Troubleshooting

Process Operations
Fourth Edition

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 Contents
Preface to Fourth Edition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Preface to Third Edition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Preface to Second Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Preface to First Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

Section 1 Specific Processes

1 Crude Distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 Delayed Coking Cycles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3 Delayed Coking Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4 Amine Regeneration and Scrubbing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5 Sulfur Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6 Alkylation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7 Fluid Catalytic Cracking Units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
8 FCCU Product Fractionation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
9 Saving Energy at Reduced Feed Rates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

Section 2 Process Equipment

10 Refrigeration Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
11 Centrifugal Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
12 Distillation Towers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
13 Vacuum Towers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
14 Treating Liquid Hydrocarbons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
15 Process Heaters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
16 Water Coolers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
17 Alarms and Trips. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371

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 viii Troubleshooting Process Operations 4th Edition

Section 3 Practical Problems

18 Additional Distillation Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
19 Fouled Trays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
20 Dehydrating Light-Ends Towers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
21 Vapor-Liquid Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
22 Refinery Metallurgy for Novices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
23 Unusual Noises and Vibrations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455

Section 4 Gas Drying and Compression

24 Natural Gas Drying. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
25 Gas Compression—Centrifugal and Reciprocating. . . . . . . . . . . . 481

Section 5 The Process Engineer’s Job

26 Suggestions for New Process Operating Engineers. . . . . . . . . . . . 505
27 Planning a Performance Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
28 Understanding Control Board Instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
29 How to Make Field Measurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
30 Turbines, Expanders and Variable Speed Motors. . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
31 Forced Draft Air Coolers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
32 Advances in Heat Exchanger Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
33 Positive Feedback Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
34 Troubleshooting Control Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
35 Texas City—BP Refinery Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
36 Environmentally Friendly Process Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
37 The People Problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645

Appendix—Tray ∆P, Water Dew Pt., Bubble Pt. Calculations. . . . . . . 653

Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655

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 Chapter 1 3

Crude Distillation
O n January 23, 1983, the Good Hope Refinery was shut down. Our
problem was simple: We had run out of money. As the technical
manager, I was faced with a choice. I could become unemployed, or
I could become a consultant. I easily concluded that the latter choice
would come across smoother when I told my mother about the latest
development in my career.
Now the first thing a consultant needs is clients; that was going
to be a problem because I did not have any. Fortunately, an old
school chum, who was working for AXECO, heard I was in financial
difficulties and offered to help.
He suggested that AXECO would retain my services for one
day to review the operation of its crude distillation unit. Evidently,
crude runs had fallen from 195,000 barrels per stream day (B/SD)
to 192,000 B/SD on the No. 2 crude unit. My colleague went on to
explain that AXECO’s technical staff were tied up in planning reviews
and therefore management had decided to hire an outside consultant
to troubleshoot the problem.
Figure 1–1 summarizes the process flowsheet of No. 2 crude
unit. I began my investigation by asking the operators why they were
limited to only 192,000 B/SD of crude charge. They responded that
the color of the furnace oil (see figure 1–1) was the limiting factor
on crude charge. Whenever the crude rate was increased above
192,000 B/SD, they reported, the furnace oil color would take on an
unacceptable brown tinge.
These observations surprised me, because if the furnace oil is
dark, the fluid catalytic cracking unit (FCCU) feed cut (i.e., the next
lowest product draw) must be even darker. However, when I inquired
as to the color of the FCCU feed drawoff, the operators responded
that this product was right on spec. That is, it was black.

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 20 Troubleshooting Process Operations 4th Edition

I measured the differential pressure across the stripper between

the top of the gauge glass assembly and the vent connection on the
vapor outlet line. The indicated pressure differential was 4.5 psi. To
convert from ∆P to feet of liquid the following formula is used:

(∆p) · (2.31 ft)

Ft of liquid head = ————————
sp gr

where
sp gr = the specific gravity of the liquid at the stripper
bottoms temperature.
Evidently, the pressure differential across the stripper equaled
16 feet of liquid head. As the stripper was only 19 feet high, the tower
was essentially full of liquid. The gauge glass confirmed my theory: it
was full of liquid with no visible interface.
Zip manually pulled the liquid level down in the diesel oil
stripper until the interface appeared in the gauge glass. The stripper
bottoms temperature began to fall, indicating that stripping efficiency
was being restored. Diesel production dropped by about 1,000 B/SD,
and the jet fuel product rate increased by a corresponding amount.
Looking over the control panel, I felt very pleased. Zip, however,
was upset. “Look at the level indicator chart,” he fumed. “It’s a mess.”
The pen was rapidly moving between 20% and 40% on the
chart. Of course, the 65% indicated level was really 100% of the true
bottoms level.

