by the simple experiment of putting a hungry rat in a
box (known as Skinner Box). When the rat after fretting about, presses a lever accidentally,
food is released. Every time Rat does this, it gets food. After several repetitions, the rat learns
that if he is hungry, he can get food after pressing the lever and he goes straight to the lever,
presses it and gets good. In other words, food reinforces that rat’s activity of pressing lever.
Here behaviour and appropriate response are important factors. If reward is withheld
repeatedly, the behaviour extinguishes. Operant conditioning is a learning force which affects
desired response more frequently by providing a reinforcing stimulus immediately following
the response. The most important principle of this type of learning is that behaviour changes
according to its immediate consequences. Pleasurable consequences strengthen behaviour
while unpleasant consequences weaken it. For example, a pigeon pecks the red ball and gets
food in Skinner’s famous experiment. Because of food (reinforcement), the pigeon is likely to
peck the same ball again and again. In operant conditioning, learning objectives are divided
into many small steps/ tasks and reinforced one by one. The operant - the response/behaviour
of act - is strengthened so as to increase the probability of their reoccurrence in the future.
Three external conditions - reinforcement contiguity and practice - must be provided in
operant conditioning. Reinforcement: The most important aspect of Skinner’s theory of
learning relates to the role of reinforcement. An organism is presented with a particular
stimulus- reinforce - after it makes a response. In a given situation, the organism will tend to
repeat responses for which is reinforced. Approaches to Learning 31 Learning: Perspectives
and Approaches 32 Skinner distinguished between positive and negative reinforcements.
Positive reinforcement is a stimulus which increases the probability of desired response. The
positive reinforcement is a positive reward. Praise, smiles, prize, money, a funny television
programme, etc. are the example of positive reinforcement. In negative reinforcement, the
desired behaviour is more likely to occur if such stimulus reinforcement is removed. For
example, we can close windows and doors to avoid hearing loud noise; we can avoid wrong
answers by giving right answers. Here noise and wrong answers are negative reinforces. Thus
a negative reinforce is negative reward - the avoidance of which gives us relief from
unpleasant status of affairs. Skinner did not equate negative reinforcement with punishment.
2.4.5 Educational Implications The behaviouristic approach is one of the most important
contributions to learning which throws light on habit formation, habit breaking and the role of
incentives in learning. This approach is helpful in shaping the behaviour of students in the
desired direction. Skinner has demonstrated in a number of ways how operant behaviour is
shaped. The approach also helps the teacher in increasing the vocabulary of his students. The
most significant contribution to this theory in educational practice is the concept of
programmed learning and introduction of teaching machines in teaching-learning. Let us
elaborate both the concepts. Programmed instruction: It is a system of teaching-learning
within which pre-established subject matter is broken down into small discrete steps which
are carefully organised into a logical sequence and which can be rapidly learned by the
students. Each step builds upon the previous one. Reinforcement is given after each step.
There is a provision for checking the progress. If the response is correct, the student can go
ahead, if not then he can proceed to the next step after registering the correct response.
Programmed Instruction is highly individualized instructional strategy and is an effective
innovation in the teaching process. It is found quite useful for classroom as well as self-
learning. Teaching machine: It is another application of the behavioural approach to learning.
Teaching machines present items in an essentially predetermined sequence, permit the
students to respond and give them immediate feedback. Teaching machines are automatic
devices which present a question or other stimulus to a stimulus, provide a means of
response, and then inform him/her of the correctness of his/her response immediately after he
had responded. They are of two types
multiple-choice machines. Skinner’s theory suggests the great potentiality of the shaping
procedure for behaviour modification. According to this theory the following procedure is
applied to ensure effective learning in students:
• Learning objectives should be defined very specifically in terms of behaviour
• Objectives should be arranged in order of simple to complex.
• For developing motivation among the students, the classroom reinforces like praise, blames,
grades, etc., should be used.
• Proper use of positive and negative gestures also serves as reinforces to work.
• Reinforces should be used periodically so that the possibility of extinction of the desired
behaviour is resisted
. • In the classroom, the principle of immediacy of reinforcement is very important. Praise for
a job done well given immediately can be stronger reinforce or motivator than a grade given
much later