Jet fuel stripper

One of the important functions of a crude unit is to meet the
flashpoint specification for the jet fuel product. This is best done by
varying the steam rate to the jet fuel stripper. However, the operators
on this crude unit were adjusting the heavy virgin naphtha draw rate
to meet the jet fuel flash spec.
Zip informed me that adjusting the steam to the jet fuel stripper
did not influence its flash point. That is, the steam was ineffective in
removing lighter hydrocarbons (i.e. naphtha) from the stripper feed.
This was odd, because the stripper draw temperature was 435°F
and the stripper bottoms temperature was 395°F. Typically, a 40°F
∆T indicates good stripping efficiency. However, when I inspected
the stripper column, I saw that both the feed line and the stripper

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 Chapter 2 Delayed Coking Cycles 47

3. What is ordinary sponge coke?

Sponge coke is a mixture of needle and shot coke. The coke
formed is spongelike in appearance, and has a dull, black cast.
It is porous, with no structure. When the ratio of needle coke to
shot coke falls below a certain point, the sponge coke will become
less porous.

4. How can the component of coke yield caused by

­precipitating asphaltenes be reduced?
The yield of precipitated asphaltenes cannot be reduced because
the asphaltenes in the coker feed will produce coke regardless of coke
drum operating parameters.

5. Can the component of coke yield from cross-linked

­aromatics be reduced?
The formation of cross-linked aromatic rings can be reduced
by lowering the coke drum pressure, raising the coke drum outlet
temperature, improving the vacuum tower operation, and by adding
steam to the coke drum.

6. Is there any needle coke in shot coke?

The outside surface of shot coke spheres is coated with a
layer of needle coke. The coating gives shot coke its polished-
surface appearance.

7. When coke is cut from a drum, sponge coke is found

along the walls, and shot coke is found in the middle.
What causes this segregation?
The segregation is caused by poor drum insulation. Poor
insulation promotes the 950˚F and higher-boiling-range aromatic
hydrocarbons to cross link rather than vaporize.

8. Why is the coke in the top of a coke drum mostly

sponge coke, and the coke in the middle and bottom
of the drum mostly shot coke?
During coking, the top of the drum runs cooler than the middle or
bottom of the drum. Therefore, the coke formed in the top of the drum
contains a higher percentage of needle coke mixed with shot coke.

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 Chapter 3 75

Delayed Coking Process

I t may be true that the wheels of progress turn slowly, at least insofar
as refinery resid processing is concerned. The delayed coker—the
historic refinery garbage can—is still the preeminent route for turning
low-value resid into high-value distillates and gasoline.
Chapter 2 reviewed the problems and techniques associated
with the coking cycle: coke drum filling, cooling, coke cutting, and
drum warm-up. This chapter describes troubleshooting techniques
relevant to the continuous aspect of the process:
• Combination tower fractionation
• Optimizing heat recovery
• Extending coking heater run lengths
• Wet gas compressor limitations
A flowsheet for a delayed coker is shown in figure 3–1. The process
description corresponding to this flowsheet is reviewed in chapter 2.

Fig. 3–1. Delayed coker process flow.

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 Chapter 4 Amine Regeneration and Scrubbing 103

To find the true liquid level

in the tower, you can determine
the vapor-liquid interface by
touch. The vapor inlet will be
20˚F to 40˚F cooler than the
bottoms liquid. This temperature
gradient level will correspond to
the true liquid level in the tower.
A properly designed external
liquid level indicator is shown
in figure 4–4.

Liquid–liquid
amine scrubbers
Amine carryover from such
columns is common. Field Fig. 4–3. A false external-level
observations have shown that indication causing flooding.
the best way to stop the carryover
is to increase the rate of amine
circulation.
Reducing the amine acid gas
loading by increased circulation
reduced the tendency of the amine
to emulsify in the hydrocarbon
phase and also minimized the
hydrocarbon-amine interface
level. Strangely, increasing the
amine circulation on one such
contactor dramatically decreased
the top liquid-liquid interface
level by promoting settling in the
column’s packed bed.

Declining amine strength

Fig. 4–4. A properly designed amine
The 100,000-gallon lean fuel-gas scrubber.
amine surge tank was filling fast.
After a few days, it reached its
maximum capacity. Finally, the operators decided emergency action
was required, so they called the operating engineer for help. He got
there just in time to watch the tank overflow to the sewer.

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